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ELECTRONIC DATA INTERCHANGE: (EDI)
"Electronic exchange of business documents over the internet and other network
between supply chain trading partners in standardized EDI format with complete
automation through direct links".
1) In EDI business documents other than monetary instruments are sent electronically.
2) Documents are sent in a standardized EDI format.
3) Documents are sent with complete automation through direct links.
4) EDI has following benefits:
EDI is still a popular data transmission format.
EDI is very reliable.
EDI is time saving & accurate.
EDI automatically tracks data, trigger orders, invoices & other documents
related to transactions and confirms delivery & payment.

E-COMMERCE:
"Buying & selling of goods and services is called e-commerce".
1) E-commerce has following Tasks:
Inform a customer about a product.
Provide detailed information about the product.
Establish the customer's requirement.
Perform purchase transaction.
Provide the product electronically if it is such of nature.
Provide customer support electronically.
2) E-commerce has following Advantages for e-business:
Barrier to entry are low. (in e-commerce anyone can easily enter in
business)
Reaching global market.
Monitoring customer's buying habit & interests.
Mass customization / Personalized products and services
Providing better customer support.
Reducing inventory management cost.
Reducing cost of establishing store front.
Reducing labour cost.
Reducing advertising cost.
3) E-commerce has following Risks:
Security risk is how your site responds to a security threat when a
virus or hacker tries to destroy your site.
Scalability is concerned about the size of your site that how many
connections it can handle at a time.
Confidentiality is concerned about the protection of information; a
potential customer hesitates to provide sensitive information online &
requires information protection.
Availability means in case of any interruption site can handle the
operations and server must be online & accessible from anywhere at
anytime. (i.e. 24/7)
Authentication means that there must be an authentication process
before placing an order, after authentication, e-commerce businesses
execute the order that is placed by customers online.
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Performance means whether the response of the site to a customer
request is timely or it reacts erratically. Performance of the site matters
so it must be monitor properly for better experience.

E-COMMERCE ARCHITECTURE:
"Logical & structural layout of e-commerce is called e-commerce architecture".
It has many types:
1) In two-tier architecture the client is tier 1 and the server is tier 2. A two-tier
system directs communications between the client on the internet such as a web
browser and the web server on the other end. In this mode, a user types a URL or
clicks a link on a web page, the browser then formats the request into HTTP message
and passes to the internet, web server receives the request locates the requested web
page and formats it into HTTP message and sends it back to that particular browser.
Client Browser Web Server

2) In three-tier architecture the first tier is the client, the second tier is the server,
and the third tier is a database server running in different computer. When a client
request a web page from the server, server interprets it, and if the web server needs to
get services from a database, it accesses the database, collects necessary data, and
returns the data formatted in HTML to the client.
Client Browser Web Server Database Server

3) N-tier architecture system depends on multiple computer platforms; its working
is described below with the help of a diagram:





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E-COMMERCE PROCESS (9 steps):



E-BUSINESS:
E-business is defined as "performing & coordinating critical business processes
through the extensive use of business".
1) E-business includes e-commerce but also includes internal processes such as
production, inventory management, risk management, finance management &
resource management, etc.
2) E-business depends on intranet (the internet like networks inside the company)
& extranet (the internet like networks between a company and other company)
to:
Make better internal processes.
Implement better e-commerce system among businesses and customers
& suppliers.
Promote enterprise collaboration among business teams.
3) Three primary processes are enhanced in e-business:
Production processes, which are procurement, ordering &
maintenance of stock, payment processing and e-links with suppliers.
Customer-focused processes, which are promotion, marketing &
selling efforts over internet, customer services etc.
Internal management processes, which are employee training,
information sharing services and recruiting.

E-BUSINESS MODELS:
There are six (06) Models of E-Business.
1) Business to business (B2B) is e-commerce between businesses. It is most
reliable, secure and fastest growing type of e-commerce. 80% of total e-
commerce relates to B2B having two primary components:
E-frastructure is the architecture of B2B i.e. logistics, application
service providers & outsourcing of functions in e-commerce process.
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E-market is a website where buyers & sellers interact and conduct
transactions.
2) Business to consumer (B2C) is e-commerce between a business & a
consumer. It is second largest & earliest type of e-commerce. Examples are
amazone.com & beyond.com
3) Business to employee (B2E) is e-commerce between a business & an
employee. Examples are online insurance policy management & online supply
request.
4) Business to government (B2G) is e-commerce between a business &
government or public sector.
5) Government to consumer (G2C) is e-commerce relation between
government & consumer.
6) Consumer to consumer (C2C) is e-commerce relation between consumers.
Example is olx.com.

E-BUSINESS SOFTWARES:
CRM SOFTWARE (Customer Relationship Management software)
SCM SOFTWARE (Supply Chain Management software)
ERP SOFTWARE (Enterprise Resource Planning software)
EAI SOFTWARE (Enterprise Application Integration software)

CRM SOFTWARE: (Customer Relationship Management Software)
"A customer-centric cross functional enterprise system that integrates and automates
many of the customers serving processes in sale, marketing and product services that
interact with a companys customers, it also integrates these processes with the rest of
the operations of the company".
1) CRM software has (05) basic Components:
A) Customer services and support
B) Retention and loyalty programs
C) Contact and account management
D) Sale
Cross-Selling (Main product + Accessories supplies to
customer)
Up-Selling (Not required by the customers but to increase
company profit)
E) Marketing and Fulfilment
2) CRM software has three (03) Phases:
Acquire Company relies on CRM software to get new customers
by superior job of contact management.
Enhance Company relies on CRM management and customer
services and support tools to keep customers happy by providing
superior services from responsive networked teams of sales and
services to enhance profitability.
Retain relies on CRM analytical software and database
to give reward to its loyal and profitable customers to retain them & to
expand their business.
3) CRM software has following Benefits:
Identify and target the best customers.
Personalization & customization of products and services.
Track customer contacts.
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Provide a consistent customer experience and superior services at all
contact points.
Enables efficient productive customer interactions across all
communications channels.
Enables web collaboration to reduce customer service costs.
4) CRM software has following Disadvantages:
Poor integration among CRM and core business systems.
High cost.
20% of time CRM damaged customer relationship.
Poor end-user incentives lead to poor user adoption rates.
5) There are four (04) Types of CRM software.
Operational CRM dealing with the automation of customer-facing, or front office,
processes. These processes include sales, marketing and customer service,
Tasks resulting from these processes are forwarded to employees responsible for
them, as well as the information necessary for carrying out the tasks. General Areas of
Operational CRM:
Sales Force Automation (dealing with whole sales process, lead
generation, lead qualification, needs identification, specifications
development, development of proposal & closing sale.)
Customer Service and Support (dealing with automation and
coordination of all the service operations and customer support.)
Enterprise Marketing Automation (dealing with application of
technology to marketing processes for provision of information
pertaining to industry trends, macro-environmental factors and
competitors.)
Analytical CRM dealing with the analysis of customer data to provide information
for improving business. Following are the applications of analytical CRM:
Financial Forecasting.
Programme Evaluation.
Price Optimization.
Customer Satisfaction Evaluation.
Customer Satisfaction Growth.
Product Development.
Fraud Detection.
Risk Management.
Contact Optimization.
Sales Coverage Optimization.
Collaborative CRM deals in the interactions with customers through all channels
(personal, letter, fax, phone, web, e-mail) and supports co-ordination of employee
teams and channels. Following are the applications of collaborative CRM:
Online services for enhancement of convenience and cost reduction.
Effective communication through many channels including automated
phone, email and internet.
Profiling customer information during customer interaction.
Example: Web Page Personalization.
Portal-Based CRM provides all users with tools and information that fit their
individual roles and preferences and provides capabilities to instantly access all
internal & external customer information.


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SCM SOFTWARE: (Supply Chain Management software)
"Supply chain management software (SCMS) is a collective set of tools used to add
value through management of the procurement & other supply chain processes from
initiation of requirement to delivery of goods and services".
1) SCM have five (05) main Components:
Customer requirement processing
Accurate order processing
Inventory management
Timely order fulfilment
Production logistics
2) SCM helps a company to get the right products to the right place at the right
time in the proper quantity and at an acceptable cost.
3) The goal of SCM software is to manage the concerned process efficiently by
forecasting demand, controlling inventory, enhancing the network of business
relationship a company has with customers, suppliers, distributors and others
and receiving feedback on the status of every link in the supply chain.
4) SCM used extranet technologies.
5) In SCM, EDI technology used to share information among different
stakeholders.
6) Following are the Objectives / Benefits of SCM:
Enhancing Customer Service
Expanding Sales Revenue
Reducing Inventory Cost
Improving On-Time Delivery
Reducing Order to Delivery Cycle Time
Reducing Lead Time
Reducing Transportation Cost
Reducing Warehouse Cost
Reducing / Rationalize Supplier Base
Expanding Width / Depth of Distribution

ERP SOFTWARE (Enterprise Resource Planning software):
"A cross functional software system that used as a framework, with integrated &
automated functions for all major business processes across an organisation, such as
production, distribution, sales, finance and human resources management".
1) It is a cross functional enterprise software system used as a framework.
2) It integrates & automates core business processes.
3) It has integrated modules.
4) It gives a company an integrated & automated real-time view of its core
business processes.


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5) ERP has following Benefits:
Increase the efficiency & productivity of the business by integrating
and automating core business processes.
Because of integrating and automating functions it helps in making
better and timely decisions.
Because of increase in efficiency and productivity cost of business is
decreased.
It provides better analysis and planning capabilities.
It helps in fulfilling the orders on time.
It helps in improving information capabilities.

EAI SOFTWARE: (Enterprise Application Integration software)
"It is a software system that interconnects various e-business application clusters such
as front-office applications and back office applications".





1) It interconnects various enterprise application clusters.
2) It provides middleware to perform data conversion and coordination among
application clusters.
3) It exchanges data according to rules set by users.
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4) EAI has following Benefits:
It improves the efficiency and effectiveness of business processes.
It also streamlines sales order processing.
It improves customer and supplier experience with business.
Reducing time to market.
Help realign your systems to meet your short- and long-term business
needs.
Increase the responsiveness of your technology landscape to changing
business needs.


























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INFRASTRUCTURE:
"A combined set of hardware, software, networks, facilities, etc. (including all of the
information technology) used for the smooth working or operation of a business".

OPERATIONS:
Activity or task used to perform some functions is known as operations. (E.g. 2+3=5)
Operations have Two (02) different parts.
1. Operand (On which function apply e.g. 2, 3 integer)
2. Operator (Function which is applied e.g. + sign)

IS OPERATIONS:
"Information system operations include daily usage of software and hardware
resources". IS operations are critical for large business organizations.
There are following Types of operations performed in an Operating System:
Recording of information
Informational retrieval
Merging
Data classification
Filtering (process of extracting required information)
Searching

MANAGEMENT OF INFORMATION SYSTEM OPERATIONS:
IS management has an overall responsibility of all operations within IS department.
Operations management functions include the following:
Resource Allocation: Necessary resources are available to perform planned
activities.
Standards & Procedures: These are to be established for all operations as per
corporate objectives.
Process Monitoring: Monitoring & measuring the effectiveness and efficiency of
IS operations.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY SERVICE MANAGEMENT:
"The process of implementation and management of quality IT services to business".
1) IT service management is performed by IT service providers through, an
appropriate mix of people, processes & information technology.
2) IT Service Management is an enabler of information technology governance
(or information management) objectives.
3) The discipline is not concerned with the details of how to use a particular
vendor's product, or with the technical details of the systems under
management, instead, it focuses upon providing a framework to structure IT-
related activities and the interactions of IT technical personnel with business
customers and users.
4) ITSM is generally concerned with the "back office" or operational concerns of
information technology management (sometimes known as operations
architecture), and not with technology development.
5) The main vendors of ITSM solutions worldwide include BMC Software, CA
Technologies, HP, IBM and Service Now who all provide various tools for
service management.
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6) Several benchmarks have emerged to measure the capability of IT service
management of an organisation, some of them are:
ISO/IEC 20000.
COBIT.




PROBLEM MANAGEMENT

PROBLEM:
"ITIL defines a problem as the cause of one or more incidents".

PROBLEM MANAGEMENT:
"A process to manage the lifecycle of all problems is called Problem Management",
or the process of identifying and resolving Problems and Known Errors before they
become incidents, and the process of resolving existing Problems".

1) Problem management has Two aspects:
Reactive, problem solving after the occurrence of an incident.
Proactive, problem solving before the occurrence of an incident.
2) The primary objectives of Problem Management are to prevent
problems and resulting incidents from happening, to eliminate
recurring incidents, and to mitigate the impact of incidents that cannot
be prevented.
3) To record all the details regarding a problem in a structured way is
called problem logging.
4) When the root causes of a problem are identified, the problem is called
known error.
5) To identify the root cause of a problem is called problem control.
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6) Take actions to prevent the problem & to mitigate its affects is called
error control, and it can be reactive or proactive.

PROBLEM MANAGEMENT PROCESS:

Inputs To Problem Management:
incident details from incident management
trend analysis ( proactive PM)
configuration details from configuration management
notification of problems from suppliers / vendors
error logs from event management
IT service management ( help desk)
any defined workarounds
change details from change management
Output To Problem Management:
problem
known error
request for change
an updated problem record
closed problem record for resolved problems
problem reports (for example, status updates, trends, and performance)


PROBLEM MANAGEMENT PROCESS DIAGRAM:





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BENEFITS:
1) The numbers of incidents are minimized.
2) Quicker resolution of an existing problem.
3) Reduction in service disruptions to the customer.
4) PM has a great value to business, because when issues are resolved,
information about the resolution is recorded, over time, this information is
used to speed up the resolution time and identify permanent solutions.
5) Due to the quicker resolution of problems system works smoothly.

CHANGE MANAGEMENT

CHANGE:
"Change means shifting from one situation to other".

CHANGE MANAGEMENT:
The process of controlling and coordinating changes to an organization's IT
infrastructure to minimize the disruption of services", or "Change Management is the
process by which the life cycle of changes is controlled".

1) Change management is responsible for managing change process involving:
Hardware.
Communications equipment and software.
System software.
All documentation and procedures associated with the running, support and
maintenance of live systems. For user requests for products and services, refer
to Request Management.
2) Change management ensures that the following Objectives are met:
To enable beneficial changes to be made with minimal disruption to IT
Services.
Standardized methods and procedures are used for efficient and prompt
handling of all changes.
Overall business risk is optimized.
3) Some key Tactics for change management are:
Set the climate for change by creating awareness of the need for the change
and promoting desire for stakeholders to participate in and support the change.
Support stakeholders in gaining knowledge and understanding on how to
change.
Make constant change as expected part of the culture.
Involve as many people as possible in e-business planning & development
Effective strategic communication is the key to successfully implementing any
change, tell everyone about everything as often as possible.

CHANGE MANAGEMENT PROCESS:
We can describe change management process, change role & responsibilities as
follows:

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CAPACITY MANAGEMENT

CAPACITY:
"The ability to produce work in a given time".

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CAPACITY MANAGEMENT:
"The process of planning & monitoring of IT infrastructure resources to ensure that
resources are used efficiently & effectively to meet current & future business
requirements".

1) It is directly related to:
Current business growth
Future business expansions
2) It is subdivided into Three sub-processes:
Business capacity management (forecast & document current & future
business needs)
Service capacity management (monitor, analyse, tune & report on service
performance)
Resource/component capacity management (monitor, analyse, tune & report
on component utilization)
3) Capacity management is concerned with:
CPU utilization/Processor utilization.
Computer storage utilization.
Network bandwidth utilization.
I/O channel utilization.
Use of new applications.
Us of new technologies.
SLAS. ( service level agreements)
4) Capacity management is required because of:



5) Following are the capacity planning & monitoring elements:
Develop a capacity plan that fulfils current & future capacity requirements.
Monitor it infrastructure for agreed upon service levels.
Optimize system for current & expected workload.
Implement new capacity to meet future requirements.
Forecast the behaviour of IT infrastructure to determine future requirements.
Application sizing should be considered.

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OS (OPERATING SYSTEM):
"The software that supports a computer's basic functions, such as scheduling tasks,
executing applications, and controlling peripherals".
DOS, LINUX, MAC, WINDOWS are examples of operating systems.



1) OS has following Features:
It is system software.
It acts as a translator between user and computer.
It is used to operate and control the computer system.
It is used to run application software.
It is a resource manager of computer.
It is used to recover computers from failure stages.
2) OS has following Types:
1. Real-time, "is a multitasking OS that executes real-time applications, having
special algorithms to achieve deterministic behaviour & give quick response to
events".
RTOS has one or both event driven (switching b/t tasks according to their priorities)
& time sharing (switching b/t tasks according to clock interrupts) designs.
2. Multi-user, "an OS that allows more than one user to access the system at the
same time".
3. Single-user, "an OS that allows only one user but may allow more than one
programs to run at the same time" i.e. windows XP etc.
4. Multi-tasking, "an OS that allows more than one program to run at the same
time".
It has pre-emptive (OS slices the CPU time & give one slot to each program) & co-
operative (OS relying on each process to give time to other processes in a defined
manner) designs.
5. Single-tasking, "an OS that allows one program to run at a time".
6. Distributed, "an OS that manages a group of independent computers & makes
them appear as a single computer".
7. Embedded, an OS used on embedded computer systems i.e. PDAS.

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE & HARDWARE COMPONENTS

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE:
"A specification detailing how a set of software and hardware technology standards
interact to form a computer system".

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COMPUTER HARDWARE:
"The collection of physical components of a computer".

COMPUTER HARDWARE COMPONENTS:
Following are the hardware components of a computer:
Processing device (CPU).
Main memory (RAM & ROM)
Input devices. (used to give instructions)
Output devices (used to take output)
Storage device (hard disk)

PROCESSING DEVICE (CPU):
"A device in a computer that processes & controls all the functions of a computer is
called CPU".
1. CPU stands for central processing unit.
2. It has Two parts:
ALU (arithmetic logic unit, performs arithmetic & logic operations) & CU (control
unit, controls all operations in a computer).
3. It processes and controls all computer functions.
4. It consists of integrated circuits.
MAIN MEMORY (RAM & ROM):
"A volatile memory inside the computer is called main memory".
"RAM stands for random access memory, a type of computer memory that can
be accessed randomly; that is, any byte of memory can be accessed without
touching the preceding bytes".
1. There are two different Types of RAM:
Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is the more common type,
volatile, less speedy & needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second.
Static random access memory (SRAM) is less common, volatile, very
speedy, & does not need to be refreshed.
2. RAM allows the computer to read data quickly to run applications. It allows
reading and writing.
3. RAM is volatile i.e. its contents are lost when the device is powered off.
"ROM stands for read only memory, a special memory used to store programs
that boot the computer and perform diagnostics".
1. It has two Types:
Non-programmable ROM can be modified modifiable.
Programmable ROM can be modified.
2. ROM stores the program required to initially boot the computer. It only allows
reading.
3. It is non-volatile i.e. its contents are retained even when the device is powered
off.

INPUT DEVICES:
"Input devices are hardware components that allow a user to enter data and
instructions into a computer".
"Keyboard is an input device that contains keys that allow a user to enter data
and instructions into the computer".
1. There are three Types of keys in a keyboard:
Alphanumeric keys are letters & numbers keys.
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Punctuation keys are comma, semicolon etc.
Special keys are function keys, control keys, arrow keys & capital lock
key.
2. A standard computer keyboard is called a QWERTY keyboard.
"Mouse is a hand-held device that helps you to select and move items on your
screen".
1. A mouse is the most widely used pointing device with a GUI environment on
personal computers.
2. It has three basic Types:
Mechanical mouse uses rubber ball to detect movement of the mouse.
Optical mouse uses light to detect the mouse's movement.
Cordless mouse transmits data using wireless technology.
"Trackball is a stationary pointing device with a ball mechanism on its top".
"Joystick is a pointing device with a vertical lever mounted on a base".
1. The lever usually includes buttons called triggers, which activate certain events
when pressed.
2. Joysticks are mainly used for computer games and ultrasound scanners in
hospitals.
"Scanner is a light-sensing input device that converts printed text and graphics
into a digital form that can be further processed by the computer".
1. There are two basic Types of scanner:
Flatbed scanner works like a copy machine except that it creates a file of
the document rather than a paper copy.
Handheld scanner can be manually passed over the image to be scanned.

OUTPUT DEVICES:
"Output devices are hardware components that can display information to a user".
"Monitors are the most popular output devices used for producing soft-copy
output of text & images on screen".
1. Monitors can display graphics, text and video.
2. The size of a monitor is measured in inches diagonally across the screen.
3. A color monitor can display from 16 to over 1 million different colors.
"Printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a physical medium
such as paper".
1. Printed information is often called hard copy.
2. The speed of printers can be measured in characters per second (CPS) or pages
per minute (PPM).
3. Printer resolution is often expressed in dpi (dots per inch), the larger the
number, the higher the resolution.
4. There are two basic Types of printers:
Impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper by
striking a mechanism against an ink ribbon that physically contacts the
paper.
Non-impact printer forms characters and graphics on a piece of paper
without actually striking the paper.


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"Plotter is a large printer that generates high-quality documents by moving ink
pens over the surface of a page".
1. Plotters are particularly useful to engineers and architects, as they produce high-
quality blueprints, maps, and floor plans.
"Speaker or speaker system converts an electrical signal to sound".

STORAGE DEVICE:
"A storage device is a device that holds data, even when the computer is turned off".
"Hard disk is where programs and data are permanently stored".
1. Connected to main memory through the bus and a controller.
2. Stored data are easily changed, but changes are slow compared to main
memory.
3. Used for long-term storage of programs and data.
4. Before data and programs can be used, they must be copied from secondary
memory into main memory.
5. Does not need electric power to keep its information.
6. The hard disk has enormous storage capacity compared to main memory.
7. The hard disk is usually contained inside the case of a computer.
8. The hard disk is used for long-term storage of programs and data.
9. Data and programs on the hard disk are organized into files.
10. A file is a section of the disk that has a name.























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DATA:
"Raw facts or statistics on which operations are performed is called data".
1) Five primary Types of data:
1. Predefined data items (numbers, alphabets)
2. Text
3. Images
4. Audio
5. Video
2) Below is the Hierarchy Of Data:
















DATABASE:
"Organized collection of logically related data for easy and faster retrieval of
information".

Database:

Employee # Last name First name Hire date Dept. #
005-10-6321 Ali Ahsan 10-7-06 257
549-77-1001 Ali Mohsin 2-17-05 650
098-40-1370 Ali Mazhar 1-5-03 598


1) It is just like an electronic filing system.
2) It is based on predefined relationship between predefined types of data items
related to a specific situation..
3) To access information from a database, you need a database management system
(DBMS).
Database is a collection of integrated and related files.

File is a collection of related records.

Record is a collection of related fields.

Field is a group of characters.

Character is a basic building block of information, represented by a
byte.



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4) There are following Types Of Databases:
"Relational Database is a set of two-dimensional tables, each table has one or
more key fields associated with correspondence fields of other tables".

Relational Database Model:






1. It is the most powerful type of database model depends on mathematical theory
of relation.
2. In relational database normalization (a technique) is used to organize the
database & eliminate redundancies.
3. Some relational Database Terminologies are:
Selecting is a data manipulation that eliminates rows according to
certain criteria.
Projecting is a data manipulation that eliminates columns in a table.
Joining is a data manipulation that combines two or more tables.
Linked is a data manipulation relating tables in a relational database
together.
4. A relation is a key table consisting of records.
5. A data file known as Table.
6. Record is known as Row.
7. Field is known as Column.
8. Primary key is known as Key.
9. following are the Advantages of relational databases:
a. Relational database is faster in a data search.
b. It is easier to modify.
c. It is easier to convert from other database structure.
d. It is easier for users to understand & implement a physical database.
e. It is easier to implement projection & access control over data.
"Multidimensional-Database, used for data analysis is the database consisting of
a single file each of whose columns can be viewed as a separate dimension ".
1. These are used in data warehouse.
2. Data warehouse is a collection of databases used to support management
decision making.
3. Data mart subset of a data warehouse for small and medium-size businesses or
departments within larger companies
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4. It makes calculations and summarization more efficient.
5. The collection of data by a market research organization about the sales of
thousands of product in thousands of store across the region is an example of
multi-dimensional database.
"Hypermedia Database uses hypertext links to organize documents such as text,
images, audios, videos & executables computer programs".
1. Hypermedia database uses a way to identify, retrieve and display documents
to operate.
2. Hypermedia database uses hypertext documents & multimedia objects which
are interlinked with each other for easy navigation of information.
3. Hypertext document is an online document which is used in web based
application.
4. Webpage is a hypertext document which is accessible via the internet in a
format called hypertext mark-up language (HTML).
"Distributed Database is a database which is stored on remote locations and each
location contains a part of the database, parts of the database are on remote
locations, and when changed, they are later loaded into the central database".
"Hierarchical Database is a tree like structure in which a particular entity has
only one parent entity, while has multiple child entities.



1. This type of database is obsolete now
"Text Database is a set of text documents stored on a computer".
"Image database is a database that consists of images & their descriptions".
2. Catalogue companies that maintain images to update catalogue.
"Multimedia Database includes text, number, images, pictures, audio files as
well as video files".
1. Multimedia database is larger in size.
2. It takes more time to retrieve from multimedia database..
"Operational Database contains current or real time data of a company & used to
generate various types of reports for smooth working of the business".

DATA MODELING (DM):
"It is process of defining & organizing data in an information system".
1) In a database you have:
Entities (Professor Jones)
Entity type, is the kind of thing about which data is collected in database.
(professors)
Attribute, is the characteristic of an entity type; something the entity is
identified by E.g., Customer name, Employee name.
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Relationship, is a link or association between two entities. ( professors relate
to classroom etc)
2) Entity-Relationship Diagram is a technique to identify the entity types in a
situation & diagramming the relationship between those entity types.
1. The basic tool of data modeling is entity-relationship diagram.


ERD-Models (Relationship Types):


One-To-One


Each professor has one office and office is assigned to one professor.

One-To-Many
<


Many classes are assigned to one teacher or a teacher teaches many classes.


Optional One-To-Many
O<

Each course may have many sections but could have none.



Many-To-Many
><

Many students are registered in many sections or many sections have many students.

2. ERD is a starting point to develop a physical database.
3. ERD tells us what data a database should contain.
4. ERD tells us that IS collects data about entity types.
5. ERD tells us that how entity types are related to each other.
6. ERD tells us that the specific data items, the database contains for each entity
type is called its attributes.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS):
"Database management system is a collection of programs used to define, update &
control databases".
1) Database administrator is responsible for things such as planning for future
database usage, enforcing database standards, controlling access to data and
maintaining efficient database operation.
2) Three (03) Types of languages are used in DBMS:
Professor

Office

Classes

Teacher

Sections


Course

Students

Sections

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Data definition language (DDL) is a collection of instructions and
commands used to define and describe data and data relationships in a
specific database.
Data manipulation language (DML) consists of commands that are used to
manipulate the data in a database.
Structured query language (SQL) is a query language for requesting
information from a database designed by an IBM research center in 1975.
3) Meta data is the information about the data stored in database.
4) Schema is a description of the entire database having three Types:
Physical schema / internal level describes the structure of a database
with respect to computers.
Conceptual schema / logical level describes the relationship between
files in a database.
External schema / user interface View is a sub-set of actual database
according to user requirement.
5) Subschema is a file that contains a description of a subset of the database and
identifies which users can perform modifications on the data items in that
subset.
6) Backup means storing additional copies of data.
7) Recovery means restoring the database to the state it had prior to a failure & it
is based on the last complete backup + journal of all transactions since the last
backup.
8) Locking is a process in which a particular file or record is locked (not
accessible) whenever a user retrieve it for modification purpose.
9) Concurrency control is a method of dealing with a situation in which two or
more people need to access the same record in a database at the same time.
10) Following are the Roles / Advantages Of Database management system:
1. It defines the database & provides better access to data and information in
a database.
2. It updates & controls data to enhance its value.
3. It reduces data redundancy.
4. It improves data integrity.
5. It provides standard subroutines for storing & retrieving data in a
database.
6. It is used to share data and information resources.
7. It provides a better overall protection of the data.
8. It improves strategic use of corporate data.
11) Following are the Disadvantages Of Database management system:
1. Relatively high cost of purchasing and operating a DBMS in a mainframe
operating environment.
2. It increases cost of specialized staff.
3. It increases vulnerability.
12) Some popular DBMS for End Users are:
Microsoft Access
Lotus Approach
13) There are three (03) Methods Of Accessing Data:
"Sequential Access method is used to access or process data in a predefined
sequence".
1. It is the earliest method.
2. Useful for many types of scheduled periodic processing.
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3. Impractical when immediate processing of data is required.
4. It is the only method for data storing on tape.
"Direct Access method is used to access or process data immediately in random
order through a key".
1. The location of the requested record is calculated
2. May result in collisions.
"Indexed Access method is used to access or process data through index or table".
Index = a table used to locate data
1. It uses both sequential & direct access methods.
2. In this method primary records are stored in sequence while added records are
stored in an overflow arch.

INFORMATION & INFORMATION SYATEM:

INFORMATION:
"Processed form of data is called information & it is used in decision making".
Following are the Types of information:
Business Information is information which is concerned with any business.
Strategic Information is information which is derived from internal or external
sources, it is for whole organization & used by high level management for long
term planning.
Tactical information is information which is derived from internal sources & it is
used by medium level management for short or medium term planning.
Operational information is information which is derived from internal sources
having detailed transactional information & used for task specific applications &
routine business operations.

INFORMATION SYSTEM:
"A work system whose business process is devoted to capturing, transmitting, storing,
retrieving, manipulating, and displaying information, thereby supporting other work
systems".




There are Seven Basic Types of information systems:
Office Automation System helps individuals (employee, management etc) to
perform day to day routine office tasks:
documentation (MS Word)
process documentation
calculation & analysis (MS Excel)
preparing presentation (MS Power Point)
Information
System
Office
Automation
System
Communication
System
Transaction
Processing
System
Management
Information
System
Executive
Information
System
Decision
Support
System
Enterprise
System
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& storing and retrieving information (MS Access)".
1. Anyone, who creates documentation, performs calculations, preparing
presentations and storing & retrieving information use this system.
2. MS word, MS excel, MS power point & MS access is an example of office
automation system.
"Communication System helps individuals to work together by interacting &
sharing information in many different forms".
1. It is also called enterprise collaboration system.
2. It involves communication, co-ordination and collaboration among members of
business teams and workgroup.
3. Following are electronic communication tools in communication system:
E-mail & Voice Mail
Web Publishing & Instant Messaging
Faxing & Paging
4. Following are electronic conferencing tools in communication system:
Data Conferencing, Audio conferencing & Video Conferencing
Chat, Discussion & Electronic Meeting System
5. Following are collaborative work management Tools in CS:
Conferencing, Scheduling & Documents Sharing
Workflow systems & Task and Project Management
6. Groupware tool or software Provides facility to perform task in the form of
virtual teams.
"Transactional Processing System is an information system that records each &
every transactions whenever it occurs and processes it to develop a database, it can
also produce different types of reports".:
1. In TPS data is entered in two ways:
a. By key punch operator (manual)
b. By scanning (bar-coding)
2. There are two (02) main types of processing used in TPS:
a. In batch processing/Offline processing transaction are collected for a certain
time period and then process sequentially.
b. In real-time processing transaction are processed as soon as they are recorded
without any delay.
3. TPS maintains a database of transaction & this is called database maintenance.
4. TPS can also generate reports from database known as transaction documents &
this is called file listing.
5. There are three (03) types of documents in file listing:
a. Information documents verify the occurrence and recording of a transaction
in the system. (E.g. slip printed by ATM)
b. Action documents initiate some action at recipients side. (E.g. complete list
of transaction performed by ATM suggest some work for ATM supervisor)
c. Turn-around documents have two different parts, one of them initiates some
action at recipients side while other part is return back to the system to
update relevant ledger/file. (E.g. All utility bills)
6. TPS transaction processing cycle:
i. Data entry activity
ii. Data processing activity
iii. Database maintenance activity
iv. File listing/Report generation
v. Enquiry processing activity
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"Management Information System (MIS) is a system that converts TPS data
into information for managing & monitoring performance of an organization".
1. It is used by lower management for structured decisions.
2. Two different reporting methods are used in MIS:
a. Push Reporting System
b. Pull Reporting System
3. MIS can generate different types of reports some of them are:
a. Regular Reports/Routine Reports/Periodic Reports.
b. Ad-hoc Reports/Query Reports.
c. Exception Report is automatically generated by MIS on the occurrence of
some particular event/situation.
d. Predictive Reports/Forecasting Reports are used to evaluate future
requirement according to the data trends stored in a database (E.g. Budget
forecasting is an example of predictive reports).
"Executive Information System (EIS) is a highly interactive system providing
information to executives & top level management in a readily accessible
interactive format".
1. It is developed for top management.
2. It is also called executive support system.
3. It is used to monitor operating results & general business conditions.
4. These systems have web based interface which can easily retrieve information of
all functional units of a business.
5. Internet, intranet and extranet technologies are also used in EIS to get
information from internal resources as well as external resources.
6. In EIS computer simulation model is used, is a mathematical model of a situation
to evaluate its benefits, drawbacks, features etc.
"Decision Support System (DSS) uses different data modeling and data analysis
techniques to help management in making un-structured or semi-structured
decisions".
1. It is used by middle level of management.
2. DSS is typically designed to solve the structured parts of the problem and help
isolate places where judgment and experience are required.
3. In a particular DSS we have four (04) different types of data analysis tools:
a. What if analysis (observing net impact by changing values)
b. Sensitivity analysis (observing sensitivity of output by changing values)
c. Goal seeking analysis (obtaining predefined results by changing values)
d. Optimization analysis (achieving goals by keeping values remain in
acceptable range)
4. There are many important techniques which are used in supporting DSS systems:
a. Simulation is a mathematical model of a situation to evaluate its benefits,
drawbacks, features etc.
b. Optimization technique optimizes the mathematical model of the situation so
that it can be used to search for optimal values of decision variables.
c. Online analytical processing & data mining uses statistical techniques to
analyze business results (find relations in for example diaper sales with beer
sales in evening hours).
d. Expert system summarizes an experts view of an area of knowledge in terms
of facts and rules. Apply these and they can help decide what to do.
e. Neural network uses AI (Artificial Intelligence) for decision making (e.g.
generating forecasts, etc).
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f. Case-based reasoning creates a database of examples that may help in making
decisions.
g. Intelligent agent uses AI to find for example the lowest price of a camera in
databases.
h. Forward chaining uses data to draw conclusions from the data, especially if
there is no clear goal.
i. Backward chaining picks a tentative conclusion and then looks for facts in the
database supporting that conclusion.
j. Critical success factor is a mathematical model in which we describe all
resources, activities & desired output & it returns the sequence of processes
which is required for successful operation of a business.
Enterprise system or Enterprise Resource Planning is a cross functional
system that used as a framework, with integrated & automated functions for all
major business processes across an organisation, such as production, distribution,
sales, finance and human resources management".
1) It is a cross functional enterprise software system used as a framework.
2) It integrates & automates core business processes.
3) It has integrated modules.
4) It gives a company an integrated & automated real-time view of its core
business processes.
5) ERP has following benefits:
Increase the efficiency & productivity of the business by integrating
and automating core business processes.
Because of integrating and automating functions it helps in making
better and timely decisions.
Because of increase in efficiency and productivity cost of business is
decreased.
It provides better analysis and planning capabilities.
It helps in fulfilling the orders on time.
It helps in improving information capabilities.

LIMITATIONS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM:
Following are the limitations of information systems categories:
1. Information systems cannot present all kinds of information accurately.
2. Information systems are hard to develop & install.
3. Experts believe that the information systems have made job security a big issue
as since technology keeps on changing with each day.

DATA AS A RESOURCE / ATTRIBUTES OF INFORMATION:
Information System is a method for making data more of a resource, now question is
how to evaluate data as a resource. We can evaluate data as a resource by knowing the
usefulness of the information and for this purpose we have to know its characteristic.
Following are the Attributes / Dimensions / Characteristics of information:
Time Dimension:
1. Timeliness means information is provided when it is needed.
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2. Currency means how up to date information is.
3. Validity relates to age / time period of information.
4. Frequency means when information is needed it is provided.
Content Dimension:
1. Accuracy means information should be accurate & free from errors.
2. Relevance means specific Information in specific situation.
3. Completeness means information should be complete from all aspects.
4. Conciseness means short but accurate and complete information.
5. Performance means to calculate efficiency.
Form Dimension:
1. Clarity means information that is provided is easy to understand.
2. Detail means information is provided in detail or summary form.
3. Order means information is provided either in ascending or descending order.
4. Format means form in which information is displayed to users.
5. Media means way in which information is provided (i.e. Soft copy, Hard
copy, E-mail).
Security Dimension:
1. Accessibility means who can access the information.
2. Encryption means converted data to a coded form to prevent unauthorized
use.
MODELS OF INFORMATION SYSTEM:
1) There are two types of models:
"Mental Models are the unwritten beliefs & assumptions that people use when
they think about a topic".
Mental models determine what information we use & how we interpret it.
"Mathematical Model is a series of equations or graphs that describes precise
relationships between variables".
Mathematical models produce precise conclusions.
2) Below the importance of models is given:
1. Help the managers to take final decisions.
2. Provide ways to distill the meaning of information for a particular
situation.


















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SYSTEM:
"Set of interrelated elements that collectively work together to achieve some common
purpose or goal".
1) A system may be divided into different sub-systems with respect to their
functions such as;
1. Communication System
2. Computer System
3. Business/Firm
2) There are Six (06) Attributes of system:
1. Elements of the system (units within a system)
2. Boundary of the system (a scope of a system)
3. Surrounding of the system (area outside the boundary of the system)
4. Input of the system (Energies taken into system from surrounding)
5. Output of the system (Energies discharge outside from the system )
6. Procedures of the system (Procedures to convert input into output)
3) There are two Types Of Systems:
1. Open system is a system which accepts input from the environment
and returns output to its surrounding.
2. Close system is a system which does not interact with its surrounding.
4) Following are the Factors For Replacing Existing System:
Existing system does not support business objectives and strategies
efficiently.
It does not satisfy the needs and requirements of users.
It has inadequate system control.
It has software that is unstructured and difficult to maintain.
Less use of modern technologies.
It contains various flaws and errors in its design.
It is poorly documented and difficult to use.
5) Following are the Factors For Successful System:
High level of user involvement.
Project management techniques should be used to implement system
plans.
Alternative system designs should be developed and critically
evaluated prior to committing final design, technology and software.
Structured program designing and coding should be used.
Clear, complete and accurate documentation for the new system should
be generated.
System implementation and user training should be carefully planned
and coordinated.
Post implementation review should be conducted to fulfil user and
management needs.
New systems are designed for easy maintenance.

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE:
"Systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a process of creating or altering
information
systems".


SDLC PHASES:
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INVESTIGATION & FEASIBILITY STUDY:
1) It is 1
st
phase of SDLC also known as initiation phase.
2) This phase starts when a sponsor, management or user identifies a need or
opportunity.
3) Feasibility study is conducted by a consultant which is a user oriented
overview of the proposed Information system's purpose & feasibility, it is done
on three grounds:
Whether the system is technically viable or the firm has required
technology & experience.
Whether the system is economically viable or the firm has resources
to build IS.
Whether the system is organizationally viable or has enough support
to be implemented successfully.
4) If the system is proved feasible then at the end of this phase two types of plans
are produced:
IS functional specification plan.
IS project plan.
5) Following are the contents of a feasibility report:
Description of Project.
Introduction of Sponsors, Management & consultants.
Objectives of the organization.
Problem areas of the existing IS.
Alternatives to resolve problems.
CBA (cost & benefit analysis) of each option proposed by the
consultants.
Recommendations of the consultants.

REQUIREMENTS ANALYSIS:
"A set of functions & constraints that an end user wants from the system is called
requirement".
1) It is 2
nd
phase of SDLC.
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2) If management decides to continue the system development process after
analyzing the feasibility report then this phase starts.
3) Consultants gain & analyze user's needs and develop user's requirements by:
Documentation of existing system
By performing interviews
By circulating questioner
By sampling (in case of large number of audience)
By observation
By Benchmarking ( analyze the similar system in other companies)
4) An external specification or requirements specification document is
produced.

SYSTEM DESIGN:
1) It is the 3
rd
phase.
2) Here the detailed requirements are transformed into complete system design.
3) Design elements describe the desired software features in detail, and generally
include functional hierarchy diagrams, screen layout diagrams, tables of
business rules, business process diagrams & a complete entity-relationship
diagram.
4) There are two types of designs:
Initial or architectural design is the development & verification of a
complete specification of overall system architecture. (Hardware &
Software)
Detailed design is the development & verification of a complete
specification of the control, data structures, interfaces, and algorithms
for each program component.
5) Four (04) parameters specification used for system designing:
Data (Data modelling i.e. logical specification of data)
Procedures/task (To design the procedures to be performed in the new
system)
Hardware
Software
6) An internal specification or design specification document is produced

SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT & TESTING:
1) It is 4
th
phase of SDLC.
2) After receiving design specification, the real code is written here in the form of
small programs, called modules or units.
3) System is installed.
4) Each module's functionality is tested, this is called unit testing.
5) All the units are integrated & whole system is tested, this is called system
testing.
6) Testing describes that developed system conforms to external specification or
requirements specification document & internal specification or design
specification document.
7) A test plan document is produced.

SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATION:
"Implementation means putting a system into operation".
1) It is 5
th
phase of SDLC.
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2) This phase begins with the delivery of a system.
3) Before implementation of the system proper training procedures are followed
here.
4) Acceptance testing is made here, it is a testing by the users of the system.
5) An implementation plan document is produced here, it is a document having
details regarding training, conversion & acceptance testing.
6) A system is implemented in four (04) ways:



OPERATION & MAINTENANCE:
1) It is 6
th
phase of SDLC.
2) This phase is started after the users have accepted the new system.
3) This is a never ending phase because many of the problems arising after the
system putting into practical use.
4) It has two sub-phases:
Ongoing operation & support is concerned about the proper working
of technical components)
Maintenance is concerned about the modifying the system over the
period of time)
1. These maintenance activities are classified in four (04) different groups:
Corrective maintenance is focused on fixing bugs and logic errors.
Perfective maintenance activities involve changes made to an existing
system to improve the performance of a function.
Adaptive maintenance activities associated with modifying existing
functions or adding new functionality to accommodate changes in the
business or operating environments.
Preventive maintenance involves those activities intended to reduce
the chances of a system failure or extend the capacity of a current
systems useful life.

APPROACHES TO SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT:
There are three types of approaches used in system development:
Waterfall
Prototype
Spiral

WATERFALL:
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"In this method system is developed in a sequence of phases flowing steadily
downward like a waterfall".

WATERFALL MODEL:





1) Waterfall technique is Used in following cases:
Requirements are well known.
Product definition is stable.
Technology is understood.
New version of existing system.
2) Following are the Advantages of this approach:
Easy to understand and easy to use.
Easy to schedule the tasks.
Easy to implement.
Low cost
Perfectly documented.
3) Following are the Disadvantages of this approach:
Inflexible because in a sequence.
It is not customer oriented because it has little opportunity for
customers to preview the system
All requirements must be known upfront.
Integration is one big bang at the end.

PROTOTYPE:
"It is an interactive & iterative system development approach used in new
applications by both IS specialists and business professionals in which developer
build a prototype (a preliminary version of a system) during the requirements phase,
prototype is evaluated by end users & users give corrective feedback after which
developers further refine the prototype & when the users are satisfied, the prototype
code is brought up to the standards needed for final product".

PROTOTYPE MODEL:
Below is the diagram of prototype model of system development life cycle.


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1) Following are the Advantages of this approach:
It is flexible because user can suggest changes in the system
development.
It has low risk.
End product is more refined.
Users have better understanding of the system / customer oriented.
2) Following are the Disadvantages of this approach:
It is very time consuming approach.
Repetition of work is required.
It is very costly.
It is an Informal & non-structural approach.

SPIRAL:
"It is system development approach having the elements of both design &
prototyping, it is meta-model, a model that can be used by other models".
1) The basic Principles of this model are:
Risk assessment & mitigating risk by breaking down the model into
smaller segments and provide more ease of change.
A repetition of steps is involved for each part of product and its levels.
2) It has four Quadrants:
1. Identification of objectives, constraints and alternatives.
2. Risk analysis its mitigation and evaluation of alternatives.
3. Execution and testing.
4. Review progress and planning for next phase.
3) It has following basic Characteristics:
It is iterative.
It is prototype oriented.
It is a meta model.
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There is low risk that the end product will not be stable.


SPIRAL MODEL:



5) Following are the Advantages of spiral approach:
It is flexible.
It is easy to monitor.
Risk mitigation is a basic principle of this approach.
It is suitable for high risk projects.
In this approach time & cost estimates are more realistic.
End product is refined.
6) Following are the Disadvantages of spiral approach:
It has high cost.
It is very complex approach.
It is not suitable for low risk projects.
It is not suitable for smaller projects.

PROJECT & PROJECT MANAGEMENT

PROJECT:
"Project is an undertaking that has a clear beginning and ending is carried out to meet
established goals within specified time, cost and of quality".

PROJECT MANAGEMENT:
"PM is the combination of systems, techniques and people used to control & monitor
the activities of a project".
1) Project Management have triple constraints, these are followings:
Time
Cost
Scope


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Below is the project management process diagram showing the workflow of project
management.



PROJECT PLANNING:
"Project manager is responsible for making plans & documentation for the project is
called project planning".
1) Following plans are produced be project manager:
Plan for time
Plan for cost
Plan for quality
Plan for risk
2) Project manager should pay attention on following points in project planning:
1. Identify task to be perform in project.
2. Estimate duration of tasks.
3. Establish precedence/sequencing of tasks.
4. Priority of tasks.
5. Resources required for each task.
6. Cost required for performing tasks.
7. Quality of task performed.
8. Risk management procedures for tasks.

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PROJECT CONTROL METHODS AND STANDARDS:
Following are the basic activities of a project control:
1) Management of scope is the list of activities that are required to make a
project successful, & to achieve that careful documentation is required.
2) Management of resource usage is a process by which the project budget is
spent & to find out that actual spending is inline with planned spending
resource usage must be measure and reported. This is checked by a technique
called earned value analysis (EVA).
3) Risk management is process of assessing and mitigating risk and that
measures the uncertainty of a business objective and there are two types of risk
in project management:
Risk that affect project benefit
Risk that affect project itself
1. Risk management process is described as follow:
a. Identifying risk
b. Evaluating risk
c. Mitigating risk
o By sharing (by sharing the risk among other participants
o By diversification (by spreading risk over multiple activities)
o By contingencies planning (by establishing control for mitigating risk)
d. Review the risk mitigation
e. Review the cost & risk management process
Some other control methods:
4) Investment Analysis
5) CostBenefit Analyses
6) Value Benefit Analysis
7) Expert Surveys
8) Simulation Calculations
9) Surcharge Calculations
10) Milestone Trend Analysis
11) Cost Trend Analysis
Some standards for project management:
A) Capability Maturity Model
B) Global Alliance for Project Performance Standards an open source standard
describing competencies for project and program managers.
C) Logical framework approach which is popular in international development
organizations.
D) V-Model
E) HERMES method
F) PRINCE2 PRojects In Controlled Environments
G) Association for Project Management








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