INTRODUCTION

The eye is a complex photoreceptors organ that enables us to sense the form, color and movement of objects in our field of vision. It controls 90% of total activities. The stimulus of light should be bent to focus precisely on retina. Its managed by specific refraction index of refractive media of the eye, the accommodation, and adaptation to produce an accurate visual acuity. The eye is similar to camera. The stimulus from light rays brought into eyes through pupil diaphragm of the camera!, lens lens of the camera!, and retina of the eyes film of the camera!. To create a sharp image on the retina, "hether the object is near or far, the eyes have to do adjustment of the lens. The mechanism is called accommodation, "hich means the ability by "hich the lens changes its shape as result of the ciliary muscle action on the #onular fibers that changes focus from distant to near images. The accommodation are as one line "ith visual acuity. $nable to accommodate, visual acuity may be reduced. %ays of light from an illuminated object are refracted by the cornea onto the lens, "hich bends them further to come to focus on the photosensitive retina. The retina is the light& sensitive portion of the eye that contains the cones, "hich are responsible for color vision, and the rods, "hich are mainly responsible for vision in the dar'. (hen the rods and cones are excited, signals are transmitted through successive layers of neurons in the retina itself and finally, into the optic nerve layers and cerebral cortex. The normal condition of the eye "hen theres absence of refractive error is called emmetropia. If the refractive error is present, its called ametropia. Types of ametropia includes) presbyopia loss accommodation that comes "ith aging!, corrected by bifocal lens) myopia the condition "hen the image of distant objects focuses in front of the retina in the unaccommodated eye!, corrected by concave lens) hyperopia the state in "hich the unaccommodated eye "ould focus the image behind the retina!, corrected by convex lens) and astigmatism the state in "hich the eye produces in image "ith multiple focal points or lines! that is corrected by cylindrical lens.

CHAPTER 1 REFRACTION

In order to fully understand the physiology of the eye, "e must first understand about refractive po"er, refractive index, and ho" an image is formed from a simple lens. It "ill later on mimic a clue to ho" our eye, especially the cornea, lens, and vitreous body, produce a picture on the retina in our eyes that "e see from the outside of the eye.

1.1. Refraction Index The product of the index of refraction of the medium of the incident ray and the shine of the angle of incidence of the incident ray is e*ual to the product of the same terms of the refracted ray. The refracted ray is designated by a prime+

n sin I , n sin I

1.2.

Formation of an Image b a !en" -ny object in front of the lens is, in reality, a mosaic of point sources of light. .ome of these points are very bright, some are very "ea', and they vary in color. /ach point source of light on the object comes to a separate point focus on the opposite side of the lens in line "ith the lens center. If a "hite sheet of paper is placed at the focus distance from the convex lens, one can see an image of the object. 0o"ever, this image is upside do"n "ith respect to the original object, and the t"o lateral sides of the image are reversed. This is the method by "hich the lens of camera focuses images on film.

The relation of focal length of the convex lens, distance of the point source of light, and distance of focus is expressed by the follo"ing formula+
1 1 1 = + f a b

1.#.

Refracti$e Po%er of a !en" The more a lens bends light rays, the greater is its 2refractive po"er3. This refractive po"er is measured in terms of diopters. The refractive po"er in diopters of a convex lens is e*ual to 1 meter divided by its focal length. Thus, a spherical lens that converges parallel light rays to a focal point 1 meter beyond the lens has a refractive po"er of 41 diopter. If the lens is capable of bending parallel light rays t"ice as much as a lens "ith a po"er of 41 diopter, it is said to have a strength of 45 diopters, and the light rays come to a focal point 0.6 meter beyond the lens. lens capable of converging parallel light rays to a focal point only 10 centimeters 0.10 meter! beyond the lens has a refractive po"er of 410 diopters. The relation of refractive po"er and focal length is expressed by the follo"ing formula +
P= 100 f ( cm )

1.&.

!en" ' "tem of T(e E e The eye is optically e*uivalent to the usual photographic camera, it is stimulated by light rays "ith "ave length of 7980 9 8570 :. It has a lens system, diaphragm of the camera the pupil!, and a retina that corresponds to the film. The lens system of the eye is composed of four refractive interfaces+ 1! the interface bet"een air and the anterior surface of the cornea, 5! the interface bet"een the posterior surface of the cornea and the a*ueous humor, 7! the interface bet"een the

a*ueous humor and the anterior surface of the lens of the eye, and ;! the interface bet"een the posterior surface of the lens and the vitreous humor. The internal index of air is 1) the cornea, 1.7<) the a*ueous humor, 1.77) the crystalline lens on average!, 1.;0) and the vitreous humor, 1.7;. The cornea contributes to approximately 5=7 of the refracting po"er of the eye. It contributes >;7 diopters. The lens contributes to 1=7 of the refractive po"er of the eye > 50 diopters!. ?y itself it is more po"erful than the cornea as a convergent surface.

@igure 1. The eye mimics a camera in the "ay both perceives a picture onto the film camera! or retina the eye!.

1.). Red*ced E e

If all the refractive surfaces of the eye are algebraically added together and then considered to be on single lens, the optics of the normal eye may be simplified and represented schematically as a 2reduced eye3. This is called Gullstrand scheme and useful in simple mathematic calculations. In the reduced eye, a single refractive surface is considered to exist, "ith its central point 18 millimeters in front of the retina and a total refractive po"er of 6<.< diopters "hen the lens is accommodated for distant vision, then the refractive index of the eye is 1.77.

1.+.

Formation of an Image on t(e Retina

In the same manner, "ith a biconvex glass focus an image, the lens system of the eye can focus an image on the retina. The image is inverted and reversed "ith respect to the object. 0o"ever, the mind perceives objects in the upright position despite the upside&do"n orientation on the retina because the brain is trained to consider an inverted image as the normal.

CHAPTER 2 ACCO,,ODATION 2.1. Accommodation Introd*ction -ccommodation is the ability by "hich the lens changes its shape as result of the ciliary muscle action on the #onular fibers that changes focus from distant to near images. Aella"ay, 5009!. Bost of the change in lens shape that ta'es place during accommodation occurs at the central anterior lens surface. The central anterior capsule is thinner than the peripheral capsule, and the anterior #onular fibers insert slightly closer to the visual axis than do the posterior #onular fibers, resulting in a central anterior bulge "ith accommodation. The central posterior capsule is the thinnest area of the capsule and tends to bulge posteriorly to the same extent regardless of #onular tension. Table 1. The differences state of the eye "ithout accommodation. -it(o*t Accommodation normal resting state! 1. Ciliary muscle is relaxed 5. The elastic lens tends to become thic' -it( Accommodation near object adaptation! 1. Constriction of ciliary muscle 5. Distance bet"een edges of ciliary body decreases

7. -*ueous and vitreous humor push out"ard on the sclerotic coat ;. Eigaments became taut or tensed 6. Eens pulled into a thin shape F. .hort @ocal length

7. %elaxation ligament

of

suspensory

;. Eens becomes thic'er 6. @ocal lens shortens F. Eight rays converge earlier, the image is formed on the retina

2.2. ,*"c.e" In$o.$ing Accommodation The lens has 80 suspensory ligaments attach radially around the lens, pulling the lens edges to"ards the outer circle of the eyeball. These ligaments are constantly tensed by their attachment at the anterior border of the choroid and the retina. The tension on the ligaments causes the lens to remain relatively flat under normal conditions of the eye. The contraction of either set of smooth muscle fibers in the ciliary muscle relaxes the ligaments to the lens capsule, and the lens becomes more biconvex shaped due to the natural elasticity of the lens capsule Guyton H 0all, 500F!. The ciliary muscle is a ring that, upon contraction, has the opposite effect from that intuitively expected of a sphincter. (hen a sphincter muscle contracts, it usually tightens its grip. 0o"ever, "hen the ciliary muscle contracts, the diameter of the muscle ring is reduced, therefore relaxing the tension on the #onular fibers and allo"ing the lens to become more spherical, the axial thic'ness of the lens increases, its diameter decreases, and its dioptric po"er increases, producing accommodation. 2.2. Accommodation Reg*.ation

- negative feedbac' regulates accommodation that automatically adjusts the refractive po"er of the lens to achieve the highest degree of visual acuity. (hen the eyes suddenly focus to a near object, the lens accommodates for best acuity of vision "ithin less than 1 second %iordan&/va, 500<!. @irst, "hen the eyes suddenly change distance of fixation point, the lens changes its strength in the proper direction to achieve a ne" state of focus "ithin a fraction of a second Guyton H 0all, 500F!. .econdly, different types of mechanism help the changes in lens strength in the proper direction+ 1. Chromatic aberration is "here red light 680I! focuses more posteriorly to blue light rays ;;6I! because the lens bends blue rays. The eyes are able to detect "hich of these t"o types of light rays is in better focus, therefore it provides accommodation. 5. The eye converges to fixate on near object. Jeural mechanism for converging causes a simultaneous signal to strengthen the lens of the eye. 7. The lens tries to focus on the fovea that is slightly deeper than the reminder of the retina, the clarity is of focus in the depth of the fovea is different from the clarity of focus on the edges of other retinal surfaces. The focusing ability stimulates the action of eye accommodation.

;. The degree of accommodation of the lens oscillates slightly all the time up to t"ice per second. The visual image becomes clearer "hen the oscillation of the lens strength is changing the appropriate direction and becomes poorer into the "rong direction. This is one influence to the lens to "hich "ay the strength of the lens need to change to provide appropriate focus. The ?rain cortical areas control accommodation parallel those that control fixation. The visual signals in ?rodmanns cortical areas 1< and 19 and transmission of

motor signals to ciliary muscle through the pretectal area in the brain stem, then through the /dinger&(estphal nucleus, and finally through parasympathetic nerve fibers to the eyes.

@igure 5. The eye "ithout accommodation are able to see distant objects left!. The Eens converges to fixate on near object producing high acuity on the retina right!.

-ccommodation is mediated by the parasympathetic fibers of cranial nerve III oculomotor!. .timulation of the Karasympathomimetic contracts both sets of cilliary muscle fibers. Karasympathomimetic drugs accommodation. Aat#ung, 5008! The amplitude of accommodation is the amount of change in the eyes refractive po"er that is produced by accommodation. It diminishes "ith age and may be affected by some medications and diseases. -dolescents generally have 15&1F diopters of accommodation, "hile adults at age ;0 have ;&< diopters. -fter age 60 accommodation decreases to less than 5 diopters. 0ardening of the lens "ith age is the principal cause of accommodation, "hich is called presbyopia Aella"ay, 5009!. e.g. pilocarpine! induce e.g. atropine! bloc' accommodation, "hile parasympatholytic medications

CHAPTER # /I'UA! ACUIT0

2.1. /i"*a. Ac*it Intod*ction /i"*a. Ac*it L-! is accurateness or clearness of vision, especially form vision,

"hich is dependent on the sharpness of the retinal focus "ithin the eye and the sensitivity of the interpretative sense of the brain. The normal visual acuity of the human eye for discriminating bet"een point sources of light is about 56 seconds of arc. That is "hen light rays from t"o separated points stri'e the eye "ith an angle of at least 56 seconds bet"een them, they can usually be recogni#ed as t"o points instead of one. .o, it means that a person "ith normal acuity loo'ing at t"o bright pinpoint spots of light 10 meters a"ay can barely distinguish the spots as separate entities "hen they are 1,6&5 milimeters apart. Lisual acuity depends upon ho" accurately light is focused on the retina mostly the macular region!, the MJormalM visual acuity is fre*uently considered to be "hat "as defined by .nellen as the ability to recogni#e an optotype "hen it subtended 6 minutes of arc, that is .nellenNs chart 50=50 feet or F=F meter. Jormal visual acuity does not mean normal vision. The reason visual acuity is very "idely used is that it is a test that corresponds very "ell "ith the normal daily activities a person can handle and evaluate their impairment to do them. 2.2. C.inica. ,et(od for 'tating /i"*a. Ac*it Lisual acuity is a *uantitative measure of the ability to identify blac' symbols on a "hite bac'ground at a standardi#ed distance as the si#e of the symbols is varied. It is the most common clinical measurement of visual function. In the term M 21221

10

$i"ionM the numerator refers to the distance in feet from "hich a person can reliably distinguish a pair of objects. The denominator is the distance from "hich an NaverageN person "ould be able to distinguish the distance at "hich their separation angle is 1 arc minute!. The metric e*uivalent is +2+ $i"ion "here the distance is F meters. T"enty feet is essentially infinity from an optical perspective the difference in optical po"er re*uired to focus at 50 feet versus infinity is only 0.1F; diopters!. @or that reason, 50=50 vision can be considered nominal performance for human distance vision) 50=;0 vision can be considered half that acuity for distance vision and 50=10 vision "ould be t"ice normal acuity. The 50= x number does not directly relate to the eyeglass prescription re*uired to correct vision) rather an eye exam see's to find the prescription that "ill provide at least 50=50 vision %iordan, 500<!. Lisual acuity is typically measured monocularly rather than binocularly "ith the aid of an optotype chart for distant vision, an optotype chart for near vision, and an occluder to cover the eye not being tested. The examiner may also occlude an eye by sliding a tissue behind the patientNs eyeglasses, or instructing the patient to use his or her hand. This latter method is typically avoided in professional settings as it may inadvertently allo" the patient to pee' through his or her fingers, or press the eye and alter the measurement "hen that eye is evaluated -brams, 5010!.

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@igure 7. The .nellens Chart for -ssessing Lisual -cuity.

1. Klace the chart at 50 feet or F meters! and illuminate to ;<0 lux at that

distance. 5. If the patient uses glasses, then the test is performed using them. 7. Klace the occluder in front of the eye that is not being evaluated. The first evaluated eye is the one that is believed to see less or the one the patient says that is seeing less. ;. .tart first "ith the big optotypes and proceed to the smaller ones. The patient has to identify every one on the line being presented and communicate it to the physician. 6. If the measurement is reduced belo" 50=50! then the test using a pinhole should be done and register the visual acuity using the pinhole. ?oth measures should be registered, "ith and "ithout using pinhole. F. Change the occluder to the other eye and proceed again from the ;th step. 8. -fter both eyes have been evaluated in distant visual acuity, proceed to evaluate near visual acuity placing a modified snellen chart for near vision such as the %osembaum chart! at 16.8 inches or ;0 centimeters!. Then repeat the test from the 5nd step.

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CHAPTER & PHOTORECEPTION AND ADAPTATION

&.1. P(otorece3tor Ce.." The photoreceptor cells, the rods and cones, are long, cylindrical cells oriented parallel to one another and perpendicular to the layers of the retina. %od and cone cells in the receptor layer are capable of transforming light stimulus into a nerve impulse that is conducted by the nerve fiber layer of the retina through the optic nerve and ultimately to the occipital visual cortex. The rod and cone photoreceptors are located in the avascular outermost layer of the sensory retina and are the site of the chemical reaction initiating the visual process. /ach rod photoreceptors cell contains rhodopsin, "hich is a photosensitive visual pigment formed "hen opsin protein molecules combine "ith 11&cis retinal. %hodopsin is a membrane&bound glycolipid that is partially embedded in the double membrane dis's of the photoreceptor outer segment. The light sensitive chemical in the cones called cone pigment or color pigment, have compositions only slightly different from that of rhodopsin. The rods and cones differ in their sensitivity to light. %ods are active in dim illumination scotopic vision! and cones are active in daylight conditions photopic vision! Bartine#&Conde, 500<!

&.2.

P(otoc(emi"tr of /i"ion (hen the rod is exposed to light, the resulting receptor potential is different from the receptor potentials in almost all other sensory receptors. $nder optimal conditions, a single photon of light, the smallest possible *uintal unit of light

13

energy, can cause a measurable receptor potential in a rod of about 1 millivolt. Only 70 photons of light "ill cause half saturation of the rod. ?ecause the photoreceptors have an extremely sensitive chemical cascade that amplifies the stimulatory effects about a milionfold, Guyton H 0all, 500F! as follo"s+ 1! Khotoreception by rods begins "ith absorption of light&sensitive photopigment rhodopsin, composed of the transmembrane protein opsin bound to 11&cis retinal, the aldehyde form of vitamin -. This leads to the formation of metarhodopsin II, "hich is the active form of rhodopsin. 5! The activated rhodopsin functions as an en#yme to activate many molecules of transducin, a protein present in an inactive form in the membranes of the discs and cell membrane of the rod. 7! The activated transducin activates many more molecules of

phosphodiesterase. ;! -ctivated phosphodiesterase is another en#yme) it immediately hydroly#es many molecules of cyclic guanosine monophosphate cGBK!, thus destroying it. ?efore being destroyed, the cGBK had been bound "ith the sodium channel protein of the rods outer membrane in a "ay that 2splints3 it in the open state. ?ut in light, "hen phosphodiesterase hydroly#es the cGBK, this removes the splinting and allo"s the sodium channel to close. .everal hundred channels close for each originally activated molecule of rhodopsin . because the sodium flux through each of these channels has been extremely rapid, flo" of more than a million sodium ions is bloc'ed by the closure before the channel open again. This diminution of sodium ion flo" is "hat excites the rod, as 6! (ithin about a second, another en#yme, rhodopsin 'inase, "hich is al"ays present in the rod, inactivates the activated rhodopsin "ith open sodium channel and sodium flo" resumes as before. the metarhodopsin II!, and the entire cascade the reverse bac' to the normal stage

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&.#.

/i"*a. Pat(%a " The visual path"ays begins "hen visual nerve signals leave the retinae, passing bac'"ard through the optic nerves. -t the optic chiasm, the optic nerve fibers from the nasal halves of the retinae cross to the opposite sides, "here they join the fivers from the opposite temporal retinae to form the optic tracts. The fivers of each optic tract then synapse in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus, and from here, geniculocalcarine fibers pass by "ay of the optic radiation or geniculocalcarine tract! to the primary visual cortex in the calcarine area of the occipital lobe %iordan&/va, 500<!.
Lisual nerve signals .ea$e t(e retina Kassing bac'"ard through the o3tic ner$e" O3tic c(ia"m optic nerve fibers from the nasal halves of the retinae cross to the opposite sides!

Krimary visual cortexs

Eateral geniculat nucleus

O3tic tract junction of the optic nerve fibers from the nasal halves and the optic nerve fibers from the

@igure ;. .chematic diagram of the optic nerve.

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@igure 6. Diagram path of the papillary light reflex. &.&. P(otoc(emi"tr of Co.or /i"ion The photochemicals in the cones have almost exactly the same chemical composition as that of rhodopsin in the rods. The only difference is that the protein portions, or the opsins 9 called photopsins in the cones 9 are slightly different from the scotopsin of the rods. The color&sensitive pigments of the cones, therefore, are combinations of retinal and photopsins. There is only one of the three types of coor pigments is present in each of the different cones, thus ma'ing the cones selectively sensitive to different colors+ blue, green, or red. The absorption characteristics of the pigments in the three types of cones sho" pea' absorbencies at light "avelengths of ;;6, 676, and 680 nanometers, respectively. These are also the "avelengths for pea' light sensitivity for each type of cone, "hich begins to explain ho" the retina differentiates the colors Guyton H 0all, 500F! &.). !ig(t and Dar4 Ada3tation If a person has been in bright light for hours, large portions of the photochemical in the both the rods and the cones "ill have been reduced to retina and opsins. @urthermore, much of the retinal of both the rods and the cones "ill have been converted into vitamin -. because of these t"o effects, the concentrations of the photosensitive chemicals remaining in the rods and cones are considerably reduced, and the sensitivity of the eye to light is correspondingly reduced. This is called light adaptation.

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Conversely, if a person remains in dar'ness for a long time, the retinal and opsins in the rods and cones are converted bac' into the light&sensitive pigments. @urthermore, vitamin - is converted bac' into retinal to give still more light& sensitive pigments, the final limit being determined by the amount of opsins in the rods and cones to combine "ith the retinal. This is called dar' adaptation. The eye has t"o other mechanisms for light and dar' adaptation. The first of these is a change in pupillary si#e. The pupil, plays an important role in light intensity onto the retina. Eight shone into the right eye produces an immediate direct constriction response in the right eye and an immediate indirect consensual constriction response in the left eye. The intensity of this response in each eye is proportionate to the light&carrying ability of the directly stimulated optic nerve. This can cause adaptation of approximately 70&fold "ithin a fraction of a second, because of changes in the amount of light allo"ed through the pupillary opening. The other mechanism is neural adaptation, involving the neuron in the successive stages of the visual chain in the retina itself and in the brain. That is, "hen light intensity first increases, the signals transmitted by the bipolar cells, hori#ontal cells, amacrine cells, and ganglion cells are all intense. 0o"ever, most of these signals decrease rapidly at different stages of transmission in the neural circuit. -lthough the degree of adaptation is only a fe" fold rather than the many thousand fold that occurs during adaptation of the photochemical system, neural adaptation occurs in a fraction of a second, in contrast to the many minutes to hours re*uired for full adaptation by the photochemicals.

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. CHAPTER ) REFRACTI/E ERROR'

2.1. Refracti$e Error Introd*ction %efractive errors are disorders, not diseases. - refractive error means that the shape of the eye does not bend light correctly, resulting in a blurred image. Eight has to be refracted or bent by the cornea and the lens to the retina in order for us to see. The common refractive disorders are described belo". 2.2. , o3ia 5di"tant ob6ect" are b.*rr 7 -lso 'no"n as nearsightedness, is inherited and is often discovered in childhood. Byopia often progesses throughout the teenage years, "hen the body is gro"ing rapidly. Keople "ith high degrees of myopia have a higher ris' of detached retina "hich can be repaired "ith surgery. 2.#. H 3ero3ia 5c.o"e ob6ect" are b.*rr 7 -lso 'no"n as farsightedness is usually inherited. Children are often hyperopic "hich may lessen as an adult. Objects at infinity are not seen clearly unless

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accommodation is used, and near objects may not be seen because accommodative capacity is finite. 0yperopia is corrected "ith plus convex! lenses. 2.&. Pre"b o3ia 5aging of t(e .en" in t(e e e7 -fter age ;0, the lens of the eye becomes more rigid and does not flex as easily. The result is that it is more difficult to read at close range. This normal aging process of the lens can also be combined "ith myopia, hyperopia or astigmatism. 2.). A"tigmati"m 5b.*rred $i"ion at a.. di"tance"7 -stigmatism usually occurs "hen the front surface of the eye, the cornea, has an irregular curvature. Jormally the cornea is smooth and e*ually curved in all directions and light entering the cornea is focused e*ually on all planes, or in all directions. In astigmatism, the front surface of the cornea is curved more in one direction than in the other. This abnormality may result in vision that is much li'e loo'ing into a distorted, "avy mirror. $sually, astigmatism causes blurred vision at all distances. The .ymptoms includes) blurred vision, difficulty reading or seeing up close, and crossing of the eyes in children /sotropia!. The symptoms described above may not necessarily mean that you have a refractive disorder. 0o"ever, if you experience one or more of these symptoms, contact your eye doctor for a complete exam. 2.+. Correction and '*rgica. Treatment %efractive disorders are commonly treated using corrective lenses, such as eyeglasses or contact lenses+ a. Byopia 9 is corrected by concave lens. b. 0ypermetropia 9 is corrected by convex lens.

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c. Kresbyopia 9 ?ivocal glasses "ould be useful according to the refraction problem. d. -stigmatism 9 Bay be corrected by cylindrical glasses. %efractive surgery can also be used to correct some refractive disorders. Larious surgical techni*ues are available for the correction of refractive errors, particularly myopia. Easer corneal refractive surgery reshapes the mid&portion stroma! of the cornea "ith an excimer laser. E-.IA Easer in&situ Aeratomeliusis! is most commonly performed, because postoperative visual recovery is rapid and there is little postoperative discomfort, but it is contraindicated if the cornea is relatively thin. Lisual outcomes are impressive and many individuals see' treatment, more than 1 million people undergo E-.IA each year in the $nited .tates. 0o"ever, outcomes for individual cases are not completely predictable. %epeated treatment is re*uired in up to 16% of patients and serious complications occur in up to 6%. Other refractive surgery techni*ues are extraction of the clear crystalline lens "ith insertion of a single vision, multifocal or accommodative intraocular lens, insertion of an intraocular lens "ithout removal of the crystalline lens pha'ic intraocular lens!, intrastromal corneal ring segments IJT-C.!, and conductive 'eratoplasty CA!.

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'U,,AR0

The eye is a very important organ that enables us to sense the form, color and movement of objects in our field of vision. Through the division of the eye physiological feature "e got to 'no" more about the incredible organ. @rom the refractive media, refractive index, accommodation, adaptation and light perception are all interconnected into a functional visual system of the eye. %efraction index is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light on a given material. -ny object in front of the lens is, in reality, a mosaic of point sources of light. .ome of these points are very bright, some are very "ea', and they vary in color. The more a lens bends light rays, the greater is its 2refractive po"er3. This refractive po"er is measured in terms of Diopters. The eye is optically stimulated by light rays "ith "ave length of 7980 9 8570 :. Ei'e a camera, it has a lens system, diaphragm of the camera the pupil!, and a retina that corresponds to the film. If all the refractive surfaces of the eye are algebraically added together and then considered to be on single lens, the optics of the normal eye may be simplified and represented schematically as a 2reduced eye3. On the retina the image is inverted and reversed "ith respect to the object. 0o"ever, the mind perceives objects in the upright position despite the upside&

21

do"n orientation on the retina because the brain is trained to consider an inverted image as the normal. -ccommodation is the ability by "hich the lens changes its shape as result of the ciliary muscle action on the #onular fibers that changes focus from distant to near images. Bost of the change in lens shape that ta'es place during accommodation occurs at the central anterior lens surface. Buscles that facilitate accommodation are the 80 suspensory ligaments attach radially around the lens. - negative feedbac' regulates accommodation that automatically adjusts the refractive po"er of the lens to achieve the highest degree of visual acuity. -ccommodation is mediated by the parasympathetic fibers of cranial nerve III oculomotor!. The amplitude of accommodation is the amount of change in the eyes refractive po"er that is produced by accommodation. Lisual -cuity L-! is accurateness or clearness of vision, especially form vision, "hich is dependent on the sharpness of the retinal focus "ithin the eye and the sensitivity of the interpretative sense of the brain. - *uantitative measure of the ability to identify blac' symbols on a "hite bac'ground at a standardi#ed distance as the si#e of the symbols is the most common clinical measurement of visual function. Lisual acuity is typically measured monocular rather than binocularly "ith the aid of an optotype chart for distant vision, an optotype chart for near vision, and an occluder to cover the eye not being tested. The photoreceptor cells, the rods and cones, are long, cylindrical cells oriented parallel to one another and perpendicular to the layers of the retina. The rod and cone photoreceptors are located in the avascular outermost layer of the sensory retina and are the site of the chemical reaction initiating the visual process. (hen the rod is exposed to light, the resulting receptor potential is different from the receptor potentials in almost all other sensory receptors because the photoreceptors have an extremely sensitive chemical cascade that amplifies the stimulatory effects about a milionfold, as follo"s the photon activates an electron, the activated rhodopsin, the activated transduction activates many more molecules of phosphodiesterase, and activated phosphodiesterase.

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East discussed in the topic of eye physiology is the refractive error, it means that the shape of the eye does not bend light correctly, resulting in a blurred image. Type of the refractive error are myopia distant objects are blurry!, hyperopia close objects are blurry!, presbyopia aging of the lens in the eye!, astigmatism blurred vision at all distances! and are corrected "ith different types of lens. In conclusion, the parts of the eye are physiologically interconnected into one functioning visual system. This proves ho" incredible our eye can be.

8I8!IO9RAPH0

%hiordan&/va, K. (hicther, P. 500<. Laughan H -sburys General Ophthlamology, .eventeenth /dition. Bc&Gra" 0ill Companies. Je" Qor', $nited .tate. Aat#ung, ?.G. 5008. ?asic and Clinical Kharmacology, Tenth /dition. The Bc&Gra" 0ill Companies. Je" Qor', $nited .tate. Guyton, -. 0all. 500F. Khysiology of Bedicine, /leventh /dition. /lsevier .cience Group. $nited .tate. Kage) F17&F60. Aella"ay, P. The /ye Eearning Objective, -ccommodation. Eippincott (illiams and (il'ins Group. Je" Qor'. -ugust 5009) 51)1&11 -brams, D. -ssessing Lisual -cuity. http+==""".eye*uestions.com=vatest.htm. D$'e /lders Kractice of %efraction. Panuary 5010. R-ccessed on) 50 th Panuary 5010S

Bartine#&Conde, .. Bac'ni', .. @ixational /ye Bovements -cross Lertebrates+ Comparative Dynamics, Khysiology, and Kerception. ?arro" Jeurological Institute, $nited .tate. Pournal of Lision. 500<)< 1;!+5<) 191F

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