18 Rules of Deduction

The rules of deduction provide proof in a stronger and more elegant sense than do truth tables. The reader will recognize the process as very similar to the style of proof found in geometry. The justification for each proof will be based upon the rules employed and the steps given in the premises or deduced already. First, we will introduce a number of rules (18 that will function as the theorems of this system. These are divided into two groups. The rules of inference wor! from left to right or from the top down (depending upon how they are structured . The rules of replacement wor! in both directions. The symbols on the left side of the e"uivalence symbol could just as well be on the right side. Further the rules of inference apply only to full lines in the proof. #f we are going to use the rule simplification, for e$ample, the %and& must be the symbol with the greatest scope. The rules of replacement, however, may be used on whole lines or part of the line in the proof, as long as we are using the symbol that is appropriate for the rule. Finally, it is the rules of inference that more li!ely function to get us somewhere in the proof. Typically, they function to discard variables, so have the effect of allowing us to progress from more complicated statements to those that are less so.

8 Rules of Inference
'mong the 8 rules of inference are a number of %house!eeping % rules. Their role is not so much to provide logical insight as to %tidy up& formulas in order to employ the other rules. # have placed the two %tidying& rules first ((implification and )onjunction .

Rules of Inference
*ule +1. Simplification (( , From p" can be inferred p, and from p" can be inferred ". From any conjunction of statements assumed true can be inferred the truth of any one of those statements ta!en separately. *ule +-. Conjunction (). , From p and " can be inferred p". From any statements assumed true separately can be inferred the truth of the conjunction of those statements. *ule +/. Modus Ponens (01 , From p" and p can be inferred ". From a conditional statement and the affirmation of its antecedent can be inferred the affirmation of its conse"uent. *ule +2. Modus Tollens (0T , From p" and ~" can be inferred ~p. From a conditional statement and the negation of its conse"uent can be inferred the negation of its antecedent. *ule +3. Disjunctive Syllogism (4( , From pv" and ~p can be inferred ", and from pv" and ~" can be inferred p. From a disjunction and the negation of a disjunct can be inferred the affirmation of the other disjunct. This rule functions as a process of elimination for various alternatives and wor!s for both meanings of %either...or.& *ule +5. Addition ('4 , From p can be inferred pv". From any statement assumed true can be inferred a disjunction composed of the original statement and any other statement whether true or false. *ule +6. Hypothetical Syllogism (7( , From p" and "r can be inferred pr. From any two conditional statements, where the conse"uent of one is identical to the antecedent of the other, can be inferred a conditional statement composed of the antecedent of the first and the conse"uent of the second. *ule +8. Constructive Dilemma ()4 , From p" and rs and pvr can be inferred "vs. From any two conditional statements and a disjunctive statement which affirms the antecedents of the two conditionals can be inferred a disjunction of the conse"uents of the two conditionals. This rule also wor!s for the e$clusive sense of %either...or.&

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1! Rules of Replacement
'mong the 18 rules of replacement are a number of %house!eeping& rules. Their role is not so much to provide logical insight as to %tidy up& formulas in order to employ the other rules. # have placed the four %tidying& rules first (4ouble 9egation, )ommutation, 'ssociation and Tautology .

Rules of Replacement
*ule +:. Dou"le #egation (49 , p~~p. 'ny statement is e"uivalent to its double negation. *ule +18. Commutation ()0 , (p" ("p and (pv" ("vp . The order of statements in conjunctions and disjunctions in no way affects the truth value of the conjunction or disjunction (both e$clusive and inclusive . *ule +11. Association ('( , ((p" r (p("r and ((pv" vr (pv("vr . The grouping of conjuncts or disjuncts in no way affects the truth value of conjunctions or disjunctions (both e$clusive and inclusive . *ule +1-. $autology (T , (pp p and (pvp p. The repetition of statements in conjunctions or disjunctions is of no conse"uence logically. *ule +1/. Implication (# , (p" (~pv" . ' conditional statement is e"uivalent to a disjunction where the antecedent has been negated. *ule +12. Contraposition ()1 , (p" (~"~p . ' conditional statement is e"uivalent to another conditional statement whose antecedent and conse"uent are reversed and negated. *ule +13. %&portation (;< , ((p" r (p("r . ' conjunct, ma!ing up part of the antecedent of a conditional statement, can be e$ported to the conse"uent and connected to it as its antecedent. *ule +15. Distri"ution (4 , (p("vr ((p" v(pr and (pv("r ((pv" (pvr . ' conjunct connected to another composed of disjuncts, can be connected to those disjuncts separately. ' disjunct, connected to another composed of conjuncts, can be connected to those conjuncts separately. *ule +16. %'uivalence (;= , (p" ((p" ("p and (p" ((p" v(~p~" . Two statements are materially e"uivalent if each can be inferred from the other. 'lso, two statements are materially e"uivalent if either both are true or both are false. *ule +18. De(organ)s $heorem (40 , (p" ~(~pv~" and (pv" ~(~p~" . 'ny conjunction is e"uivalent to a disjunction where the statement variables (ta!en separately and the entire formula (ta!en as a whole are negated. 'ny disjunction is e"uivalent to a conjunction where the statement variables and the entire formula have been negated.

Recogni*ing +alid atterns

>e are now in a position to recognize rudimentary arguments that follow the rules (and are therefore valid , as compared to those that do not. The pattern symbolized below is alternately called affirming the antecedent (since in this presentation the second premise affirms the antecedent of the conditional statement or modus ponens (*ule / . ;$ample -6, (11 1= (11

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()1 Therefore, = This pattern can be set up in a variety of different ways in ;nglish. 'll have the same logical form. The order in which the three statements are presented ma!es no difference to the pattern presented, or to the validity of the argument. 'll are instances of affirming the antecedent?modus ponens. 'll are valid. ;$ample -8, (11 #f you run in the marathon in 9iagara Falls ne$t wee!end, you will e$perience leg cramps. (1- @ou ran the race there. ()1 )onse"uently, you had the leg cramps. ()1 @ou had leg cramps, (11 because if you run the -5 miles in the race at 9iagara Falls, you will get leg cramps, (1- and you went ahead and ran the race anyway. (1- @ou ran the race last wee!end at 9iagara Falls. (11 #f you run that far, then you get leg cramps. ()1 (o you got the leg cramps. 9o surpriseA (ome patterns are used much more often than others. These include, 01 ( modus ponens , 0T (modus tollens , 4( (disjunctive syllogism , and 7( (hypothetical syllogism . 7owever, no rule is any more necessary than any other in a given argument. ;ach of the rules has an e"ual status since each is one of the subset of the minimum 18 needed to show that all valid arguments are really so. ;ven the lowliest rule among the 18, a rule li!e simplification or association, has no substitute among the rules. This list of 18 is complete, and what each rule allows us to accomplish is not repeated by any other rule. 'n e$planation of the formal fallacies associated with this section can be found in (ection ) of this chapter. Those fallacies include affirming the conse"uent, denying the antecedent, and affirming the disjunct. %-%RCIS% ./0 #dentify the premises and conclusions in the following arguments. >hat rule or rule violation (formal fallacy does each e$hibitB 1. #f you smo!e, then you will eventually get lung disease because if you smo!e you will irritate the lining of your lungs, and if you irritate the lining of your lungs, you will get lung disease. -. ;ight is greater than si$ because eight is greater than seven and seven is greater than si$. /. #f you have enough money, you can go to the Cil Dim concert. Eut you donFt have enough money. Therefore, you canFt go. 2. #f you have enough money, you can go to the 4ave 0atthews concert. Eut you canFt go. Therefore, you did not have enough money. 3. #f you have enough money, you can go to the >ho concert. @ou went to the >ho concert. Therefore, you must have had enough money. 5. ;ither the battery is bad, or something is wrong with the starter. @es, the battery will not hold a charge. Therefore, nothing is wrong with the starter. 6. #f you are a 4emocrat, then you voted for )linton. @ou voted for )linton in G:5. Therefore, you must be a 4emocrat. 8. 't the end of this course, #f you do well in this course, then you get a good grade. @ou did not do well in the courseH therefore, you will not get a good grade. :. Iod must not have wanted us to wear clothes all the time, because if Iod wanted us to wear clothes all the time, then 7e would not have created such hot summers, and 7e did create any very hot summers. 18. #f she loved you, she would not have sent you that letter. (he loves you. (o, the letter cannot be from her. 11. (he was born either in #ndiana or in Jhio. >e !now for sure that she was not born in #ndiana. Therefore, she must have been born in Jhio. 1-. 9otre 4ameGs football team went to a bowl game last year. Therefore, either all Eona students are valedictorians of their high school classes or 9otre 4ameGs football team went to a bowl game last year. 1/. #f .esus says to pay the ta$, he loses the respect of the .ews for agreeing with *oman tyranny. #f .esus advises the .ews not to pay the ta$, then those who are out to get him will have reason for as!ing that he be jailed, that is, for sedition. .esus must respond in one way or the other. Therefore, he loses either way.

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12. #f the K.(. assassinates Jsama bin Caden, it will be thought a murderer. #f it does not, it will be responsible for all the deaths that come about because of this (audi terrorist. The K.(. must do one or the other. Therefore, it loses either way. For the arguments in ;$ercise 5., can you recognize any of the patterns you now !now as the rules of logicB %-%RCIS% .20 (ome additional uses of deduction. 1. @ou have played )lue before. )an you name some of the logical rules that are employed in the deductions you typically ma!e to try to win the gameB )an you symbolize some of theseB -. Toward the end of every 9FC season, deductive calculations can be made concerning certain teamsF chances. (elect the team of your choice and e$press what would need to be done in order to ma!e the playoffs, given that the team has just completed its 12th wee! of play. S%2%C$%D A#S3%RS $4 %-%RCIS% ./0 1. 7ypothetical syllogism, valid. /. 4enying the antecedent?violation of modus tollens. 2. 0odus tollens, valid. 3. 'ffirming the conse"uent?violation of modus ponens. 5. 'ffirming the disjunct?violation of disjunctive syllogism. 1-. 'ddition, valid. 12. )onstructive dilemma, valid.

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