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b
omctImc In thc mId I70s In FarIs l camc across a postcr put out by
thc EcoogIstcs, a radIca ncIghborhood actIon movcmcnt dcdIcatcd
to crcatIng a morc ccoogIcay scnsItIvc modc o| cI IvIng, dcpIctIng
an atcmatIvc vIsIon |or thc cIty. It was a wondcr|u udIc portraIt o|
od FarIs rcanImatcd by a ncIghborhood I|c, wIth lowcrs on baconIcs,
sguarcs |u o| pcopc and chIdrcn, sma storcs and workshops opcn
to thc word, ca|s gaorc, |ountaIns howIng, pcopc rcIshIng thc rIvcr
bank, communIty gardcns hcrc and thcrc maybc l havc Invcntcd that
In my mcmory), cvIdcnt tImc to cnjoy convcrsatIons or smokc a pIpc a
habIt not at that tImc dcmonIzcd, as l |ound to my cost whcn l wcnt to
an EcoogIstc ncIghborhood mcctIng In a dcnscy smokc-hcd room). l
ovcd that postcr, but ovcr thc ycars It bccamc so tattcrcd and torn that
I had, to my grcat rcgrct, to throw It out. I wIsh l had It back! Somcbody
shoud rcprInt It.
1c contrast wIth thc ncw FarIs that was cmcrgIng and thrcatcnIng
to cngu| thc od was dramatIc. 1c ta buIdIng gIants around thc
Facc d` ltaIc wcrc thrcatcnIng to Invadc thc od cIty and casp thc hand
o| that aw|u 1our Montparnassc. 1c proposcd cxprcssway down thc
Lch Bank, thc soucss hIgh-rIsc pubIc housIng HLMs) out In thc Jth
arrondIsscmcnt and In thc suburbs, thc monopoIzcd commodIhcatIon
on thc strccts, thc paIn dIsIntcgratIon o| what had oncc bccn a vIbrant
ncIghborhood I|c buIt around artIsana abor In sma workshops In thc
X PRL|ACL
MaraIs, thc crumbIng buIdIngs o| BccvIc, thc |antastIc archItccturc o|
thc Facc dcs Vosgcs |aIng Into thc strccts. l |ound anothcr cartoon by
BatcIcr). lt showcd a combInc harvcstcr cruhIng and gobbIng up a
thc od ncIghborhoods o| FarIs, cavIng hIgh-rIsc HLMs a In a ncat row
In Its wakc. l uscd It as kcy IustratIon In 1 L0ndlll0n 0[105lm0dlnlly.
FarIs |rom thc cary 50s on was paIny In thc mIdst o| an cxIstcntIa
crIsIs. 1c od coud not ast, but thc ncw sccmcd just too aw|u, soucss
and cmpty to contcmpatc. )can-Luc Godard`s 57 hm, uX 0u l|0l5
th055 gu ] 50 U d8//, capturcs thc scnsIbIIty o| thc momcnt bcautI|uy.
lt dcpIcts marrIcd mothcrs cngagIng In a daIy routInc o| prostItutIon, as
much out o| borcdom as o| hnancIa nccd, agaInst thc background o| an
InvasIon o| AmcrIcan corporatc capIta Into FarIs, thc war In VIctnam
oncc a vcry Frcnch aHaIr but by thcn takcn ovcr by thc AmcrIcans),
a constructIon boom o| hIghways and hIgh-rIscs, and thc arrIva o| a
mIndcss consumcrIsm In thc strccts and storcs o| thc cIty. Howcvcr,
Godard`s phIosophIca takc-a knd o| guIzzIca, wIst|u, WIttgcnstcInIan
prccursor to postmodcrnIsm, In whIch nothIng at thc ccntcr o| cIthcr thc
sc| or socIcty coud possIby hod-was not |or mc.
lt was aso In thIs vcry samc ycar, 57, that HcnrI Lc|cbvrc wrotc
hIs scmIna cssay on 1 Klghl l0 lh Llly. hat rIght, hc asscrtcd, was
both a cry and a dcmand. 1hc cry was a rcsponsc to thc cxIstcntIa paIn
o| a wIthcrIng crIsIs o| cvcryday I|c In thc cIty. 1hc dcmand was rcay a
command to ook that crIsIs ccary In thc cyc and to crcatc an atcrna-
tIvc urban I|c that Is css aIcnatcd, morc mcanInglu and pay|u but, as
aways wIth Lc|cbvrc, conlIctua and dIacctIca, opcn to bccomIng, to
cncountcrs both |car|u and pcasurabc), and to thc pcrpctua pursuIt
o| unknowabc novcty.
Wc acadcmIcs arc guItc cxpcrt at rcconstructIng thc gcncaogy o|
Idcas. So wc can takc Lc|cbvrc`s wrItIngs o| thIs pcrIod and cxcavatc a
bIt o| HcIdcggcr hcrc, MIctzschc thcrc, FourIcr somcwhcrc csc, tacIt crI-
tIgucs o| Athusscr and Foucaut, and, o| coursc, thc IncvItabc |ramIng
gIvcn by Marx. 1c |act that thIs cssay was wrIttcn |or thc ccntcnnIa
cccbratIons o| thc pubIcatIon o| Voumc o| L0[ll0/ bcars mcntIonIng
bccausc It has somc poItIca sIgnIhcancc, as wc sha scc. But what wc
acadcmIcs so ohcn |orgct Is thc roc paycd by thc scnsIbIIty that arIscs
out o| thc strccts around us, thc IncvItabc |ccIngs o| oss provokcd by
|KL|/LL XI
thc dcmoItIons, what happcns whcn whoc guartcrs Ikc Lcs Hacs) gct
rc-cngInccrcd or glGnd5 n5m0/c crupt sccmIngy out o| nowhcrc,
coupcd wIth thc cxhIaratIon or annoyancc o| strcct dcmonstratIons
about thIs or that, thc hopcs that urk as ImmIgrant groups brIng I|c back
Into a ncIghborhood thosc grcat VIctnamcsc rcstaurants In thc IJth
arrondIsscmcnt In thc mIdst o| thc HLMs), or thc dcspaIr that hows |rom
thc gum dcspcratIon o| margInaIzatIon, poIcc rcprcssIons and Idc
youth ost In thc shccr borcdom o| IncrcasIng uncmpoymcnt and ncgcct
In thc soucss suburbs that cvcntuay bccomc sItcs o| roIIng unrcst.
Lc|cbvrc was, l am surc, dccpy scnsItIvc to a o| that-and not mcrcy
bccausc o| hIs cvIdcnt carIcr |ascInatIon wIth thc SItuatIonIsts and thcIr
thcorctIca attachmcnts to thc Idca o| a psychogcogmphy o| thc cIty, thc
cxpcrIcncc o| thc urban drIvc through FarIs, and cxposurc to thc spcc-
tacc. )ust wakIng out o| thc door o| hIs apartmcnt In thc Ruc Rambutcau
was surcy cnough to sct a hIs scnscs tIngIng. For thIs rcason l thInk
It hIghy sIgnIhcant that 1 Klghl l0 lh Llly was wrIttcn bc|orc 1
l|u[ll0n as Lc|cbvrc atcr cacd It) o| May I58. HIs cssay dcpIcts a
sItuatIon In whIch such an IrruptIon was not ony possIbc but amost
IncvItabc and Lc|cbvrc paycd hIs own sma part at Man tcrrc In makIng
It so). Yct thc urban roots o| that ` 58 movcmcnt rcmaIn a much ncgcctcd
thcmc In subscgucnt accounts o| that cvcnt. l suspcct that thc urban
socIa movcmcnts thcn cxIstIng-thc EcoogIstcs |or cxampc-mcdcd
Into that rcvot and hcpcd shapc Its poItIca and cutura dcmands In
IntrIcatc I| subtcrrancan ways. And l aso suspcct, though I havc no proo|
at a, that thc cutura trans|ormatIons In urban I|c that subscgucnty
occurrcd, as nakcd capIta maskcd Itsc| In commodIty |ctIshIsm, nIchc
markctIng, and urban cutura consumcrIsm, paycd a |ar |rom Innoccnt
roc In thc post-` 58 pacIhcatIon |or Instancc, thc ncwspapcr Ll0cl0ll0n,
whIch was |oundcd by )can-Fau Sartrc and othcrs, graduay shIhcd
|rom thc mId ` 70s to bccomc cuturay radIca and IndIvIduaIstIc but
poItIcay ukcwarm, I| not antagonIstIc to scrIous ch and cocctIvIst
poItIcs).
l makc thcsc poInts bccausc I|, as has happcncd ovcr thc ast dccadc,
thc Idca o| thc rIght to thc cIty has undcrgonc a ccrtaIn rcvIva, thcn It Is
not to thc Intccctua cgacy o| Lc|cbvrc that wc must turn |or an cxpa-
natIon Important though that cgacy may bc). What has bccn happcnIng
XII |KL|/LL
In thc strccts, among thc urban socIa movcmcnts, Is |ar morc Important.
And as a grcat dIacctIcIan and Immancnt crItIc o| urban daIy I|c, surcy
Lc|cbvrc woud agrcc. 1c |act, |or cxampc, that thc strangc coIsIon
bctwccn ncoIbcraIzatIon and dcmocratIzatIon In BrazI In thc 0s
produccd causcs In thc BrazIIan ConstItutIon o| 200I that guarantcc
thc rIght to thc cIty has to bc attrIbutcd to thc powcr and sIgnIhcancc
o| urban socIa movcmcnts, partIcuary around housIng, In promotIng
dcmocratIzatIon. 1c |act that thIs constItutIona momcnt hcpcd con-
soIdatc and promotc an actIvc scnsc o| Insurgcnt cItIzcnshIp as )amcs
Hoston cas It) has nothIng to do wIth Lc|cbvrc`s cgacy, but cvcryhIng
to do wIth ongoIng struggcs ovcr who gcts to shapc thc guaItIcs o| daIy
urban I|c. And thc |act that somcthIng Ikc partIcIpatory budgctIng,`
In whIch ordInary cIty rcsIdcnts dIrccty takc part In aocatIng portIons
o| munIcIpa budgcts through a dcmocratIc dccIsIon-makIng proccss,
has bccn so InspIratIona has cvcrythIng to do wIth many pcopc scckIng
somc knd o| rcsponsc to a brutay ncoIbcraIzIng IntcrnatIona capIta-
Ism that has bccn IntcnsI|yIng Its assaut on thc guaItIcs o| daIy I|c sIncc
thc cary I0s. Mo surprIsc cIthcr that thIs modc dcvcopcd In Forto
Acgrc, BrazI-thc ccntra pacc |or thc Word SocIa Forum.
Whcn a manncr o| socIa movcmcnts camc togcthcr at thc LS SocIa
Forum In Atanta In )unc 2007, to takc anothcr cxampc, and dccIdcd to
|orm a natIona RIght to thc CIty AIancc wIth actIvc chaptcrs In cItIcs
such as Mcw York and Los Angccs), In part InspIrcd by what thc urban
socIa movcmcnts In BrazI had accompIshcd, thcy dId so wIthout |or
thc most part knowIng Lc|cbvrcs namc. 1cy had IndIvIduay concudcd
ahcr ycars o| struggIng on thcIr own partIcuar Issucs homccssncss,
gcntrIhcatIon and dIspaccmcnt, crImInaIzatIon o| thc poor and thc
dIHcrcnt, and so on) that thc struggc ovcr thc cIty as a whoc |ramcd
thcIr own partIcuar struggcs. 1ogcthcr thcy thought thcy mIght morc
rcadIy makc a dIHcrcncc. And I| varIous movcmcnts o| an anaogous
kInd can bc |ound cscwhcrc, It Is not sImpy out o| somc |caty to
Lc|cbvrc`s Idcas but prccIscy bccausc Lc|cbvrc`s Idcas, Ikc thcIrs, havc
prImarIy arIscn out o| thc strccts and ncIghborhoods o| aIIng cItIcs.
1us In a rcccnt compIatIon, rIght to thc cIty movcmcnts though o|
dIvcrsc orIcntatIon) arc rcportcd as actIvc In dozcns o| cItIcs around
thc word.'
|KL|/LL XIII
So ct Uagrcc. thc Idca o| thc rIght to thc cIty docs not arIsc prImarIy
out o| varIous Intccctua |ascInatIons and |ads though thcrc arc pcnty
o| thosc around, as wc know). It prImarIy rIscs up |rom thc strccts, out
|rom thc ncIghborhoods, as a cry |or hcp and sustcnancc by opprcsscd
pcopcs In dcspcratc tImcs. How, thcn, do acadcmIcs and Intccctuas
both organIc and tradItIona, as GramscI woud put It) rcspond to that
cry and that dcmand: It Is hcrc that a study o| how Lc|cbvrc rcspondcd
Is hcp|u-not bccausc hIs rcsponscs provIdc bucprInts our sItuatIon
Is vcry dIHcrcnt |rom that o| thc I 50s, and thc strccts o| MumbaI, Los
Angccs, So Fauo and )ohanncsburg arc vcry dIHcrcnt |rom thosc o|
FarIs), but bccausc hIs dIacctIca mcthod o| Immancnt crItIca InguIry
can provIdc an InspIratIona modc |or how wc mIght rcspond to that cry
and dcmand.
Lc|cbvrc undcrstood vcry wc, partIcuary ahcr hIs study o| 1 10ll5
L0mmun, pubIshcd In I 55 a work InspIrcd to somc dcgrcc by thc
SItuatIonIsts` thcscs on thc topIc), that rcvoutIonary movcmcnts |rc-
gucnty I| not aways assumc an urban dImcnsIon. 1hIs ImmcdIatcy
put hIm at odds wIth thc CommunIst Farty, whIch hcd that thc |actory-
bascd proctarIat was thc vanguard |orcc |or rcvoutIonary changc. In
commcmoratIng thc ccntcnnIa o| thc pubIcatIon o| Marx`s L0[ll0/ wIth
a tract on 1 Klghl l0 lh Llly, Ic|cbvrc was ccrtaIny IntcndIng a prov-
ocatIon to convcntIona MarxIst thInkIng, whIch had ncvcr accordcd
thc urban much sIgnIhcancc In rcvoutIonary stratcgy, cvcn though It
mythoogIzcd thc FarIs Communc as a ccntra cvcnt In Its hIstory.
In InvokIng thc workIng cass as thc agcnt o| rcvoutIonary changc
throughout hIs tcxt, Lc|cbvrc was tacIty suggcstIng that thc rcvoutIon-
ary workIng cass was constItutcd out o| urban rathcr than cxcusIvcy
|actory workcrs. 1hIs, hc atcr obscrvcd, Is a vcry dIHcrcnt kInd o| cass
|ormatIon-|ragmcntcd and dIvIdcd, mutIpc In Its aIms and nccds, morc
ohcn ItIncrant, dIsorganIzcd and huId rathcr than soIdy Impantcd. 1hIs
Is a thcsIs wIth whIch I havc aways bccn In accord cvcn bc|orc I rcad
Lc|cbvrc), and subscgucnt work In urban socIoogy most notaby by onc
o| Lc|cbvrc`s crstwhIc but crrant studcnts, Manuc Castcs) ampIhcd
that Idca. But It Is stI thc casc that much o| thc tradItIona ch has had
troubc grappIng wIth thc rcvoutIonary potcntIa o| urban socIa movc-
mcnts. 11cy arc ohcn dIsmIsscd as sImpy rc|ormIst attcmpts to dca wIth
XIV |KL|/LL
spccIhc rathcr than systcmIc) Issucs, and thcrc|orc as ncIthcr rcvou-
tIonary nor authcntIcay cass movcmcnts.
1crc Is, thcrc|orc, a ccrtaIn contInuIty bctwccn Lc|cbvrc`s sItuatIona
pocmIc and thc work o| thosc o| us who now scck to addrcss thc rIght
to thc cIty |rom a rcvoutIonary as opposcd to rc|ormIst pcrspcctIvc. l|
anythIng, thc ogIc bchInd Lc|cbvrc`s posItIon has IntcnsIhcd In our own
tImcs. ln much o| thc advanccd capItaIst word thc |actorIcs havc cIthcr
dIsappcarcd or bccn so dImInIshcd as to dccImatc thc cassIca IndustrIa
workIng cass. 1c Important and cvcr-cxpandIng abor o| makIng and
sustaInIng urban I|c Is IncrcasIngy donc by Insccurc, ohcn part-tImc
and dIsorganIzcd ow-paId abor. 1c so-cacd prccarIat has dIspaccd
thc tradItIona proctarIat.` l| thcrc Is to bc any rcvoutIonary movcmcnt
In our tImcs, at cast In our part o| thc word as opposcd to IndustrI-
aIzIng ChIna), thc probcmatIc and dIsorganIzcd prccarIat must bc
rcckoncd wIth. How such dIsparatc groups may bccomc sc|-organIzcd
Into a rcvoutIonary |orcc Is thc bIg poItIca probcm. And part o| thc
task Is to undcrstand thc orIgIns and naturc o| thcIr crIcs and dcmands.
l am not surc how Lc|cbvrc woud havc rcspondcd to thc EcoogIstcs`
postcr vIsIon. LIkc mc, hc woud probaby havc smIcd at Its udIc vIsIon,
but hIs thcscs on thc cIty, |rom 1 KlghI I0 Ih LlIy to hIs book on L0
K0/ull0n l00ln 170), suggcst that hc woud havc bccn crItIca o|
Its nostagIa |or an urbanIsm that had ncvcr bccn. For It was Lc|cbvrc`s
ccntra concusIon that thc cIty wc had oncc known and ImagIncd was
|ast dIsappcarIng and that It coud not bc rcconstItutcd l woud agrcc
wIth thIs, but asscrt It cvcn morc cmphatIcay, bccausc Lc|cbvrc takcs
vcry Ittc carc to dcpIct thc dIsma condItIons o| I|c |or thc masscs In
somc o| hIs |avorcd cItIcs o| thc past thosc o| thc ltaIan RcnaIssancc
In 1uscany). Mor docs hc dwc on thc |act that In I45 most FarIsIans
Ivcd wIthout Indoor pumbIng In cxccrabc housIng condItIons whcrc
thcy |rozc In wIntcr and bakcd In summcr) In crumbIng ncIghborhoods,
and that somcthIng had to bc, and-at cast durIng thc I 50s-was
bcIng donc to rcmcdy that. 1c probcm was that It was burcaucratIcay
organIzcd and Impcmcntcd by a Frcnch dIrIgIstc statc wIthout a whIH o|
dcmocratIc Input or an ouncc o| pay|u ImagInatIon, and that It mcrcy
ctchcd rcatIons o| cass prIvIcgc and domInatIon Into thc vcry physIca
andscapc o| thc cIty.
|KL|/LL x
Lc|cbvrc aso saw that thc rcatIon bctwccn thc urban and thc rura-
or as thc BrItIsh Ikc to ca It, bctwccn thc country and thc cIty-was
bcIng radIcay trans|ormcd, that thc tradItIona pcasantry was dIs-
appcarIng and that thc rura was bcIng urbanIzcd, abcIt In a way that
oHcrcd a ncw consumcrIst approach to thc rcatIon to naturc |rom wcck-
cnds and cIsurc In thc countrysIdc to ca], sprawIng suburbs) and a
capItaIst, productIvIst approach to thc suppy o| agrIcutura commodI-
tIcs to urban markcts, as opposcd to sc|-sustaInIng pcasant agrIcuturc.
Furthcrmorc, hc prcscIcnty saw that thIs proccss was goIng goba,` and
that undcr such condItIons thc gucstIon o| thc rIght to thc cIty con-
strucd as a dIstInctIvc thIng or dchnabc objcct) had to gIvc way to somc
vagucr gucstIon o| thc rIght to urban I|c, whIch atcr morphcd In hIs
thInkIng Into thc morc gcncra gucstIon o| thc rIght to 10 1|0dutIl0n 0[
[0t0 174).
1hc |adIng o| thc urban-rura dIvIdc has procccdcd at a dIHcrcntIa
pacc throughout thc word, but thcrc Is no gucstIon that It has takcn thc
dIrcctIon that Lc|cbvrc prcdIctcd. 1hc rcccnt pc-mc urbanIzatIon o|
ChIna Is a casc In poInt, wIth thc pcrccntagc o| thc popuatIon rcsIdIng
In rura arcas dccrcasIng |rom 74 pcrccnt In 0 to about 50 pcrccnt In
20I0, and thc popuatIon o| ChonggIng IncrcasIng by J0 mIIon ovcr thc
past ha|-ccntury. 1hough thcrc arc pcnty o| rcsIdua spaccs In thc goba
cconomy whcrc thc proccss Is |ar |rom compctc, thc mass o| humanIty Is
thus IncrcasIngy bcIng absorbcd wIthIn thc |crmcnts and cross-currcnts
o| urbanIzcd I|c.
1hIs poscs a probcm. to caIm thc rIght to thc cIty Is, In cHcct, to
caIm a rIght to somcthIng that no ongcr cxIsts I| It cvcr truy dId).
Furthcrmorc, thc rIght to thc cIty Is an cmpty sIgnIhcr. EvcrythIng
dcpcnds on who gcts to h It wIth mcanIng. 1c hnancIcrs and dcvc-
opcrs can caIm It, and havc cvcry rIght to do so. But thcn so can thc
homccss and thc 50n5-[0[l0|5. Wc IncvItaby havc to con|ront thc gucs-
tIon o| whosc rIghts arc bcIng IdcntIhcd, whIc rccognIzIng, as Marx puts
It In L0[lI0/, that bctwccn cgua rIghts |orcc dccIdcs.` 1hc dchnItIon o|
thc rIght Is Itsc| an objcct o| struggc, and that struggc has to procccd
concomItanty wIth thc struggc to matcrIaIzc It.
11c tradItIona cIty has bccn kIcd by rampant capItaIst dcvcop-
mcnt, a vIctIm o| thc ncvcr-cndIng nccd to dIsposc o| ovcraccumuatIng
XV |KL|/LL
capIta drIvIng towards cndcss and sprawIng urban growth no mattcr
what thc socIa, cnvIronmcnta, or poItIca conscgucnccs. ur poItIca
task, Lc|cbvrc suggcsts, Is to ImagInc and rcconstItutc a totay dIHcrcnt
knd o| cIty out o| thc dIsgustIng mcss o| a gobaIzIng, urbanIzIng capIta
run amok. But that cannot occur wIthout thc crcatIon o| a vIgorous antI-
capItaIst movcmcnt that |ocuscs on thc trans|ormatIon o| daIy urban
I|c as Its goa.
As Lc|cbvrc kncw |u wc |rom thc hIstory o| thc FarIs Communc,
socIaIsm, communIsm, or |or that mattcr anarchIsm In onc cIty Is an
ImpossIbc proposItIon. It Is sImpy too casy |or thc |orccs o| bourgcoIs
rcactIon to surround thc cIty, cut Its suppy Incs and starvc It out, I| not
Invadc It and saughtcr a who rcsIst as happcncd In FarIs In 1871). But
that docs not mcan wc havc to turn our backs upon thc urban as an Incu-
bator o| rcvoutIonary Idcas, Idcas, and movcmcnts. ny whcn poItIcs
|ocuscs on thc productIon and rcproductIon o| urban I|c 8 thc ccntra
abor proccss out o| whIch rcvoutIonary Impuscs arIsc wu It bc possI-
bc to mobIIzc antI-capItaIst struggcs capabc o| radIcay trans|ormIng
daIy I|c. ny whcn It Is undcrstood that thosc who buId and sustaIn
urban I|c havc a prImary caIm to that whIch thcy havc produccd, and
that onc o| thcIr caIms Is to thc unaIcnatcd rIght to makc a cIty morc
ahcr thcIr own hcart`s dcsIrc, wI wc arrIvc at a poItIcs o| thc urban that
wI makc scnsc. 1c cIty may bc dcad,` Lc|cbvrc sccms to say, but ong
Ivc thc cIty!
So Is pursuIt o| thc rIght to thc cIty thc pursuIt o| a chImcra: In purcy
physIca tcrms thIs Is ccrtaIny so. But poItIca struggcs arc anImatcd by
vIsIons as much as by practIcaItIcs. Mcmbcr groups wIthIn thc RIght to
thc CIty AIancc consIst o| ow-Incomc tcnants In communItIcs o| coor
hghtIng |or thc kInd o| dcvcopmcnt that mccts thcIr dcsIrcs and nccds,
homccss pcopc organIzIng |or thcIr rIght to housIng and basIc scrvIccs,
and LGB1( youth o| coor workIng |or thcIr rIght to sa|c pubIc spaccs.
ln thc cocctIvc poItIca pat|orm thcy dcsIgncd |or Mcw York, thc coaI-
tIon sought a ccarcr and broadcr dchnItIon o| that pubIc that not ony
can truy acccss so-cacd pubIc spacc, but can aso bc cmpowcrcd to
crcatc ncw common spaccs |or socIaIzatIon and poItIca actIon. 1c
tcrm cIty has an IconIc and symboIc hIstory that Is dccpy cmbcddcd
In thc pursuIt o| poItIca mcanIngs. 11c cIty o| God, thc cIty on a hI,
|KL|/LL XII
thc rcatIonshIp bctwccn cIty and cItIzcnshIp-thc cIty as an objcct o|
utopIan dcsIrc, as a dIstInctIvc pacc o| bcongIng wIthIn a pcrpctuay
shIhIng spatIo-tcmpora ordcr-a gIvc It a poItIca mcanIng that mobI-
Izcs a crucIa poItIca ImagInary. 8ut Lc|cbvrc`s poInt, and hcrc hc Is
ccrtaIny In caguc wIth I| not Indcbtcd to thc SItuatIonIsts, Is that thcrc
arc arcady mutIpc practIccs wIthIn thc urban that thcmscvcs arc |u to
ovcrhowIng wIth atcrnatIvc possIbIItIcs.
Lc|cbvrc`s conccpt o| hctcrotopIa radIcay dIHcrcnt |rom that o|
Foucaut) dcIncatcs ImIna socIa spaccs o| possIbII whcrc somc-
thIng dIHcrcnt Is not ony possIbc, but |oundatIona |or thc dchnIng
o| rcvoutIonary trajcctorIcs. 1Is somcthIng dIHcrcnt docs not ncccs-
sarIy arIsc out o| a conscIous pan, but morc sImpy out o| what pcopc
do, |cc, scnsc, and comc to artIcuatc as thcy scck mcanIng In thcIr daIy
Ivcs. Such practIccs crcatc hctcrotopIc spaccs a ovcr thc pacc. Wc do
not havc to waIt upon thc grand rcvoutIon to constItutc such spaccs.
Lc|cbvrc`s thcory o| a rcvoutIonary movcmcnt Is thc othcr way round.
thc spontancous comIng togcthcr In a momcnt o| IrruptIon,` whcn dIs-
paratc hctcrotopIc groups suddcny scc, I| ony |or a |cctIng momcnt, thc
possIbIItIcs o| cocctIvc actIon to crcatc somcthIng radIcay dIHcrcnt.
Hat comIng togcthcr Is symboIzcd by Lc|cbvrc In thc gucst |or ccn-
traIty. 1c tradItIona ccntraIty o| thc cIty has bccn dcstroycd. 8ut thcrc
Is an Impusc towards and ongIng |or Its rcstoratIon whIch arIscs agaIn
and agaIn to producc |ar-rcachIng poItIca cHccts, as wc havc rcccnty
sccn In thc ccntra sguarcs o| CaIro, MadrId, Athcns, 8arccona, and cvcn
MadIson, WIsconsIn and now ZuccottI Fark In Mcw York CIty. How csc
and whcrc csc can wc comc togcthcr to artIcuatc our cocctIvc crIcs and
dcmands:
It Is at thIs poInt, howcvcr, that thc urban rcvoutIonary roman-
tIcIsm that so many now attrIbutc to and ovc about Lc|cbvrc crashcs
agaInst thc rock o| hIs undcrstandIng o| capItaIst rcaItIcs and capIta`s
powcr. Any spontancous atcrnatIvc vIsIonary momcnt Is |cctIng, I| It
Is not scIzcd at thc hood, It wI surcy pass as Lc|cbvrc wItncsscd hrst-
hand In thc strccts o| FarIs In `58). 1c samc Is truc o| thc hctcrotopIc
spaccs o| dIHcrcncc that provIdc thc sccd-bcd |or rcvoutIonary movc-
mcnt. ln 1 Ll00n Kv0/uI|0n hc kcpt thc Idca o| hctcrotopIa urban
practIccs) In tcnsIon wIth rathcr than as an atcrnatIvc to) Isotopy thc
x PRL|ACL
accompIshcd and ratIonaIzcd spatIa ordcr o| capItaIsm and thc statc),
as wc as wIth utopIa as cxprcssIvc dcsIrc. 1hc Isotopy-hctcrotopy dI|-
|crcncc,` hc argucd, can ony bc undcrstood dynamIcay . . . AnomIc
groups construct hctcrotopIc spaccs, whIch arc cvcntuay rccaImcd by
thc domInant praxIs.`
Lc|cbvrc was |ar too wc awarc o| thc strcngth and powcr o| thc domI-
nant practIccs not to rccognIzc that thc utImatc task Is to cradIcatc thosc
practIccs through a much broadcr rcvoutIonary movcmcnt. 1hc whoc
capItaIst systcm o| pcrpctua accumuatIon, aong wIth Its assocIatcd
structurcs o| cxpoItatIvc cass and statc powcr, has to bc ovcrthrown and
rcpaccd. CaImIng thc rIght to thc cIty Is a way-statIon on thc road to
that goa. It can ncvcr bc an cnd In Itsc|, cvcn I| It IncrcasIngy ooks
to bc onc o| thc most propItIous paths to takc.
bCCI| O| |.
C K| _OI IO IOC L| Iy
LP|1LK \L
C KQI IO IC LlIy
V
c Ivc In an cra whcn Idcas o| human rIghts havc movcd ccntcr-
stagc both poItIcay and cthIcay. A ot o| poItIca cncry Is put
Into promotIng, protcctIng, and artIcuatIng thcIr sIgnIhcancc In thc con-
structIon o| a bcttcr word. For thc most part thc conccpts cIrcuatIng arc
IndIvIduaIstIc and propcrty-bascd and, as such, do nothIng to chacngc
hcgcmonIc Ibcra and ncoIbcra markct ogIcs, or ncoIbcra modcs o|
cgaIty and statc actIon. Wc Ivc In a word, ahcr a, whcrc thc rIghts
o| prIvatc propcrty and thc proht ratc trump a othcr notIons o| rIghts
onc can thInk o|. 8ut thcrc arc occasIons whcn thc Idca o| human rIghts
takcs a cocctIvc turn, as whcn thc rIghts o| workcrs, womcn, gays, and
mInorItIcs comc to thc |orc a cgacy o| thc ong-standIng abor movc-
mcnt and, |or cxampc, thc I 50s CIvI RIghts movcmcnt In thc LnItcd
Statcs, whIch was cocctIvc and had a goba rcsonancc). Such struggcs
|or cocctIvc rIghts havc, on occasIon, yIcdcd Important rcsuts.
Hcrc l want to cxporc anothcr kInd o| cocctIvc rIght-that to thc
cIty In thc contcxt o| a rcvIva o| Intcrcst In HcnrI Lc|cbvrc`s Idcas on thc
topIc, and thc cmcrgcncc o| a sorts o| socIa movcmcnts around thc
word that arc now dcmandIng such a rIght. How, thcn, can thIs rIght bc
dchncd:
1c cIty, thc notcd urban socIoogIst Robcrt Fark oncc wrotc, Is
man`s most consIstcnt and on thc whoc, hIs most succcss|u attcmpt
to rcmakc thc word hc Ivcs In morc ahcr hIs hcart`s dcsIrc. 8ut, I| thc
4 RLHLc C| T| LS
cIty Is thc word whIch man crcatcd, It Is thc word In whIch hc Is hcncc-
|orth condcmncd to Ivc. 1us, IndIrccty, and wIthout any ccar scnsc o|
thc naturc o| hIs task, In makIng thc cIty man has rcmadc hImscl`' l|
Fark Is corrcct, thcn thc gucstIon o| what kInd o| cIty wc want cannot bc
dIvorccd |rom thc gucstIon o| what kInd o| pcopc wc want to bc, what
kInds o| socIa rcatIons wc scck, what rcatIons to naturc wc chcrIsh,
what styc o| I|c wc dcsIrc, what acsthctIc vaucs wc hod. 1c rIght to thc
cIty Is, thcrc|orc, |ar morc than a rIght o| IndIvIdua or group acccss to
thc rcsourccs that thc cIty cmbodIcs. It Is a rIght to changc and rcInvcnt
thc cIty morc ahcr our hcarts` dcsIrc. lt Is, morcovcr, a cocctIvc rathcr
than an IndIvIdua rIght, sIncc rcInvcntIng thc cIty IncvItaby dcpcnds
upon thc cxcrcIsc o| a cocctIvc powcr ovcr thc proccsscs o| urbanIza-
tIon. Hc |rccdom to makc and rcmakc ourscvcs and our cItIcs Is, l want
to arguc, onc o| thc most prccIous yct most ncgcctcd o| our human
rIghts. How bcst thcn to cxcrcIsc that rIght:
SIncc, as Fark avcrs, wc havc hIthcrto ackcd any ccar scnsc o| thc
naturc o| our task, It Is usc|u hrst to rclcct on how wc havc bccn madc
and rcmadc throughout hIstory by an urban proccss Impccd onwards
by powcr|u socIa |orccs. l1c astonIshIng pacc and scac o| urbanIza-
tIon ovcr thc ast hundrcd ycars mcans, |or cxampc, that wc havc bccn
rcmadc scvcra tImcs ovcr wIthout knowIng why or how. Has thIs dra-
matIc urbanIzatIon contrIbutcd to human wc-bcIng: Has It madc us
Into bcttcr pcopc, or ch us dangIng In a word o| anomIc and aIcnatIon,
angcr and |rustratIon: Havc wc bccomc mcrc monads tosscd around
In an urban sca: 1csc wcrc thc sorts o| gucstIons that prcoccupIcd a
manncr o| nInctccnth-ccntury commcntators, such as FrIcdrIch Engcs
and Gcorg SImmc, who oHcrcd pcrccptIvc crItIgucs o| thc urban pcrso-
nas thcn cmcrgIng In rcsponsc to rapId urbanIzatIon. 1hcsc days It Is not
hard to cnumcratc a manncr o| urban dIscontcnts and anxIctIcs, as wc
as cxcItcmcnts, In thc mIdst o| cvcn morc rapId urban trans|ormatIons.
Yct wc somchow sccm to ack thc stomach |or systcmatIc crItIguc. 1hc
macstrom o| changc ovcrwhcms us cvcn as obvIous gucstIons oom.
What, |or cxampc, arc wc to makc o| thc Immcnsc conccntratIons o|
wcath, prIvIcgc, and consumcrIsm In amost a thc cItIcs o| thc word
In thc mIdst o| what cvcn thc LnItcd MatIons dcpIcts as an cxpodIng
panct o| sums:'
THL R| GHT T THL C| T 5
1o caIm thc rIght to thc cIty In thc scnsc l mcan It hcrc Is to caIm somc
kInd o| shapIng powcr ovcr thc proccsscs o| urbanIzatIon, ovcr thc ways
In whIch our cItIcs arc madc and rcmadc, and to do so In a |undamcnta
and radIca way. From thcIr vcry InccptIon, cItIcs havc arIscn through thc
gcographIca and socIa conccntratIon o| a surpus product. LrbanIzatIon
has aways bccn, thcrc|orc, a cass phcnomcnon o| somc sort, sIncc sur-
puscs havc bccn cxtractcd |rom somcwhcrc and |rom somcbody, whIc
contro ovcr thc usc o| thc surpus typIcay Ics In thc hands o| a |cw
such as a rcIgIous oIgarchy, or a warrIor poct wIth ImpcrIa ambI-
tIons). 1Is gcncra sItuatIon pcrsIsts undcr capItaIsm, o| coursc, but In
thIs casc thcrc Is a rathcr dIHcrcnt dynamIc at work. CapItaIsm rcsts, as
Marx tcs us, upon thc pcrpctua scarch |or surpus vauc proht). But to
producc surpus vauc capItaIsts havc to producc a surpus product. 1Is
mcans that capItaIsm Is pcrpctuay producIng thc surpus product that
urbanIzatIon rcguIrcs. 1c rcvcrsc rcatIon aso hods. CapItaIsm nccds
urbanIzatIon to absorb thc surpus products It pcrpctuay produccs.
In thIs way an Inncr conncctIon cmcrgcs bctwccn thc dcvcopmcnt o|
capItaIsm and urbanIzatIon. Hardy surprIsIngy, thcrc|orc, thc ogIstIca
curvcs o| growth o| capItaIst output ovcr tImc arc broady paraccd by
thc ogIstIca curvcs o| urbanIztIon o| thc word`s popuatIon.
Ict us ook morc coscy at what capItaIsts do. 1hcy bcgIn thc day wIth
a ccrtaIn amount o| moncy and cnd thc day wIth morc o| It as proht).
1hc ncxt day thcy havc to dccIdc what to do wIth thc surpus moncy
thcy gaIncd thc day bc|orc. 1hcy |acc a FaustIan dIcmma. rcInvcst to gct
cvcn morc moncy or consumc thcIr surpus away In pcasurcs. 1c cocr-
cIvc aws o| compctItIon |orcc thcm to rcInvcst, bccausc I| onc docs not
rcInvcst thcn anothcr surcy wI. For a capItaIst to rcmaIn a capItaIst,
somc surpus must bc rcInvcstcd to makc cvcn morc surpus. Succcss|u
capItaIsts usuay makc morc than cnough both to rcInvcst In cxpansIon
and satIs|y thcIr ust |or pcasurc. But thc rcsut o| pcrpctua rcInvcst-
mcnt Is thc cxpansIon o| surpus productIon. Evcn morc Important, It
cntaIs cxpansIon at a compound ratc-hcncc a thc ogIstIca growth
curvcs moncy, capIta, output, and popuatIon) that attach to thc hIstory
o| capIta accumuatIon.
11c poItIcs o| capItaIsm arc aHcctcd by thc pcrpctua nccd to hnd
prohtabc tcrraIns |or capIta surpus productIon and absorptIon. ln thIs
5 RLHLc C| T| LS
thc capItaIst |accs a numbcr o| obstaccs to contInuous and troubc-|rcc
cxpansIon. l| thcrc Is a scarcIty o| abor and wagcs arc too hIgh, thcn
cIthcr cxIstIng abor has to bc dIscIpIncd tcchnoogIcay Induccd
uncmpoymcnt or an assaut on organIzcd workIng cass powcr-such as
that sct In motIon by 1hatchcr and Rcagan In thc 180s-arc two prImc
mcthods) or |rcsh abor |orccs must bc |ound by ImmIgratIon, cxport
o| capIta, or proctarIanIzatIon o| hIthcrto Indcpcndcnt ccmcnts In
thc popuatIon). Mcw mcans o| productIon In gcncra and ncw natura
rcsourccs In partIcuar must bc |ound. 1hIs puts IncrcasIng prcssurc on
thc natura cnvIronmcnt to yIcd up thc ncccssary raw matcrIas and
absorb thc IncvItabc wastcs. 1hc cocrcIvc aws o| compctItIon aso |orcc
ncw tcchnoogIcs and organIzatIona |orms to comc on Inc a thc tImc,
sIncc capItaIsts wIth hIghcr productIvIty can out-compctc thosc usIng
In|crIor mcthods. lnnovatIons dchnc ncw wants and nccds, and rcducc
thc turnovcr tImc o| capIta and thc |rIctIon o| dIstancc. 1Is cxtcnds thc
gcographIca rangc ovcr whIch thc capItaIst Is |rcc to scarch |or cxpandcd
abor suppIcs, raw matcrIas, and so on. l| thcrc Is not cnough purchas-
Ing powcr In an cxIstIng markct, thcn ncw markcts must bc |ound by
cxpandIng |orcIgn tradc, promotIng ncw products and I|cstycs, crcatIng
ncw crcdIt Instrumcnts and dcbt-hnanccd statc cxpcndIturcs. l|, hnay,
thc proht ratc Is too ow, thcn statc rcguatIon o| ruInous compctItIon,`
monopoIzatIon mcrgcrs and acguIsItIons), and capIta cxports to |rcsh
pasturcs provIdc ways out.
l| any onc o| thc abovc barrIcrs to contInuous capIta cIrcuatIon and
cxpansIon bccomcs ImpossIbc to cIrcumvcnt, thcn capIta accumuatIon
Is bockcd and capItaIsts |acc a crIsIs. CapIta cannot bc prohtaby rcIn-
vcstcd, accumuatIon stagnatcs or ccascs, and capIta Is dcvaucd ost)
and In somc Instanccs cvcn physIcay dcstroycd. OcvauatIon can takc
a numbcr o| |orms. Surpus commodItIcs can bc dcvaucd or dcstroycd,
productIvc capacIty and asscts can bc wrIttcn down In vauc and ch
uncmpoycd, or moncy Itsc| can bc dcvaucd through In|atIon. And In
a crIsIs, o| coursc, abor stands to bc dcvaucd through massIvc uncm-
poymcnt. ln what ways, thcn, has capItaIst urbanIzatIon bccn drIvcn
by thc nccd to cIrcumvcnt thcsc barrIcrs and to cxpand thc tcrraIn o|
prohtabc capItaIst actIvIty: l arguc hcrc that It pays a partIcuary actIvc
roc aong wIth othcr phcnomcna such as mIItary cxpcndIturcs) In
THL R| GHT T THL C| T 7
absorbIng thc surpus product that capItaIsts arc pcrpctuay producIng
In thcIr scarch |or surpus vauc. '
ConsIdcr, hrst, thc casc o| Sccond EmpIrc FarIs. 1hc crIsIs o| 848 was
onc o| thc hrst ccar crIscs o| uncmpoycd surpus capIta and surpus
abor sIdc-by-sIdc, and It was Europc-wIdc. lt struck partIcuary hard
In FarIs, and thc rcsut was an abortIvc rcvoutIon on thc part o| uncm-
poycd workcrs and thosc bourgcoIs utopIans who saw a socIa rcpubIc
as thc antIdotc to capItaIst grccd and IncguaIty. 1hc rcpubIcan bour-
gcoIsIc vIocnty rcprcsscd thc rcvoutIonarIcs but |aIcd to rcsovc thc
crIsIs. Jhc rcsut was thc asccnt to powcr o| LouIs Bonapartc, who cngI-
nccrcd a coup In I 85 I and procaImcd hImsc| cmpcror In 852. 1o
survIvc poItIcay, thc authorItarIan cmpcror rcsortcd to wIdcsprcad
poItIca rcprcssIon o| atcrnatIvc poItIca movcmcnts, but hc aso kncw
that hc had to dca wIth thc capIta surpus absorptIon probcm, and thIs
hc dId by announcIng a vast program o| In|rastructura Invcstmcnt both
at homc and abroad. Abroad thIs mcant thc constructIon o| raIroads
throughout Europc and down Into thc rIcnt, as wc as support |or
grand works such as thc Sucz Cana. At homc It mcant consoIdatIng thc
raIway nctwork, buIdIng ports and harbors, draInIng marshcs, and thc
c. But abovc a It cntaIcd thc rcconhguratIon o| thc urban In|rastruc-
turc o| FarIs. Bonapartc brought Haussmann to ParIs to takc chargc o|
thc pubIc works In 85J.
Haussmann ccary undcrstood that hIs mIssIon was to hcp sovc thc
surpus capIta and uncmpoymcnt probcm by way o| urbanIzatIon. 1hc
rcbuIdIng o| FarIs absorbcd hugc guantItIcs o| abor and capIta by thc
standards o| thc tImc and, coupcd wIth authorItarIan supprcssIon o| thc
aspImtIons o| thc FarIsIan abor |orcc, was a prImary vchIcc o| socIa sta-
bIIzatIon. Haussmann drcw upon thc utopIan pans by FourIcrIsts and
SaInt-SImonIans) |or rcshapIng FarIs that had bccn dcbatcd In thc 840s,
but wIth onc bIg dIHcrcncc. hc trans|ormcd thc scac at whIch thc urban
proccss was ImagIncd. Whcn thc archItcct HIttor| showcd Haussmann
hIs pans |or a ncw boucvard, Haussmann thrcw thcm back at hIm,
sayIng not wIdc cnough . . . you havc It 40 mctcrs wIdc and l want It 20.
Haussmann thought o| thc cIty on a grandcr scac, anncxcd thc suburbs,
and rcdcsIgncd whoc ncIghborhoods such as Lcs Hacs) rathcr than
just bIts and pIcccs o| thc urban |abrIc. Hc changcd thc cIty whocsac
8 RLHLc C| T| LS
rathcr than pIcccmca. 1o do thIs, hc nccdcd ncw hnancIa InstItutIons
and dcbt Instrumcnts constructcd on SaInt-SImonIan Incs thc CrdIt
MobIIcr and ImmobIIcrc). What hc dId In cHcct was to hcp rcsovc
thc capIta surpus dIsposa probcm by scttIng up a KcyncsIan systcm o|
dcbt-hnanccd In|rastructura urban Improvcmcnts.
1c systcm workcd vcry wc |or somc hhccn ycars, and It cntaIcd
not ony a trans|ormatIon o| urban In|rastructurcs but thc constructIon
o| a whoc ncw urban way o| I|c and thc constructIon o| a ncw kInd o|
urban pcrsona. FarIs bccamc thc cIty o| Ight,` thc grcat ccntcr o| con-
sumptIon, tourIsm and pcasurc-thc ca|s, thc dcpartmcnt storcs, thc
|ashIon Industry, thc grand cxposItIons a changcd thc urban way o|
I|c In ways that coud absorb vast surpuscs through crass consumcrIsm
whIch oHcndcd tradItIonaIsts and cxcudcd workcrs aIkc). But thcn,
In 1858, thc ovcrcxtcndcd and IncrcasIngy spccuatIvc hnancIa systcm
and crcdIt structurcs on whIch thIs was bascd crashcd. Haussmann was
|orccd |rom powcr. ln dcspcratIon, Mapocon lll wcnt to war agaInst
BIsmarck`s Gcrmany, and ost. In thc vacuum that |oowcd arosc thc
FarIs Communc, onc o| thc grcatcst rcvoutIonary cpIsodcs In capIta-
Ist urban hIstory. !1c Communc was wrought In part out o| a nostagIa
|or thc urban word that Haussmann had dcstroycd shadcs o| thc 1848
RcvoutIon) and thc dcsIrc to takc back thcIr cIty on thc part o| thosc
dIsposscsscd by Haussmann`s works. But thc Communc aso artIcuatcd
con|Ictua |orward-ookIng vIsIons o| atcrnatIvc socIaIst as opposcd
to monopoy capItaIst) modcrnItIcs that pIttcd Idcas o| ccntraIzcd
hIcrarchIca contro thc [acobIn currcnt) agaInst dcccntraIzcd anar-
chIst vIsIons o| popuar contro cd by thc FroudhonIsts). In 1872, In
thc mIdst o| Intcnsc rccrImInatIons ovcr who was at |aut |or thc oss
o| thc Communc, thcrc occurrcd thc radIca poItIca brcak bctwccn thc
MarxIsts and thc anarchIsts that, to thIs day, stI un|ortunatcy dIvIdcs so
much o| thc ch opposItIon to capItaIsm.
Fast-|orward now to thc LnItcd Statcs In 142. 1c capIta surpus
dIsposa probcm that had sccmcd so Intractabc In thc 1J0s and thc
uncmpoymcnt that wcnt wIth It) was tcmporarIy rcsovcd by thc hugc
mobIIzatIon |or thc war cHort. But cvcryonc was |car|u as to what
woud happcn ahcr thc war. FoItIcay thc sItuatIon was dangcrous. 1c
|cdcra govcrnmcnt was In cHcct runnIng a natIonaIzcd cconomy and
Jt K!\J L t 9
was dongso vcry cmc|cnt|y) , and thc Un|tcdStatcswas |na|||anccw|th
thc commun|st Sov|ct Unon m thc war aga|nst fasc|sm. Strong soc|al
movcmcnts w|th socia|st |nc||nat|ons had cmcrgcd |n rcsponsc to thc
dcprcssion ofthc I 93Os, andsympathizcrswcrcintcgratcdintothcwar
chort. Wca|lknowthcsubscqucnthistoryofthcpol|ticsofMcCarthyism
and thcColdWar[abundantsgnsofwh|chwcrcthcrcnI942) . Asundcr
Lou|sBonapartc,ahchydoscofpo|iticalrcprcssionwascvidcnt|ycal|cd
forby thcrulng classcs ofthc timc to rcasscrtthc|rpowcr. Butwhatof
thccapta|surp|usdsposalprob|cm
In l 942 thcrcappcarcd a lcngthy cvaluat|on oflIaussmann's chorts
in an architcctura|journal. lt documcntcd in dctai| what hc had donc
thatwas so compcl||ng and attcmptcd an analyss ofhis mstakcs. Tc
art|clc was by nonc othcr than RobcrtMoscs, who ahcr Wor|d War
did to thc wholc NcwYork mctropo||tan rcg|on what Haussmann had
donc to Par|s. 1at is, Moscs changcd thc scalc ofth|nkng about thc
urbanproccssand-throughthcsystcmof [dcbt-hnanccd)highwaysand
nfrastructural transformat|ons, through suburbanzat|on, and through
thctota|rc-cnginccringnotjust ofthccitybutofthc who|c mctropoli-
tanrcg|on-hcdchncdawaytoabsorbthcsurplusproductandthcrcby
rcsolvcthccap|talsurplusabsorpt|onprob|cm. T|sproccss,whcntakcn
nat|on-widc,asitwas|na|lthcmajormctropo| itanccntcrsofthc Unitcd
Statcs [yct anothcr transformationofscalc) , p|aycd a crucialrolc in thc
stabi||zaton ofg|oba| capta|sm ahcrWor|dWar [ths was a pcr|od
whcn thc Unitcd Statcs could ahord to powcr thc who|c global non-
communstcconomythrough runningtradcdchc|ts) .
Tcsuburbanzat|on ofthcUn|tcdStatcs was notmcrclya maucrof
ncwinfrastructurcs. AsinSccondEmp|rcPar|s, itcnta|lcdarad|caltrans-
formation |n lifcsty|cs and produccd a who|c ncwway of|ifcinwhich
ncwproducts-fromsuburbantracthousingtorcfrigcratorsandaircon-
d|toncrs,aswcl|astwocars n thcdr|vcwayandancnormousncrcasc
nthcconsumptonofo||al|p|aycdthc|rpart|nthcabsorpt|onofthc
surp|us. Suburban|zat|on [a| ongsdc m|||tar|zaton) thus p|aycd a cr|t|-
ca|ro|c in hc|pingto absorbthcsurp|usin thcpost-warycars.Butitdid
soatthccostofhol|ow|ngoutthcccntralcit|csand|cavngthcmbcrch
ofa sustainablc cconomc basis, thus producing thc so-ca|lcd "urban
cr|sis" ofthc I 96Os, dchncd by rcvo|ts ofmpactcd m|nor|tcs [chicHy
KttL lltb
African-Amcrican)inthc lnncrcitics,whowcrcdcnlcdacccssto thcncw
prospcr|ty.
Noton|ywcrc thc ccntra|cit|cs |n rcvolt. Trad|t|onal|sts |ncrcasngly
ra||cdaround |anc }acobs and soughttocountcrthcbruta|modcrnsm
ofMoses's large-sca|c projccts wth a d|hcrent k|nd ofurban acsthctic
thatfocuscdon |oca| nc|ghborhooddcvclopmcnt,andon thc histor|ca|
prcscrvat|on, and u|t|matcly gcntr|hcaton, ofo|dcr arcas. But by thcn
thc suburbs had bccn bu|t, and the rad|ca| transformation m ||festy|e
thatth|sbctokcncdhada||manncrofsoc|a|conscqucnccs,| cad|ngfcm|-
n|sts,for cxamp|c,to proc|a|mthcsuburband |ts| | fcsty|c asthc|ocusof
al| thcr pr|marydscontcnts.As had happcncd to Haussmann, a cr|ss
bcganto unfold such that Moscs fcl|fromgracc, and h|s so|utionscamc
to bc sccn as nappropr|atc and unacccptab|c towards thc cnd of thc
I 96Os. And |fthc Haussmann|zaton ofPar|s had a ro|c |n cxp|a|nng
thc dynam|csofthc Pars Communc,so thc sou||css qua|ticsofsubur-
ban | |v|ng p|aycd a cr|tica| ro|c |n thc dramat|c movcmcnts ofI 968 |n
thcUnitcdStatcs,asd|scontcntcdwh|tcm|dd|c- c|ass studcntswcnt|nto
a phasc ofrcvo|t, scck|ng a||anccsw|th othcrmarg|nal|zcdgroups and
ra||y|ngaga|nstUS |mpcra||sm to crcatc a movcmcnt to bu||d anothcr
knd ofwor|d, |nc|udinga d|hcrcnt knd ofurbancxpcr|cncc [ though,
aga|n, anarch|st|c and ||bcrtar|an currcntswcrc p|ttcd aga|nst dcmands
forh|crarch|ca|andccntra||zcda|tcrnatvcs) . '
A|ongw|th thc'68 rcvo|tcamca hnancia|cr|ss. l twaspart|ygloba|
[w|th thcco|lapscofthc BrcttonWoods agrccmcnts) , but |t a|so or|g|-
natcdw|th|nthccrcdtnsttutionsthathadpowcrcdthcpropcrtyboom
n thc prcccdingdccadcs. T|s crsls gathcrcdmomcntum atthc cndo|
thc I 96Os,unt| |thcwho| ccap|ta| |stsystcm crashcdintoa major globa|
cr|s|s,|cdbythcburst|ngofthcg|obal propertymarkctbubblc|n I9 73,
|o||owcd by thchsca| bankruptcyofNcwYork Cty n I 975. 1cdark
daysofthc I 9 7Oshad arr|vcd, and thc qucst|on thcnwas how to rcscuc
cap|talism from |tsowncontradctons. l nth|s, |fh|storywas tobcany
gu|dc,thcurbanproccsswasboundtop|ayas|gn|hcantrolc.AsW||||am
Tabbshowcd,thcworkngthroughofthcNcwYorkhscalcrss ofI 9 75,
orchcstratcd byan uncasy a|||ancc bctwccn statc powcrs and hnanca|
|nst|tut|ons, ponccrcd a ncolbcra| answcr to ths qucst|on. thc c|ass
powcr ofcap|ta| was to bc protcctcd at thc cxpcnsc ofworkng-c|ass
Jt K!\J L t lJ
standardsof|iving,wh|lc thc markctwas dcrcgulatcdtodo its work. But
thcqucstionthcnwashowtorcvivcthccapac|tyto absorbthcsurpluscs
thatcapita|ismmustproduccifitwastosurvivc."
Fast-forward oncc again to our currcnt conjuncturc. Intcrnational
capita|ism was on a rol|cr- coastcr ofrcgional criscs and crashcs [East
andSouthcastAsia in I997-98, Russiain I998, Argcnt|na in2OO I, and
so on) unti| it cxpcricnccd a globa|crash in 2OO8. What has bccn thc
rol cofurban|zat|oninth|shistory lnthc UnitcdStatcs|twasacccptcd
w|sdom unti|2OO8 thatthchousingmarkct wasanimportantstabilizcr
ofthccconomy, particu|ar|y ahcr thc high-tcch crash ofthclatc l 99Os.
1cpropcrtymarkctabsorbcdagrcatdca|ofthcsurp|uscapita|dircctly
through ncw construction [of both |nncr- c|ty and suburban hous|ng
andncwomcc spaccs),whilcthcrapidinhation ofhousing assctpriccs,
backcd bya profl igatcwavc ofmortgagc rchnancingat historica||y low
ratcs of intcrcst, boostcd thc intcrna| US markct for consumcr goods
andscrviccs. Tcglobalmarkctwasstabi|izcd part|y throughUSurban
cxpansion and spcculation in propcrty markcts, as thc US ran hugc
tradc dchcits with thc rcst ofthc world, borrowing around $2 bi||ion
a day to fucl its insat|ablcconsumcrism and thc dcbt-hnanccd warsin
AfghanistanandIraqdur|ngthchrstdccadcofthctwcnty- hrstccntury.
Butthc urbanproccssundcrwcntanothcrtransformatonofscalc. In
short, it wcnt g|oba|. So wc cannot focus mcrcly on thc US. Propcrty
markct booms in Britain, Ircland, and Spain, as wcll as in many othcr
countrics,hc|pcdpowcrthccapital|stdynam|cinwaysthatbroadlypara|-
lclcdthatin thcUS. ThcurbanizationofCh|naovcrthc|asttwcntyycars,
aswc shallscc |n Chaptcr 2, has bccn ofa radicallydihcrcnt charactcr,
with a hcavyfocuson buildinginfrastructurcs. Its paccpickcdup cnor-
mous|yahcr a bricfrcccssion n I 997orso. Morc than a hundrcdcitics
havc passcd thc Imill |onpopulationmark|n thclast twcntyycars,and
sma||vi|lagcs,||kc Shcnzhcn,havc bccomc hugc mctropoliscsof6 to l O
mi|lionpcoplc.!ndustria|izationwasat hrstconccntratcdi nt hc spccial
cconomiczoncs,butthcnrap|d|yd|huscdoutwardstoanymun|c|pa|iq
wi||ing to absorb thc surp|us capitalfrom abroad andp|ough back thc
carnings|ntorapidcxpansion.Vastinfrastructuralprojccts,suchasdams
and highways-aga|n, a|l dcbt-hnanccd-arc transforming thc |and-
scapc. ' Equal|yvast shopping malls, scicncc parks, airports, containcr
Z KttL lltb
ports,p|casurcpa|accsofal| k|nds,and a|lmanncrofncw|ymntcdcu|-
tura||nst|tutions,a|ongw|thgatcdcommun|t|csandgo|fcourscs,dotthc
Chincsc |andscapc |n thc m|dst ofovcrcrowdcd urban dormitorics for
thcmass|vc laborrcscrvcsbcingmobi|izcdfrom thcimpovcrishcdrura|
rcg|onsthatsupp|ythemgrant|abor. Aswcsha|| scc,thcconscqucnccs
ofth|s urban|zationproccssfor thcg|oba| cconomyandforthcabsorp-
tionofsurp|uscapita|havc bccnhugc.
ButCh|na |s on|y onccp|ccntcrfor an urban|zat|on proccss thathas
nowbccomc gcnu|nc|ygloba| , |n part through thc astonishing g|oba|
|ntcgrat ion ofhnanc|a|markctsthatuscthc|r f| cxibi||tytodcbt-hnancc
urbanprojccts from Dubai toSaoPau|o andfromMadr|d andMumbai
to HongKongandLondon. TcChncscccntra|bank, for cxamp|c,has
bccnactivcinthcsccondarymortgagcmarkctinthcUS,whi|cCo|dman
Sachshasbccninvo|vcdinthcsurgingpropcrtymarkctsinMumba|and
HongKongcap|ta|has invcstcd n Ba|t|morc. Almost cvcry cty in thc
wor|d haswitncsscd a bu||d|ng boom for thc r|ch-ohcn ofa d|strcss-
ing|ysimi|archaractcr-nthcm|dstofauoodofimpovcrishcdmigrants
convcrging on citics as a rura| pcasantry is disposscsscd through thc
|ndustr|a||zat|onandcommcrc|a| |zat|onofagricu|turc.
Tcscbui|dingboomshavcbccn cvidcntinMcxico City, Sant iago in
Chi|c, in Mumba, }ohanncsburg, Scou|, Taipci, Moscow, and al| ovcr
Europc [Spain's bcingmostdramatic), aswc||as |n thccitcsofthccorc
cap|ta||st countr|cs such as London, Los Angc|cs, San Dicgo, and Mcw
York [whcrc morc |argc- sca|c urban projccts wcrc |n mot|on in 2007
undcr thc b|l|onarc B|oombcrg's admn|stration than cvcr bcforc).
Aston|shing,spcctacu|ar,and|nsomcrcspcctscr|m|na||yabsurdurban|-
zationproj cctshavccmcrgcdinthcM|dd|cEast|np|accs||kcDuba| and
Abu Dhab| as a way ofmoppng up thccap| ta| surp|uscs arising from
o| | wca|th|n thc mostconspcuous,soc|a||yunj ustand cnv|ronmcnta||y
wastcfu| waysposs|b|c [such asanindoorsk| s|opc|na hot dcscrtcnvi-
ronmcnt).Wcarchcrc| ookingatyct anothcr transformat|onin sca|c of
thc urban proccss-onc that makcs |t hard to grasp that what may bc
go|ngong|oba||y| si nprinc|p|csimi|artothcproccsscsthatHaussmann
managcdsocxpcrt|yforawh||cinSccondEmprcPar|s.
Butthisurbanizationboom hasdcpcndcd, asdidal| thcothcrsbcforc
|t, on thc construct|on ofncw hnanc|a| |nst|tut|ons and arrangcmcnts
Jt K!\J L t lJ
to organ|zcthccrcd|trcqurcdto sustain |t. F|nanc|alnnovat|onssct|n
train |n thc l98Os,partcularly thcsccurit|zat|on andpackag|ngoflocal
mortgagcs for salc to invcstors wor|d-widc, and thc sctting up ofncw
hnanc|a| inst|tut|ons to fac|l|tatc a sccondary mortgagc markct and to
hold collatcralizcd debt oblgatons, hasp|aycd a crucial rolc. Tc bcn-
chts of this wcrc lcgion: |t sprcad r|sk and pcrm|ttcd surplus sav|ngs
pools cas|cracccsstosurplushousngdcmand, and also, byvirtucofits
coord|nat|ons, t brought aggrcgatc intcrcst ratcs down [whilc gencrat-
ngimmcnscfortuncsforthchnancialintcrmcdiaricswhoworkcd thcsc
wondcrs). Butsprcading riskdocs not c|minatc risk. Furthcrmorc, thc
factthatriskcanbcsprcadsowdclycncouragcscvcnrisk|crlocalbchav-
ors, bccausc thc r|sk can bc transfcrrcd clscwhcrc. W|thout adcquatc
risk- asscssmcntcontrols,thcmortgagcmarkctgotoutofhand,andwhat
happcncdto thc Percirc Brothcrs in I867-68andtothchscalprohigacy
ofNcwYorkC|tyn thccarly I97Oswasthcnrcpcatcd|n thcsub-primc
mortgagc andhousingassct-va|uccrisisof2OO8. Tccr|siswasconccn-
tratcdinthchrstinstanccnandaroundUScitics[thoughsmilarsigns
could bc sccn n Britain) , withparticu|arlyscriousmplicationsfor|ow-
ncomc African-Amcr|cansands|nglchcad- of-houscholdwomcnin thc
nncrc|tics.!talsoahcctcdthoscwho,unablc toahordthcskyockcting
hous|ng pr|ccs |n thc urban ccntcrs, part|cu|arly |n thc US southwcst,
movcd to thcscm| -pcr|phcryofmctropo|itan arcas to takc upspccu|a-
tvclybul ttracthousngat|n|tallycasycrcditratcs, butwhothcnfaccd
cscalatingcommutingcostswithrsingoilpr|ccsandsoarngmortgagc
payments as markct- ntcrcst ratcs kcked in. Ts crsis, wth vicious
|oca| mpactsonurban||fc and|nfrastructurcs[wholcncghborhoodsn
citicslikcClcvcland, Ba|timorc,andDctroithavc bccndcvastatcdbythc
forcc|osurc wavc) , thrcatcncdthcwholcarchitccturcofthcg|obal hnan-
cialsystcm, and trggcrcd a majorrcccssonto boot. Thc parallclsw|th
thc l 9 7Osarc,toput |tmild|y, uncanny[inc|ud|ngthcmmcd|atc casy-
moncy rcsponsc ofthc US FcdcralRcscrvc,which is almost ccrtain to
gcncratcstrongnat|onarythrcats,ashappcncd|nthc|atc l97Os,somc-
timcnthcfuturc).
Butthcsituat|on|sfarmorccomplicatcdnowandtisanopcnqucs-
tionwhcthcrascrouscrashinthcUnitcdStatcscanbccompcnsatcdfor
clscwhcrc [for cxamplc, by Ch| na). Uncvcn gcograph|ca| dcvclopmcnt
+ KttL lltb
may oncc aga|n rcscuc thc systcm from a tota|izing g|oba| crash, as |t
d|d n thc l 9 9Os, though |t s thc Untcd Statcs that is th|s timc at thc
ccntcrofthcproblcm. Butthchnancia|systcmisa|somuch morctightly
coup|cd tcmpora||y than t cvcr was bcforc.'" Computcr- drivcn sp|it-
sccondtrading,onccitdoesgooh-track,a|waysthreatcnstocreatcsomc
grcat d|vcrgcncc |n thc markct [|t has produccd |ncrcdb|c vo|at|l|tyin
stockmarkcts)thatwi||produccamassivccrisisrcquiringa totalrcthink
ofhowhnancccaptalandmoncymarkctswork, |nc|ud|ng|nrc|at|onto
urbanization.
Asna||thcprcccdngphascs,thismostrcccntradica|cxpansionofthc
urbanproccsshasbroughtwithitincrcdib|ctransformationsin|fcstylcs.
Qua||tyofurban|| fc hasbccomca commodityforthoscwlth moncy, as
has thccitytsc|fin a wor|dwhcrcconsumcrism,tourism,cu|tura|and
know|cdgc-bascdindustrics,aswc||aspcrpctua|rcsortto thc cconomy
ofthcspcctac|c, havcbccomcmajoraspccts ofurbanpo|itica|cconomy,
cvcn| nIndia and Ch|na. Tc postmodcrnistpcnchant for cncouraging
thc formation ofmarkct nichcs, both in urban |ifcsty|c choiccs and in
consumcrhabts,andcultura|forms,surroundsthccontcmporaryurban
cxpcrcncc w|th an aura offrccdom ofchocc n thc markct, providcd
you havc thc moncy and can protcct yoursc|ffrom thc prvatzaton of
wca|th rcdistribution through burgconing crimina| actvty andprcda-
toryfraudu|cnt practiccs [which havc cvcrywhcrc csca|atcd) . Shopping
ma||s, mu|t |p|cxcs, and box storcs prolfcratc [thc production ofcach
has bccomc big busincss), as do fast-foodand artisana| markct p|accs,
bout|quccu|turcsand,asSharonZuk|n s|y|ynotcs,"pacihcat|onbycap-
puccno." Evcn thc |ncohcrcnt, b|and, and monotonous suburban tract
dcvc|opmcntthatcontinucstodom|natcinmanyarcas, nowgctsitsanti-
dotc in a "ncw urbanism" movcmcnt thattouts thc salc ofcommunity
and a boutlquc |ifcsty|c as a dcvc|opcrproduct to fulh|| urban drcams.
T| s s a wor|d n whch thc nco||bcra| cthc of|ntcnsc posscss|vc ind| -
vidua|ismcanbccomcthctcmp|atcforhumanpcrsonalitysocia|ization.
Tc |mpact |s ncrcas|ng |ndv|dua|st|c so|aton, anx|cty, andncuros|s
n thc m|dst ofoncofthcgrcatcstsoca|achcvcmcnts [at|castjudg|ng
by ts cnormous sca|c anda||-cmbrac|ng charactcr) cvcr constructcd in
humanhistoryforthcrca|izationofourhcarts'dcsrc.
But thc hssurcs w|th|n thc systcm arc a|so a|| too cvdcnt. Wc
Jt K!\J L t l5
ncrcasing|y lvc in dvded,fragmcnted,andconuict-pronccitics. How
wcvcw thc wor|danddchncpossibi|itcsdcpcnds onwhichsidc ofthc
trackswcarconand onwhatkinds ofconsumcrismwc havc acccss to.
In thcpastdccadcs, thc nco|ibcra| turnhasrcstorcdc|ass powcr to rich
c|tcs. ' ' Inasinglcycarsevcra|hcdgcfundmanagcrsinNcwYorkraked
n $3 bil|ion in pcrsona| rcmuncration, and Wa|| Strcct bonuscs havc
soarcd for individua|s ovcr thc last fcw ycars from around $5 mil|ion
towardsthe$5Omil|ionmarkfortopp|aycrs[ puttingrca|estatepricesin
Manhattan outofsight). Fourtccnbil|ionaircs havc cmcrgcd in Mcxico
sincc thc nco|ibcra| turn in thc |atc l 98Os, and Mcxico now boasts thc
richcstmanoncarth,Car|osSlim,atthcsamctimcasthcincomcsofthc
poorn thatcountryhavccithcrstagnatcdordmnishcd. Asofthccnd
of2OO9[ ahcrthcworstofthccrashwasovcr), thcrcwcrcl I 5bi||ionaircs
in China, I OI inRussia,55in India, 52 in Ccrmany,32 in Britain, and
3O in Brazi|, in addition to thc 4I3 in thcUnitcdStatcs.1c rcsu|tsof
this incrcasingpo|arization in thcdistribution ofwca|th and powcr arc
ndc|bly ctchcd into thcspatia| forms ofourcitics, which incrcasing|y
bccomcciticsoffortihcdfragmcnts,ofgatcdcommuniticsandprivatizcd
pub|icspaccskcptundcrconstantsurvci||ancc. 1cnco|ibcra|protcction
ofprivatc propcrty rights and thcir va|ucs bccomcs a hcgcmonic form
ofpolitics, cvcn for thc lowcr midd|c c|ass. ln thc dcvc|oping wor|d in
particu|ar,thccity
s spIitting into diherent separated parts, with t hc apparcnt lormation ol
many microstatcs." WcaIthy ncighborhoods Qrovdcd wth aII kinds ol
servces, such as excIusve schooIs, goIf courses, tenns courts and prvate
QoIice patmI ing thc arca around the cIock ntenwne wth iIIcga| sct-
tIcmcnts wbcrc watcr is avaiIabIc onIy at pubIic lountains, no sanitaton
system exists, eectric|ty is pirated by a pr|viIeged |ew, t he roads become
mud strcams whcncvcr it rains, and whcrc houscsharing s thcnorm.
ach lragmcnt appcars to |ivc and mnction autonomousIy, sticking hrmIy
to what it has bccn abIc to grab in thc dai|y hgt lor survva. ' '
Undcrthcscconditions,idca|sof urbanidcntity,ctizcnship,andbc|ong-
ing, ofa cohcrcnt urban po|itics, ahcady thrcatcncd by thc sprcading
ma|aisc ofthc individualistic neo|ibcra| ethic, bccomc much hardcr to
sustain. Evcnthc idca that thc citymightfunction as a col|cctivc body
KttL lltb
po||tlc, a sitc withln and from which progrcsslvc socia| movcmcnts
mghtcmanatc,appcars,at|castonthcsurfacc, |ncrcasing|y|mp|ausiblc.
Yctthcrc arc in facta|l manncrofurbansoc|almovcmcnts in cvidcncc
scck|ng to ovcrcomc thc so|atons and to rcshapc thc c|ty |n a dhcr-
cntsocia|imagc from thatgivcnbythc powcrs ofdcvc|opersbackcdby
hnancc, corporatccapita|,and anincrcasing|ycntrcprcncuria||ymindcd
|oca|statcapparatus.Evcn rc|ativclyconscrvativc urbanadmin|strations
arc scckngways to usc thc|r powcrs to cxpcr|mcntwith ncw ways of
bothproducingthcurbanandofdcmocratizlnggovcrnancc. Isthcrc an
urbana|tcrnativcand, ifso,fromwhcrcmighttcomc
Surp|us absorpt|on through urban transformat|on has, howcvcr, an
cvcndarkcraspcct. Ithascntai|cdrcpcatcdboutsofurbanrcstructuring
through"crcat|vc dcstruction."Tisncarlya|wayshasa c|ass dimcnsion,
sinccitisusua||ythcpoor, thcundcrprvi|cgcd,andthoscmargina|izcd
from po|it|ca| powcr that suhcr hrst and forcmost from ths proccss.
Vio|cnccis rcquircd toach|cvc thcncwurbanworldonthcwrcckagcof
thc o|d. Haussmann torc through thc o|d Parisian |mpovcrishcd quar-
tcrs, us|ng powcrs ofcxpropriation for supposcd|y pub|ic bcncht, and
didsom thcnamcofc|vicimprovcmcnt,cnv|ronmcntalrcstoration,and
urbanrcnovat|on. Hcdc|ibcratclycnginccrcdthcrcmova|ofmuchofthc
workngc|assandothcrunru|yc|cmcnts,a|ongwth insa|ubr|ous |ndus-
tr|cs, from Paris`s c|ty ccntcr, whcrc thcy constitutcd a thrcat to public
ordcr, pub|ichca|thand,ofcoursc,po|itica|powcr. Hccrcatcd an urban
form whcrc |twas bc| icvcd [ incorrcctly, as it turncd out, in 87) suf-
hc|cnt|cvc|s ofsurvc||ancc and m|||tarycontro| wcrc poss|blc so as to
cnsurcthatrcvolut|onarymovcmcntscou| dcas|ybc contro||cdbym|||-
tarypowcr.ut, asEngc|spointcdoutin ! 872,
ln reaItyg the bourgeoise has on!y onc mcthod ol so|vng the housing
gucs|ion ahcr|s ashion-|ha| is |o say, ol soIvng | in such a way |ha|
the soIution perpetuaIIy renews the guest|on anew. Tis method |s caIIed
Haussmann [ by whch| l moan tho practicc that has now bccomc
gcncraI ol making brcachcs in the working cIass quartors ol our big
towns, and particuIarIy n areas which are centraIIy s|tuatod,guitc apan
lrom whcthcr mis s donc lrom consdcratons ol pubIc hca|th or lor
bcautiqng thc|own, or owing to |hc dcmand |or bg ccn|ralIy s|ua|cd
busness premsesg or, owing to tramc reguirements, such as the ayng
Jt K!\J L t l7
down ol raiIways, strccts (which somctimcs sccm to havc thc aim ol
mak|ng barricadc hghting morc d|mcu|t) . . . No mattcr how dihcrcnt thc
rcasons may bc, tbc rcsuIt is aIways thc mc, thc scandaIous ahcys dis-
appcar to thc accompanimcnt o| Iavish sc||-praisc by thc bourgcoisic on
account ol this trcmcndous succcss, but thcy appcar again immcdiatcIy
somcwhcrcc|sc. . . Tcbrccding pIaccs ol discasc, tbc inlamous boIcs and
cc|Iars in which thc capita|ist modc o| production conhncs our workcrs
night ahcr night, aro not abo| ishcd, thcy arc mcrcIy sh]cdc|scn|crc' Jc
samc cconomic ncccssity that produccd tbcm in thc hrst pIacc, produccs
thcm in thc ncxt pIacc.
Actua||y it took morc than a hundrcd ycars to comp|ctc thc bourgcois
conqucst of ccntra| Paris, w|th thc conscqucnccs that wc havc sccn |n
rcccntycars ofuprisings and mayhcm in thosc iso|atcdsuburbswithin
which thc marglna|lzcd mmigrants and thc uncmploycd workcrs and
youtharcincrcasing|ytrappcd. Tcsadpointhcrc,ofcoursc,isthatthc
proccsscs Engc|s dcscr|bcd rccur again and again ln capitallst urban
history. Robcrt Moscs "tooka mcataxc to thcronx" [ in his nfamous
words) , and long and | oud wcrc thc |amcntatlons of ncighborhood
groups and movcmcnts, wh|ch cvcntual|y coa|csccd around t hcrhcto-
ric of}anc }acobs, at thc unimaglnab|c dcstruction not on|y ofva|ucd
urbanfabricbuta|soofwho|c communitcsofrcsidcntsandthcir|ong-
cstab|ishcd nctworks ofsocia| intcgration. ' ` ut in thc Ncw York and
Parisan casc, oncc thc bruta| powcr ofstatc cxpropriatlons had bccn
succcssfu||y rcsistcd and containcdbythc agitatlons of ' 68, a farmorc
insidious and canccrous proccss of transformation occurrcd through
hsca|discp|iningofdcmocraticurbangovcrnmcnts,|andmarkcts,prop-
crtyspccu|atlon,andthcsortlngoflandtothoscuscsthatgcncratcdthc
highcstpossib|chnancia|ratcofrcturnundcrthcland's"highcstandbcst
usc."Engclsundcrstooda||too wc|lwhatt hisproccsswasabouttoo.
Tc gmwth ol thc big modcrn citics givcs thc Iand in ccrtain arcas, par-
ticuIarIy in thosc arcas which arc ccntra|Iy situatcd, an artihcia||y and
co|ossaIIy incrcas|ng va|uc, thc buddings crcctcd on thcsc arcas dcprcss
th|s vaIuc instcad o| ncrcasing it, bccausc thcy no |ongcr bc|ong to thc
changcd circumstanccs. 1cy arc puI|cd down and rcpIaccd by othcrs.
1is takcs p|acc abovc a|| with workcrs' houscs which arc situatcd ccntra|Iy
KttL lltb
and whoso ronts, ovon wth tho groatost ovorcmwdng, can novor, or onIy
vory s|owly, ncroaso abovo a cortan max|mum. 1oy aro pmIod down
and in thoir stoad shops, warohousos and pub|ic bui|ding aro oroctod. ' "
lt sdcprcssngt othnkt hat a| | oft hswaswrttcn n l 872, forEngc|s`s
dcscrptonapp||csdrcct|yto contcmporaryurbanproccsscsn much of
Asa[Delh,Seou|,Mumba)aswc||astothecontemporarygentrhcat|on
of,say,Har|cmandrook|ynnNcwYork.Aproccssofdsp|accmcntand
dsposscsson, n short, a|so | cs atthc corc ofthcurban proccssundcr
capta|sm. Tssthcmrror magcofcapta|absorptonthroughurban
rcdcvc|opmcnt.ConsdcrthccascofMumba,whcrcthcrcarc6 m|lon
pcoplcconsdcrcdomca||yass|um-dwc||crssctt|cdonlandforthcmost
partwthout| cga| t|tlc [thc p|accs whcrc thcy |vc arc |ch b|ankon al|
maps ofthcc|ty) .W|ththc attcmptto turn Mumba|nto ag|oba| hnan-
ca| ccntcr to rva| Shangha, thc propcrty dcvclopmcnt boom gathcrs
pacc and thc |and thcs|um- dwc||crs occupy appcars ncrcasng|yva| u-
ab| c. Tcva| ucofthc| andnDharav,oncofthcmostpromncntslums
n Mumba, s putat $2 b|||on, and thc prcssurc to c|car thcs|um [for
cnvronmcntaland socalrcasonsthatmaskthc |andgrab) s mountng
da|y. F|nanc| a| powcrs,backcdbythcstatc,pushforforcb|cs|um c|car-
ancc,nsomccascsvo|cnt|ytakngposscssonofatcrrainoccupcdfora
who|cgcncratonbythcs|um- dwc||crs.Caplta|accumu|atononthc| and
through rca|cstatcactvtyboomsas|and sacqurcd atalmostnocost.
Dothcpcop|eforccdoutgetcompcnsatonTel uckyonesgetabt. ut
whUc thc lndan consttut|onspcc|hcsthat thcstatc has thc oblgat|on
to protcct thc |vcs and wc||-bcng ofthc who|c popu|aton rrcspcc-
tvc ofcastc andc|ass,andtoguarantccrghtsto |vclhoodhousngand
shc|tcr, thc IndanSuprcmcCourthas lssucd both non-judgmcnts and
judgmcnts thatrcwrtc ths const|tutona| rcqurcmcnt.Snccthcs|um-
dwcl|crs arc||cga|occupants andmany cannot dchntvc|yprovc thcr
|ong- tcrm rcsdcncc on thc | and, thcy havc no rght to compcnsaton.
To conccdcthatrght, says thcSuprcmcCourt, wou| dbctantamountto
rcwardingpckpockctsforthciractons.Sothcslum-dwe|lcrsethcrrcsst
andhghtormovcwththcrfcwbc|ongngstocampoutonthchghway
margns, orwhcrcvcr thcy can hnd a tny spacc. ' Sm|ar cxamp|cs of
d|spossess|on[though|cssbruta|andmore|egalstc)canbefoundnthe
Jt K!\J L t l9
US, throughthcabuscofr|ghtsofcm|ncntdomaln tod|splacc|ong- tcrm
rcs|dcnts| nrcasonab|chous|ng|nfavorofhlghcr-ordcrlanduscs [such
ascondomin|umsandboxstorcs).Cha||cngcdinthcUSSuprcmcCourt,
thc | ibcra|j ust|ccs carr|cd thc dayaga|nst thc conscrvat|vcs ln saying |t
waspcrfcct|yconstitutiona|for |oca|jur|sdict|ons tobchave in thisway
lnordcrto |ncrcascthc|rpropcrtytaxbasc.
l n Scoul |n thc l 99Os, thc construct|on companlcs and dcvc|opcrs
h|rcd goon squads of sumo-wrestler types to |nvadc who|e nelghbor-
hoodsand smash down with slcdgchammcrs not on|y thc housing but
alsoa|lthcposscss|onsofthoscwho hadbu||tthcirownhousingon thc
hl ||sidcsofthcc|tyinthc I 95Os,onwhatbythc I 99Oshadbccomchigh-
va|uc|and. Mostofthosch||lsldcsarcnowcovcrcdw|thhlgh-r|sctowcrs
that showno tracc ofthc brutalproccsscsofland c|caranccthat pcrmit-
tcd thcirconstruction. I n Ch|na mi||ions arc bcing disposscsscd ofthc
spaccsthcyhavc|ongoccuplcd. Lacklngprivatcpropcrtyrights,thcycan
bc simp|y rcmovcd from thc land by thc statc by hat, odcrcd a m|nor
cashpaymcntto hclpthcmonthc|rway[bcforcthcland|s turncdovcr
to dcvc|opcrs at a h|gh ratc ofproht) . ln somc lnstanccs pcop|c movc
w||||ng|y, but w|desprcad rcs|stancc |s a|so rcportcd, thc usualrcsponsc
to wh|ch is bruta| rcprcssion by thc Commun|st Party. I n thc Ch|ncsc
casc,ltlsohcnpopulatlonsonthcruralmarglnswhoarcd|sp|accd,||lus-
tratlng thc slgn|hcancc ofLcfcbvrc's argumcnt, prcsclcntly |aid out | n
thc l 9 6Os,thatthcclcard|stinctionthatoncccx|stcdbctwccnthcurban
andthcrura|wasgradua||yfad|ngintoa sctofporous spaccsofuncvcn
geographica| devc|opment under thc hcgcmonlc command of cap|ta|
and thc statc. ln Chlna, rura| communcs on urban |r|ngcs wcnt from
thc backbrcaking and impovcr|shing labor ofgrowing cabbagcs to thc
lclsurc|ystatusofurbanrcnticrs[oratlcastthcircommuncparty|cadcrs
d|d)growlngcondom|n|ums,asitwcrc,ovcrn|ght.T|s|sthccascalsoln
lndla,whcrcthcspcc|a|cconomlcdcvelopmcntzonespo||cynowfavorcd
byccntral andstatc govcrnmcnts |s|cad|ngto vio|cncc againstagricu|-
tura|produccrs,thcgrosscstofwh|chwasthcmassacrcatNand|gram ln
Wcstcnga|,orchcstratcdbythcru| |ngMarx|stpolitica|party, tomakc
wayfor|argc-sca|cIndoncslancapita|that |sasmuch|ntcrcstcdinurban
propcrtydcvc|opmcntasitlsin|ndustria|dcvc|opmcnt.Prlvatcpropcrty
r|ghts lnth|scascprov|dcdno protcct|on.
Z KttL lltb
And so |t s wth thc sccm|ng|y progrcssvc proposal of award|ng
pr|vatcpropcrtyr|ghtstosquattcrpopu|at|ons|nordcrtoohcrthcmthc
assctsthatw|||pcrm|t thcmto cmcrgcoutofpovcrty. T|s |sthcsortof
proposa| nowmootcdfor Ro's favc|as,but thcprob|cmsthatthcpoor,
bcsct w|th nsecurty of ncome and frcqucnt hnanc|al dmcu|t|cs, can
cas|y bcpcrsuadcd to tradc n that assctfora cash paymcnt at a rc|a-
t|vc|ylowprcc[thcr| ch typ|ca||yrcfusctog|vcupthcrvalucdassctsat
anypr|cc,wh|ch|swhyMoscscouldtake a mcataxcto thc|ow- |ncomc
ronxbutnottoah|ucntParkAvcnuc). Mybct| sthat,|fprcscnttrcnds
contnuc,w|th|nhhccnycarsa|lthosch|||sdcsnow occupcdbyfavc|as
w||lbc covcrcd by hgh-r|sc condom|nums w|th fabu|ous vcws ovcr
R|o`s bay, wh||c thc crstwh|c favcla- dwc|lcrs w|l havc bccn h|tcrcd oh
to ||vc n somc rcmotc pcr|phcry. ' Tc long- tcrm chcct ofMargarct
Tatchcr's pr|vat|zat|onofsoc|a|housng|n ccntralLondonhasbccn to
crcatc a rcnt and hous|ng pr|cc structurc throughout thc mctropo| |tan
arca that prcc|udcs |owcr- |ncomc and now cvcn m|dd|c-c|ass pcop|c
from havng acccss to hous|ng anywhcrc ncar thc urban ccntcr. Tc
adordab|c hous|ng prob|cm, | |kc thcpovcrtyandacccss|b|||typrob|cm,
has|ndccdbccnmovcdaround.
Tcsccxamplcswarn usofthccx|stcnccofa who|c battcryofsccm-
|ng|y"progrcss|vc"solutonsthatnot on|ymovc thcprob|cmaroundbut
actua|ly strcngthcnwh| | cs|multancously |cngthcn|ngthcgo| dcncha|n
that|mpr|sonsvu|ncrablcandmarg|na|zcdpopu|at|onsw|thnorb|tsof
cap|ta|c|rculatonandaccumu|aton. Hcrnandodc Sotoargucs|n||ucn-
t|a||y that|tsthc| ackofc|carpropcrtyr|ghtsthatho|dsthcpoordown
n mscrym somuch ofthcglobalsouth [ gnor|ngthcfactthatpovcrq
|s abundant|y |n cv|dcncc n soc|ct|cs whcrc clcar propcrty rghts arc
rcad|lycstab|shcd). To bc surc, thcrc w|| bc |nstanccs whcrc thcgrant-
ngofsuch rghts |n R o`s favc|asor|nL|ma`s s|ums| |bcratcs nd|v|dua|
cncrgcs and cntrcprcncur|a| cndcavors |cad|ng to pcrsona| advancc-
mcnt. ut thc concom|tant cdcct s ohcn to dcstroy co||cct|vc and
non-proht-maxmz|ng modcs ofsoca| so||dar|ty and mutua| support,
wh|canyaggrcgatcchcctw|||a|mostccrta|nlybcnu|lhcdnthcabscncc
ofsccurcandadcquatc|yrcmuncrat|vc cmp|oymcnt. InCaro,E|yachar,
for cxamp|c, notcs how thcsc sccmng|y progrcssvc polc|cs crcatc a
"markctofdsposscsson"that|ncdcctscckstosuckvalucoutofamora|
Jt K!\J L t 1
cconomy bascdonmutua| rcspcct and rcc|proc|ty, t othc advantagc of
capita||st|nstitut|ons. '
Much thc samc commcntaryapp|icsto thcmicro-crcd|t andmicro-
hnancc so|utions to g|obal povcrty now toutcd so pcrsuas|vc|y among
thcWashingtonhnancia|institut|ons.Micro-crcditinitssocia| |ncarna-
tion [as orlglna||y cnv|sagcd by thc Nobc| Pcacc Prlzc w|nncr, Yunus)
hasindccdopcncdup ncwpossibi|iticsandhada signhcant|mpacton
gcndcr rc|ations, with pos| t|vc conscqucnccs for womcn m countrcs
such asIndiaandang|adcsh. utitdocssobyimposingsystcmsofco|-
|cctivc rcsponsibi|ityfor dcbtrcpaymcnts thatcan|mprisonrathcrthan
|ibcratc. l nthcwor|dofmicro-hnanccasarticu|atcdbythcWashngton
inst|tutions[asopposcdtothcsocia|andmorcph||anthrop|cor|cntat|on
of m|cro-crcdit proposcd by Yunus) , thc chcct |s to gcncratc h|gh-
yic|dingsourccsofincomc[w|thintcrcstratcsofat|cast I 8 pcrccnt,and
ohcnfarh|ghcr)forg|oba|hnanc|a|nst|tutons,|nthcmidstofancmcr-
gcntmarkctingstructurcthatpcrmitsmu|tinationa| corporationsacccss
tothcmassivcaggrcgatcmarkctconstitutcdbythc2 bi||ionpcop|c|iving
on lcss that $2 a day. Tis hugc "markct at thc bottom ofthc pyramid,`
as|t|sca||cd|nbuslncsscirclcs,|stobcpcnctratcdonbcha|fofbigbus|-
ncss byconstructingc|aboratcncnorks ofsa|cspcop|c [chic||ywomcn)
| nkcd through a markctng cha|n from mu|tnatona| warchousc to
strcctvcndors.'"Tcsa|cspcop|cform a co||cct|vc ofsocia|rc|at|ons, a||
rcspons|b|cforcachothcr,sctupforguarantccingrcpaymcntofthcdcbt
p|us intcrcst that a||ows thcm to buy thc commodltics that thcysubsc-
qucnt|y markct p|cccmcal. As with granting privatc propcrty r|ghts,
a|mostccrtan|ysomcpcop|c[andinthiscascmost|ywomcn)maycvcn
go on to bccomc rc|ativc|y wcU-oh, whi|c notorious prob|cms of d|m-
cu|ty ofacccss ofthc poor to consumcr products at rcasonab|c pr|ccs
w|||bcattcnuatcd. utth|s isnoso|utiontothcurban- |mpactcdpovcrty
prob|cm. Mostpart |c|pants |n thc micro-hnanccsystcmwi|| bc rcduccd
to thc status ofdcbt pconagc, |ockcd |nto a bad|y rcmuncratcd bridgc
postonbctwccn thc mu|t|nat|ona| corporatons and thc lmpovcrshcd
popu|at|onsofthc urbans|ums, with thcadvantagc a|ways go|ngtothc
mu| t|nat|ona|corporation. Tislsthck|ndofstructurcthatwi||b|ockthc
cxp|orationofmorcproductivc a|tcrnat|vcs.ltccrtain|ydocsnotprohcr
anyr|ghttothccity.
ZZ KttL lltb
Urban|zat|on,wcmayconc|udc,hasplaycdacruc|a|ro|cnthcabsorp-
t|onofcap|ta|surp|uscsandhasdoncsoatcvcr- |ncrcas|nggcograph|ca|
scalcs, butat thcpricc ofburgconing proccsscs ofcrcativc dcstructon
thatcnta||thcdisposscssionofthcurbanmasscsofanyr|ghtto thcc|ty
whatsoevcr. Pcr|od|ca||y th|s cnds n rcvo|t, as |n Par|s |n l 87l , whcn
thc d|sposscsscd rosc up scck|ng to rcc|a|m thc c|ty thcy had |ost. Tc
urbansoc|a|movcmcntsofI 9 68, fromPar|sandBangkoktoMcx|coC|ty
and Chcago, ||kewise sought to dehne a d|herent way ofurban ||v|ng
fromthat wh|chwasbc|ng|mposcd upon thcm bycapita||stdcvc|opcrs
andthcstatc.If,assccmslkc|y, thchsca|dimcu|t|cs|nthccurrcntcon-
juncturc mount and thc hithcrto succcssfu| nco||bcra|, postmodcrn|st,
and consumcr|st phasc ofcapta||st absorpton ofthc surp|us through
urban|zat|on s atan cnd,and| fa broadcrcr|s|s cnsucs,thcn thcqucs-
t|on arscs. Whcrc s our ' 68or,cvcn morc dramat|ca||y, ourvcrs|on of
thcCommunc
y analogy with transformations |n thc hsca| systcm, thc po||t-
cal answcr |s bound to bc much morc complcx | n our t|mcs prcc|sc|y
bccausc thc urban proccss |snowgloba| in scopc andwrackcdw|th a||
manncrofhssurcs,insccurt|cs,anduncvcngcograph|ca|dcvc|opmcnts.
Butcracksnthcsystcmarc,asLconardCohcnonccsang,"what|ctsthc
||ght |n." Signs ofrcvo|t arc cvcrywhcrc [thc unrcst |n Ch|na and Ind| a
ischron|c,c|v||warsragcinAfrica,LatinAmcrica|s|nfcrmcnt,auton-
omymovcmcnts arc cmcrgnga||ovcrthcp|acc,andcvcn|nthcUSthc
po|tical sgns suggcst t hat mostofthc populat|on |s say|ng "cnough |s
enough" w|th respect to rabid |ncqua|t|es). Any ofthesc rcvo|ts cou|d
suddcn|y bccomc contag|ous. Un|kc thc hsca| systcm, howcvcr, thc
urban and pcr|-urban soc|a| movcmcnts ofoppos|tion, ofwhich thcrc
arc many around thcwor|d,arc not t|ght|ycoup|cd ata||. lndccd, many
havc no connccton to cach othcr. It s un||kc|y, thcrcforc, that a s|ng|c
sparkw||l, asthc WcathcrUndcrground oncc drcamcd, spark a prar|c
hrc. It w|ll takc somcth|ng far morc systcmatic than that. But |fthcsc
variousoppost|ona|movcmcntsdidsomchowcomctogcthcr-coa| cscc,
forcxamp|c, aroundthcs|oganofthcr|ghttothccty-thcnwhatshou| d
thcydcmand
Tcanswcrtothcl astqucst|oni ss|mp|ccnough. grcatcrdcmocratc
contro| ovcr thc product|on and usc of thc surp|us. S|ncc thc urban
Jt K!\J L t | J J
proccss |s a major channc| ofusc, thcn thc r |ght to thc city |s const|-
tutcd by cstab||sh|ng dcmocrat|c contro| ovcr thc dcp|oymcnt ofthc
surpluscsthroughurban|zat|on. Tohavc a surp| usproductisnota bad
th|ng.|ndccd, |nmanys|tuat|onsasurplus|scruc|a|toadcquatcsurv|va|.
Troughoutcap|ta||sth|story,somcofthcsurp|usva|uccrcatcd hasbeen
t axcd away by thc statc, and |n soc|a|- dcmocratic phascs that propor-
t|on roscsign|hcant|y, putt|ng muchofthcsurp|us undcr statc contro|.
Tcwho|e ncolibcra|proj cctovcr thc lastth|rtyyearshas bcen orientcd
towardsprivatizationofcontro|ovcrthcsurplus.Tcdatafor a||OECD
countr|csshow,howcvcr,thatthcsharcofgrossoutputt akcnbythcstatc
hasbccnrough|yconstants|nccthc l 9 7Os. Tcma|nachicvcmcntofthc
nco| ibcra| assault, thcn, has bccn to prcvcntthc statc sharc cxpanding
in thc way|t d|d |n thc I 96Os. Onc furthcrrcsponsc has bccn to crcatc
ncw systcms ofgovcrnancc that|ntcgratc statc and corporatc |ntcrcsts
and, through thc appl|cat|on ofmoncy powcr, assurc that contro| ovcr
thc disburscmcnt ofthc surp|usthrough thcstatcapparatusfavors cor-
poratccap|t al andthcuppcr classcs|nthcshap|ngofthcurbanproccss.
lncrcasingthcsharc ofthcsurplus undcrstatccontro|w|||on|yworkif
thc statc|tsc|f|sbothrcformcd and broughtback undcrpopu|ardcmo-
crat|ccontro|.
Incrcas|ngly, wc scc thc r|ght to thc city fal||ng |nto thc hands of
pr|vatcorquas|-pr|vatcintcrcsts.InNcwYorkC|ty, forcxamp|c,wchavc
a b||l|ona|rc mayor, Michac||oombcrg,who is rcshapingthcc|tya|ong
||ncsfavorab|ctothcdcvc|opcrs,toWa||Strcctandtransnat|ona| cap|ta|-
|stc|assc|ements,wh|lecont|nuingtoscl|thcc|tyasanopt|ma|locat|on
for h|gh-va|uc busincsscs and a fantastic dcst|nat|on for tourists, thus
turn|ngManhattan|nchcct|ntooncvastgatcdcommun|tyfor thcr|ch.
[ His dcvc|opmcnta| s|ogan, |ronica|ly, has bccn "Bu|d|ng L|kc Moscs
with}anc}acobs|n Mind'` ' ) InScattlc a b|||ionairc | |kc Pau| A|lcnca|ls
thc shots, and |n Mcx|co C|ty thc wcalth|cst man |n thc wor|d, Car|os
S|im,hasthcdowntownstrcctsrc-cobb|cdtosuitthctour|stgazc.And|t
isnoton|yamucnt|nd|v|dua|swhocxcrciscd|rcctpowcr.Inthctownof
NcwHavcn, strappcdforanyrcsourccsforurbanrc|nvcstmcntof|tsown,
it|sYa| cUn|vcrsity, oncofthcwcalth|cstun|vcrs|t|csinthcwor|d,that|s
rcdcs|gn|ngmuchofthcurbanfabr|ctosuit|tsnccds.}ohns Hopk|ns|s
do|ngthcsamcforEastBa|t|morc,andCo|umb|a Un|vcrs|typ|ansto do
Z+ KttL lltb
soforareasofNcwYork[sparkingncighborhoodrcs|stanccmovcmcnts
in both cascs, ashasthc attcmptcd land-grab m Dharav|). Tcactual|y
cxistingrighttothccity, asitisnowconstitutcd,isfartoo narrow|ycon-
hncd, |nmostcasesinthchandsofa smal|po|iticalandeconom|cclitc
who arein a position to shapc thc city more and morc ahcr thcir own
particu|arncedsandhcarts`dcsirc.
But |ct us |ook at this situation morc structura||y. l n }anuary cvcry
ycaran cst|matc|s publ|shcd ofthc total ofWa||Strcctbonuscs arned
for a||thchardworkthchnancicrscngagcdindurngthcprcviousycar.
ln 2OO7,a disastrousycarfor hnancialmarkctsbyanymcasurc [though
by no mcans as bad as thc ycar that fol|owcd), the bonuses added up
to $JJ . 2 bi|lion, on|y 2 pcrccnt|css than thcycarbcforc [nota badratc
ofrcmuncration for mcssing up thc wor|d's hnancia| sytcm) . In mid
summcr of 2OO7, thc Fedcral Rcscrvc and the Europcan Ccntra| Bank
pumpedb || onsofshort- tcrm cred t|nto thehnanc|a|system toensure
itsstabi| ity, and thc Fcdcra|Rcscrvc dramatcaUy lowcrcd intcrcst ratcs
as the year progressed cvcry timc thc Wal| Strcct markcts thrcatcncd
to fa|| prccipitous|y. Mcanwhi|c, somc 2 orpcrhaps J mi||ion pcop|c-
ma|n|y a m|x ofsing|c-woman- hcadcd househo|ds, Afr|can-Amcricans
in ccntral citics, and margina|izcd whitc popu|ations in thc urban
sem|-per|phery-have been or are about to be rendered home|ess by
forec|osures.Manycityneighborhoodsandcvcnwholc peri Urbancom-
muniticsin theUnitcdStatcswereboardcdup andvanda|izcd, wrecked
bythcprcdatory|cnd|ngpractccsofthchnancia|institutions.Tispop-
ulatonrccc|vcdnobonuscs.lndccd,smccforec|osuremeansforgiveness
ofdebt,andthat|sregardedas |ncome,manyofthoseforec|osedon face
a hchy incomc tax bil| for moncy thcy ncvcr had in thcir posscssion.
Tisawfulasymmctryposesthefo|lowingqucstion. WhydidthcFcdcra|
Rcservc andtheUS Trcasurynotcxtcndmcdum- term lqu|dityhc|p to
thchouscholdsthrcatcncdwithforcc|osurcunti|mortgagcrcstructuring
atrcasonablcratcscou|drcso|vcmuchofthcprob|cmTcfcrocityofthc
cred|tcr|sswouldhavebeenmt|gated,andmpover|shedpeopleandthe
ncighborhoodsthcyinhabitcdwouldhavcbccnprotcctcd. Furthcrmorc,
thegloba|hnancialsystcmwouldnothavctectcrcdonthcbrinkoftota|
|nso|vcncy,ashappcncdaycarlatcr.Tobcsurc,thiswou|dhavccxtcndcd
thc m|ssion ofthc Fcdera| Rcservc bcyond its norma| rcmit, and gone
Jt K!\J L t | J J
aganst thc nco|bcral dco|ogca| ru|c that, in thc cvcnt of a conct
bctwccn thc wc|| -bcng ofhnanca| insttutions and that ofthc pcop|c,
thcnthcpcop|cshou|dbc|chtooncsidc. Iwou|da|sohavcgoncagainst
capta|stc|assprcfcrcnccswithrcspcctto ncomcdstrbuton andnco-
|ibcra| notions ofpcrsona|rcsponsb|ity. utjust|ookatthepricc that
waspadfor obscrvingsuchru|csandthcscnsc|css crcatvcdcstruction
thatrcsu|tcdfromt.Surc|ysomcthngcanandshou|dbcdonctorcvcrsc
thcsepo|itca|choices
ut wc havc yct to scc a cohcrcnt oppositiona| movcmcnt to a|| of
thisinthctwcnty- hrstccntury.Tcrcis, ofcoursc,amu|titudcofdivcrsc
urban strugg|cs and urban socia| movcmcnts [n thc broadcst scnsc of
t hat tcrm, lncludng movcmcnts i n t hc rura| hintcr|ands) a|rcady n
cxistcncc. Urban innovations with rcspcct to cnvironmcnta| sustain-
abi|ty, cu|tura|incorporationofimmigrants,andurbandcsignofpub|ic
housng spaccs arc obscrvab|c around thc wor|d n abundancc. But
thcyhavcyct to convcrgconthcsingu|araimofganinggrcatcrcontro|
ovcrthcuscsofthcsurp|us [|cta|oncovcrthcconditionsofits produc-
tion) . Onc stcp, thoughbyno mcans hna|, towardsunihcation ofthcsc
strugg|cs is to focussharp|y on thosc momcnts ofcrcatvc dcstructon
whcrcthccconomyofwca|th- accumu|atonpiggy- backsvio|cnt|yonthc
cconomy ofdsposscsson, and thcrc proc|aim on bcha|fofthc dspos-
scsscdthcrrightto thc city-thcr rightto changcthcwor|d, tochangc
|fc, andtorcnvcntthccitymorcahcrthcrhcarts'dcsirc.Tatco||cctvc
right, as both a working s|ogan and a po|itca| idca|,brngs us back to
thc agc- o|d queston of who t s that commands the nnerconnccton
bctwccnurbanzatonandsurp|usproductonandusc.Pcrhaps,ahcra||,
Lcfcbvrcwasright,morcthanfortyycarsago,toinsistthatthcrcvo|ution
inourtimcshastobcurban-ornothng.
LmP|JCKJVL
1OC U|C| KOOIS O
LQ| I | | SI L|| 8CS
|
n an artic|c in thc New ork T|mes o n February 5 , 2Ol l , entit|ed
"HousngBubblcsArcFcwandFarBctwccn,`RobcrtShl|cr,thcccono-
mist who many considcr thc grcathousing cxpcrt in thc US, givcn his
ro|cinthcconstructionofthcCasc- Shil|crndcxo|housingpriccs,rcas-
surcdcvcryoncthatthcrcccnthousingbubb|cwasa"rarccvcnt,nottobc
rcpcatcdformanydccadcs'' Thc"cnormoushous|ngbubb|c"ofthccarly
2OOOs"isn'tcomparab|ctoanynationa|orintcrnationa| housingcyc|c in
history.Prcvousbubb|cshavcbccnsma||crandmorcrcgiona|''Tcon|y
rcasonab|cpara||c|s,hc asscrtcd,wcrc thc|andbubb|csthatoccurrcdin
thc USbackinthclatc I 8JOs and IH thc I 85Os. '
T|s s, as l sha|l show, an aston|sh|ng|y |naccuratc and dangcr-
ous readingofcapita|isthistory. Tc fact that it passed so unrcmarked
tcsthcs to a scrous b||nd spot in contcmporary cconom|c thnkng.
Unfortunatc|y, t a|so turns out to bc an cqua||y b|ind spot in Marxst
po|itica|cconomy. Tchousingcrashof 2OO7-l OinthcUSwasccrtain|y
dccpcrandlongcrthanmostndccd,itmaywc||markthccndofancra
in US cconomichistory-but twas by no mcans unprcccdcntcd |n its
rc|ationtomacrocconomcdisturbanccsin thewor|dmarket,andthcrc
arcscvcra|signsthatitisabouttobcrcpcatcd.
Convcntiona| cconomics rout|nc|y trcats |nvcstmcnt in thc bui|t
Z KttL lJltb
cnvironmcntingcncra|,andin housing|nparticular,a|ongwith urbani-
zation,assomcs|dc-bartothcmorc |mportantahausthatgooninsomc
hctonal cntty ca||cd "thc nat|ona| cconomy'' Tc sub-hc|d of"urban
cconom|cs" |sthusthcarcnawhcrcinfcr|orcconom|stsgo wh|| cthcbg
gunsp|y the|r macrocconomic tradingsk||s clscwhcrc. Evcn when thc
|attcrnoticcurbanproccsscs, thcymakc itsccmasfspata|rcorganiza-
t|ons,rcg|ona|dcvc|opmcnt,andthcbu||d|ngofct|cs arcmcrc|ysomc
on- thc-groundoutcomeo||arger-sca|eprocessesthatrema|nunahected
bythatwhichthcyproducc. 'Tus,|nthc2OO9Wor|dBankDcvc|opmcnt
Rcport, wh|ch, for thc hrst timc cvcr, took cconomic gcography and
urban dcvc|opmcnt scrious|y, thc authors d|d so w|thout a hint that
anythingcou|dposslb|ygoso catastrophica|lywrongastosparka crisis
in thc cconomyasa who|c. Wr|ttcn by cconomists [w|thoutconsu|ting
gcographcrs, hstorans, orurban socolog|sts) , |ts aim was supposcd|y
to cxp|orc thc"nhucnccofgcographyoncconom|copportun|ty" and to
clcvatc "spacc and placc from mcrc undcrcurrcnts in policy to a major
focus'`
Tc authors wcrc actua|ly out to show how thc app||cat|on of thc
usual nostrumsofnco|ibcra|cconom|cstourbanadars[||kc gctt|ngthc
statcoutofthcbus|ncss ofanyscr|ousrcgu|aton of|and andpropcrty
markctsandm|n|miz|ngthc|ntcrvcnt|onsofurban,rcg|onaland spatia|
p|annnginthcnamcofsoc|a|just|ccandrcg|ona|cqua||ty)wasthcbcst
way to augmcnt cconomic growth [ |n othcr words, cap|ta| accumu|a-
t|on) . Tough thcy d|d havc thc dcccncy to "rcgrct" that thcy d|d not
have thct|mcorspacc toexp|ore |ndcta||thesoc|a|andenv|ronmenta|
conscqucnccsofthcirproposa|s, thcyd| dp|a|n|ybc| |cvc thatc|t|cs that
prov|dc
l|uid |and and propcrty markcts and othcr supportivc institutions-
such as pmtect|ng property rights, enlorcing contracts, and hnanc|ng
hous| ng-wiI| more I|ke|y hourish over t|me as the necds o| the market
chango. SucccssluI citics havc rc|axcd zoning Iaws to aI|ow highcr-va|uc
users to bd lor the vaIuabIe Iand-and have adopted Iand use reglations
to adapt to the|r changing ro|es oVe time.
But|and|snota commod|ty|n thc ord|naryscnsc. lt is a hct|tousform
of cap|ta| that dcrvcs from cxpcctatons of futurc rcnts. Maximz| ng
Jt UKPl KLLJb L| P|!PL!bJ K!btb 29
ts yic|d has dr|vcn |ow- or cvcn modcratc-incomc houscho|ds out of
Manhattanandccntra|Londonovcrthc| ast fcwycars,withcatastrophic
chcctsonc|assdispariticsandthcwc|l-bcingofundcrprivi|cgcdpopula-
t|ons.T|s|swhat|sputt|ngsuch|ntcnscprcssurconthch|gh-va|uc|and
ofDharaviinMumbai[ aso- ca||eds|umthatthcreportcorrcct|ydcpicts
as a productivc human ccosystcm). ln short, thc rcport advocatcs thc
k|ndoffrcc-markctfundamcntal|smthathasspawncdamacrocconom|c
carthquakc ofthc sort wc havc just passcd through [ together with its
cont|nuing ahcrshocks) a|ongsidc urban social movcmcnts of oppos|-
t|ontogcntrihcation,ncighborhooddcstruction,andthcuscofcmincnt
domain [or morc bruta| mcthods) to cv|ct rcs|dcnts to makc way for
h|ghcr-va|uc|anduscs.
S|ncc thc mid l 98Os, nco|ibcra| urban po|icy [app|icd,for cxamp|c,
across thc Europcan Union) concludcd that rcdistr|buting wca|th to
|css advantagcd ncghborhoods, citics, and rcg|ons was fut||c, and that
rcsourccs should instcad bc channc|cd to dynamc "cntrcprcncurial"
growth po|cs. A spatia| vcrsion of "trick| c-down" wou|d thcn, |n thc
provcrbia| |ong run [wh|ch ncvcr comcs) , takc carc ofa|| thosc pcsky
rcg|ona|, spata|, and urban incqua||tics. Turning thc c|ty ovcr to thc
dcvclopcrs and spccu|ativc hnancicrs rcdounds to thc bcncht ofa|l | I f
on|y thc Ch|ncsc had |ibcratcd | and uscs in thc rc|t|cs to frcc markct
forccs, thc Wor|dBankRcportargucd,thcircconomywou|dhavcgrown
cvcnfastcrthan ithad|
1c Wor|d Bank p|ain|y favors spccu|ativc capita| ovcr pcop|c. Tc
idcathata c|tycando wc|| [in tcrms ofcapita| accumu|aton} wh||e its
pcop|c [apartfrom a prvlcgcd c|ass} and thc cnvironmcntdobadly, is
ncvcrcxamncd. Evcnworsc,thcrcportisdccp|ycomp|icitwiththcpo|i-
c|csthatlayatthc rootofthccrisis of2OO7-O9. T|s is particu|ar|yodd,
givcn that thcrcportwaspub||shcdsixmonths ahcrthcLchmanbank-
ruptcyandncar|ytwoycarsahcrthc UShousingmarkctturncdsourand
thcforcc|osurctsunamiwasclcar|yidcnt|hab|c.Wcarctold,forcxamp|c,
wthoutahintofcrtca|commcntary, that
sinco tho doroguIation ol hnanciaI systoms in tho socond haIl ol tho
!98Os, market-based housing hnancing has expanded rapidIy. Resident|aI
mortgagc markcts arc now cquivaIcn| to morc than 4 pcrccnt ol gross
domostic product (GDF) in deveoped countricsg but thoso in dovoIoping
JO KttL lltb
countrios arc much smaIIcr, avcraging Ioss than !O pcrccnt ol GDP. Tc
publ |c rolo shouId bo to st| mu|ato wo||- rog|atod pr|vatc | nvoIvomont . . .
EstabIishing tho Ioga| loundations lor simp|o, onlorcoabIo, and prudont
mortgago contracts s a good start. Won a country's systom is moro
dcvc|opcd and maturc, thc pub|ic scctor can cncouragc a sccondary
mortgago markot, dovoIop hnancia| |nnovations, and oxpand tho socu-
r|tzation of mortgagos. Occupant-ownod housing, usua|Iy a housohoId`s
Iargcst singc assct by far, is important in wca|th crcation, sociaI sccunty
and politics. Foop|o who own tho|r houso or who havo socuro tonuro havo
a Iargor stako |n tho| r community and thus aro moro |ikoIy to Iobby |or Ioss
crimo, strongcr govcmancc, and bcttcr |ocaI cnvironmcntaI conditions.'
Tcsc statcmcnts arc nothng short of astonshnggvcn rcccnt cvcnts.
Ro||onthcsub-prmcmortgagc buslncss,fuclcdbypab|um mythsabout
thcbcnchts ofhomcowncrshipfor a|| andthchlingawayoftoxicmort-
gagcs in hgh|y ratcd CDOs to bc sold to unsuspcct ng nvcstors. Rol|
on cnd|css suburbanzation that s both |and- and cncrgy-consuming
waybcyondwhatsrcasonab|cfor thcsustancd usc ofp|anot carth for
humanhabtation| Tc authorsmghtplausib|ymantainthatthcyhadno
rcml tto conncctthcr thnkngabouturbanzatonwlth lssucsofgloba|
warming. Alongwith Alan Grccnspan, thcycou|d a|so arguc that thcy
wcrcblnd-sidcd by thccvcntsof2OO7-O9, and thatthcycould notbc
cxpcctcdto havcant|c|patcdanythngtroub|ingabout thcrosysccnar|o
thcypaintcd.yinscrtngthcwords"prudcnt" and"wc||-rcgulatcd"nto
thcargumcntthcyhad,asitwcrc,"hcdgcd"againstpotcntalcritcsm.
Butsinccthcycitcinnumcrab|c"prudcntal|ychoscn"historica|cxam-
plcstobo|stcrthcrnco|bcra|nostrums,howcomcthcymsscd thatthc
crisis ofl 97J originatcd na globa|propcrtymarkctcrashthatbrought
downscvcra|banksDid thcynotnoticcthatthccommcrcialpropcrty-
|cd Savings and Loan crisis of thc latc I 9 8Os n thc Untcd Statcs saw
scvcra| hundrcd hnanca| nsttutons go bc||y- up at thc cost ofsomc
US$2OO bi||on to US t axpaycrs [a situation that so cxcrciscd Wi||iam
lsaacs,thcncharmanofthcFcdcra|DcpostInsuranccCorporation,that
n l 987hc thrcatcncd thc Amcrcan Bankcrs Assoc at|on wth naton-
alization unlcss thcymcndcd thcirways) Tat thccndofthc }apancsc
boom n I 99Ocorrcspondcdto a col|apsc oflandprccs [sti|longoing)
TatthcSwcdshbankngsystcmhadto bc nat ona|zcdn l 992bccausc
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo J 1
o f cxccsscsinpropcrtymarkcts Tatoncofthc triggcrsfor thcco||apsc
inEastandSouthcastAs|a|n l 997-98wascxccssivcurbandcvc|opmcnt
inTailand `
Whcrc wcrcthcWor|d ankcconom|stswhcna||this was gongon
Terc have bccn hundrcds ofhnancia| criscs si ncc I 9 7J [comparcd to
vcryfcw prior to that), andquitc a fcw ofthcm havc bccn propcrty- or
urban dcvc|opmcnt-lcd. And twas prctty c|carto a|most anyoncwho
thoughtabout|t-inc|ud|ng,|tturnsout,RobcrtSh||lcr-thatsomcthmg
wasgongbadly wrong in US housing markcts ahcr2OOI orso. uthc
sawitascxccptiona|rathcrthansystcmic.
Shil|cr cou|dwc|l c|aim, ofcoursc, that a||ofthc abovc othcr cxam-
plcswcrcmcrc|yrcgionalcvcnts.ut thcnso,fromt hcstandpointofthc
pcop|c ofraz| or Chna,was thc housingcr|sis of2OO7-O9. Thc cpi-
ccntcrwasthcUSsouthwcstandF| orida[ wthsomcsp|lovcr|nGcorgia) ,
a|ongwth a fcw othcrhot-spots [thcgrumbl|ngforcc|osurc criscs that
bcgan n thc |atc I 99Os inpoorarcasin o|dcr citics |ikc alt imorc and
C|cvc|andwcrctoo|oca|and"unimportant"bccauscthoscahcctcdwcrc
African-Amcricans and mnor|tics). lntcrnational|y, Spain and lrc|and
wcrcbad|ycaughtout, aswasBritain, thoughtoa|csscrcxtcnt. utthcrc
wcrc noscriousprob|cms in thc propcrtymarkcts inFrancc, Gcrmany,
thcNcthcrlands,orPo|and,oratthattimc throughoutAsa.
A rcgona|crssccntcrcdinthcUn|tcdStatcswcntgloba|,tobcsurc,
inways thatdidnothappcninthccascsof,say,}apanor Swcdcn in thc
car|y l 99Os. ut thc S&Lcrssccntcrcd on I 987 [thc ycar ofa scrous
stockcrashthat|styp|ca||yandcrroncous|yvcwcdas a tota||yscparatc
inc|dcnt) had g|oba| ramihcat|ons. Tc samc was truc o| thc much-
ncg|cctcd global propcrty markct crash of car|y l 9 7J . Convcntona|
w|sdom has t thaton|y thc o| pricc hkc |n thcfal|of I 97J mattcrcd.
ut t turncd out that thcpropcrty crash prcccdcd thcoi|prcc hkc by
sxmonthsormorc, and thcrcccss|onwaswc|lundcrwaybythc fa||[scc
Figurc l) . Tcpropcrty markct crashsp||cdovcr [for obvous rcvcnuc
rcasons)intothc hsca| cr|s|sofloca|statcs [wh|ch wouldnothavc hap-
pcncdhadthcrcccssionbccnon|yaboutoi|prccs) . TcsubscqucntNcw
YorkCityhscalcrisisofI 975washugc|yimportantbccauscatthattimc
it contro||cd onc ofthc |argcst publcbudgcts in thc wor|d [promptng
p|casfrom thcFrcnchprcsidcntandthcWcstGcrman chancc||ortobail
J KCCCL | J| Co
McwYorkCityouttoavoidag|oba||mp|osioninhnancia|markcts) .Mcw
Yorkthcnbccamcthc ccntcrforthcinvcntion ofncolibcra|practiccsof
gihingmora|hazardtothcinvcstmcntbanksandmakingthcpcoplcpay
up through thc rcstructuring olmunicipa| contracts and scrvi ccs. 1c
impactofthc mostrcccntpropcrty markct crash hasalsocarricdovcr
intothcvirtua|bankruptcyofstatcs|ikcCa||fornia, visitinghugcstrcsscs
instatcandmunicipa|govcrnmcnthnanccandgovcrnmcntcmp|oymcnt
on a|most cvcrywhcrc m thc US. 1cstoryofthcNcwYorkCity hsca|
crisis ofthc l 97Osccri|yrcscmblcsthatofthcstatcofCa|ifornia, which
todayhasthc cighth- |argcstpub|icbudgctinthcworld.
TcNationalBurcauofEconomicRcscarchhasrcccnt|yuncarthcdyct
anothcrcxamplcofthcro|cofpropcrtyboomsinsparkingdccpcriscsof
capitalism.Fromastudyofrca|cstatcdatainthc l 92Os,Coctzmannand
Ncwman "conc|udc that pub|ical|y issucd rca| cstatc sccuritics ahcctcd
rca|cstatc constructionact|v|ty|n thcI 92Osandthcbrcakdown |nthc|r
valuation, through thcmcchanismofthccol|atcra|cyc|c,mayhavc|cdto
thcsubscqucntstockmarkctcrashofl 929-JO''Withrcspccttohousing,
Florida, thcn as now, wasan intcnsc ccntcr ofspccu|ativc dcvc|opmcnt,
withthcnominalvalucofa bui|d|ngpcrmitincrcasingby8,OOOpcrccnt
bctwccn l 9 I 9 and l 925. Nationa|ly, thc cstimatcsofincrcascsinhousing
valucswcrc around 4OO pcrccntovcr rough|ythc samc pcriod. But this
wasasidcshowcomparcdtocommcrcia|dcvc|opmcntwhichwasalmost
cntirclyccntcrcdonNcwYorkandChicago,whcrc a|lmanncrofhnan-
cia| supports and sccuritization proccdurcs wcrc concoctcd to fuc| a
boom "matchcd onlyin thc mid-2OOOs'' Evcn morc tc||ingis thc graph
CoctzmannandNcwmancompUconta||-bui|dingconstructionin Mcw
YorkCity [scc Figurc 2) . Tc propcrtybooms thatprcccdcd thc crashcs
ofI 929, I 97J , I 987, and2OOOstandout| ikcapikcstad. TcbuiIdingswc
scc aroundus inNcw York City, thcypoignant|y notc,rcprcscnt "morc
than an architcctural movcmcnt, thcywcrclargc|ythc man|fcstation of
a widcsprcad hnancia| phcnomcnon'' Noting that rca| cstatc sccuritics
in thc I 92Os wcrc cvcrybit as "toxic as thcy arc now,` thcy wcnt on to
conc|udc.
1c Ncw York sky|inc is a stark rcmindcr ol sccuritization`s abiIity
to conncct cap|ta| lrom a spccu|at|vc pub|ic to bu|dng vcnturcs. An
incrcascd undcrstanding of thc car|y rca| cstatc sccuritics markct has thc
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potent|a| to providc a VaIuabIeinput whcn modcIing lor WorstLasescc-
naros|n memturo. Opt|m|sm |n hnanLim marketshasthepowor to ra|sc
stcc| , but it docs not makc a buiIding pay.
C|car|y, propcrtymarket booms and busts arc inextricab|y intcrtwincd
withspecu|ative hnancia|t|ows,andtheseboomsandbustshaveserious
conscqucnccs for thc macroeconomy in gcnera|, aswel|as a|| manncr
ofextcrna|ity edectsuponrcsourcedep|etionandenvironmenta|dcgra-
dation. Furthermore, thegreater thcsharc ofpropcrty markets in GDP,
themorcsignihcanttheconncctionbetwecnhnancingandinvcstmcntin
thc bui| tcnvronmcnt bccomcsasa potcntia|source ofmacro criscs. l n
thecaseofdeve|opingcountriessuchasTai|and-wherehousingmort-
gages,iftheWor|dBankRcportisright,areequiva|enttoon|ylOpcrcent
ofCDP-a property crash could certain|y contr|buteto, but not|ike|y
tota||y power, a macroeconomic co||apse [of the sort that occurred in
l 997-98), whereasin the UnitedStates,wherehousingmortgage debt is
equiva|entto4OpercentofCDP,itmostcertain|ycou|dandddgenerate
a crisis n2OO7-O9.

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ourcc: o]fcr Wom Umzmomtundrdnk Acwm0n, ccurtlrLflon n lhc l 20;NbL Workn_ F0_c I >H
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LQ, l 8V~ZI
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo JJ
JmL NPKAl bJ |LKb|LLJ| VL
S|ncc bourgco|s thcory, | fnot tota||y b||nd, at bcst | ack |ns|ghts | n
rc|ating urban dcvclopmcnts to macrocconom|c disruptions, onc
wou|d havc thoughtt hat Marx|st crit|cs, w|th thc|rvauntcd h|stor|ca|-
matcria|ist mcthods, wou|d havc had a hc|d day w|th hcrcc dcnun-
ciat|ons ofsoaringrcntsand thc savagc dsposscssons charactcrist|cof
what Marx and Engc|s rcfcrrcd to as thc sccondary forms ofcxp|oita-
t|onv|s|tcdupon thcworkmgc|asscs |n thc|r||v|ngplaccsbymcrchant
cap|ta||stsand|and|ords.Tcywou|dhavc sctthcappropr|at|ono|spacc
w|thin thc city through gcntrihcation, high-cnd condo construction,
and "Disncyhcation" againstthc barbarc homc|cssncss, |ackofahord-
ab|c housing, and dcgrad|ng urban cnv|ronmcnts [both phys|ca|, as in
a|rqual|ty,andsocia|,as|ncrumb||ngschoo|s andthcso-ca||cd"bcn|gn
ncg|cct" ofcducation) for thc mass ofthc population. Tcrc has bccn
somcofthat| na rcstr|ctcd c| rc|c o|Marxsturban|sts andcrt|ca|thco-
rists [I countmysclfonc). Butin fact thcstructurc ofthinkingwithin
Marxsm gcncra||y is distrcssing|ys|mi|arto thatw|th|nbourgcoiscco-
nomics.Thcurbanistsarcvicwcdasspccialists,whi| cthctru|ysignhcant
corc of macrocconom|c Marx|st thcor|z|ng l|cs clscwhcrc. Aga|n, thc
hct|onofa nat|ona|cconomytakcsprcccdcnccbccauscthatiswhcrcthc
data can most cas||ybc found and, to bc fa|r, whcrc somc ofthcmajor
po||cydcc|sions arc t akcn. Thc rolc ofthc propcrty markctin crcating
thccrisscond|tionsof 2OO7-O9, and|tsahcrmathofuncmp|oymcntand
austcrity[muchof |tadm|n|stcrcdatthc|oca|andmun|c|pa||cvc|) ,isnot
wc||undcrstood, bccauscthcrchasbccn noscr|ous attcmpttointcgratc
an undcrstand|ng ofproccsscs ofurban|zat|on and bu||t-cnv|ronmcnt
formation|ntothcgcncra|thcoryofthc|aws ofmotionofcapita|. Asa
conscqucncc, many Marxist thcorists, who |ovc criscs to dcath, tcnd to
trcatthcrcccntcrashasanobviousmanifcstationofthc|rfavorcdvcrsion
ofMarx|st cr|s|s thcory[bc|tfa|||ngratcs ofproht, undcrconsumption,
orwhatcvcr).
Marx |stosomcdcgrcc himsc|fto b|amc, thoughunwitting|yso, for
thisstatc ofaha|rs. ln thc introduct|on to thc Crundt|ssc, hc statcs that
hisobj cctivcinwr|tingCa|ta| istocxp||catcthcgcncra||aws ofmot|on
ofcapita|. Tis mcant conccntrating cxc|usvc|yon thc production and
J KCCCL | J| Co
rca|ization ofsurp|usva|ucwhi|c abstracting from and cxc|udngwhat
hc ca||cd thc "particu|aritics" ofdistrbution [ mtcrcst,rcnts,taxcs,and
cvcnactua|wagcand proht ratcs) , sncc thcsc arc accidcnta|, conjunc-
tura|andof- thc-momcntnspaccandtmc. Hca|soabstractcdfrom thc
spccihcitics ofcxchangc rc|ations,such as supp|y and dcmand and thc
statc ofcompcttion. Whcn dcmand and supp|y arc in cqui|ibrium, hc
argucd, thcyccasctocxp|ain anything,whil cthccocrcivc| awsofcompc-
titonfunctonasthccnforccrrathcrthan thedctcrminantofthcgcncra|
|awsofmotonofcapita|. Tsimmcdiatc|yprovokcsthcthoughtofwhat
happcnswhcnthccnforccmcntmcchansms|acking,ashappcnsundcr
condtionsofmonopo| ization,andwhathappcnswhcnwcnc|udcspata|
compctiton in our thnkng,which s, as has |ongbccnknown,a|ways
a form ofmonopo|isticcompctition [as in thc casc ofintcr- urban com-
pctition) . Fina||y, Marx dcpicts consumption as a "sngu|arty"thosc
uniqucmstanccsthattogcthcrmakc upa commonmodcof|fc-whch
nbcingchaotc,unprcdctab|canduncontro|lab|c, isthcrcforc,nMarx's
vcw,gcncra||youtsidc ofthchc|d ofpo|tica|cconomy[thcstudyofusc
valucs,hcdcc|arcson thchrstpagcofCa||a
(
, isthcbusncssofhstory
and not ofpo| |tica| cconomy), and thcrcforc potcntia|ly dangcrous for
capita|. HardtandNcgr havc thcrcforc rcccnt|ybccn at pains to rcvivc
this conccpt, for thcyscc singu|aritcs,whchbotharsc from thc prolf-
cration ofthccommonand a|ways pointback to thc common, as a kcy
partofrcsstancc.
Marx a|so dcntihcd anothcr |cvc|-t hatofthc mctabo|icrc|ation to
naturc,whichisa univcrsalcondtion ofa||formso|humansocictyand
thcrc|orc broad|y |rrc|cvant to an undcrstandng ofthcgcncra||awso|
motionofcapita|undcrstoodasaspccihcsocia| andhstorca|construct.
Envronmcnta| issucshavc a shadowy prcscncc throughout Cap||a| for
thisrcason[whchdocsnotimp|ythatMarx thoughtthcmunimportant
orinsgnihcant,anymorcthan hcdismisscdconsumptionasrrc|cvant
nthcgrandcrschcmcofthings). '
Troughout most of Ca||a
(
, Marx stcks broad|y to thc framc-
workoutlncd n thc Crundr|sse. Hc focuscs sharp|y on thc gcncra| ty
of production of surp|us va|uc and cxc|udcs cvcrything c|sc. Hc rcc-
ognizcs from tmc to timc that thcrc arc prob|cms in so doing. Tcrc
s, hc notcs, somc "doub|c positing" going on|and, |abor, moncy,
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo J1
andcommoditics arc cruc|a| facts ofproduction, wh|c |ntcrcst, rcnts,
wagcs, and prohts arc cxc|udcd from thc ana|yss as part|cu|ar|t|cs
ofd|str|but|on.
Tcv|rtuc ofMarx's approach |s that |t a||ows a vcry ccar account
ofthc gcncra||awsofmot |on ofcap|ta|tobcconstructcd |n awaythat
abstracts from thc spcchc and part|cu|ar cond|t|ons ofh|s t|mc [such
as thc cr|scs of l 847-48 and l 857-58) . T|s |s why wc can st||| rcad
h|m todaym waysthatarcrc|cvant to ourownt|mcs.But th|sapproach
|mposcscosts. Tobcg|n w|th, Marx makcs c|car thatthc ana|ys|s ofan
actuaUycx|st|ngcap|tal|stsoc|cty/s|tuat|onrcqu|rcsad|a|cct|cal|ntcgra-
t|onofthc un|vcrsa|, thc gcncra|,thcpart|cu|ar, andthcs|ngu|araspccts
of a soc|cty construcd as a work|ng, organc tota||ty. Wc cannot hopc,
thcrcforc,tocxp|an actualcvcnts [suchasthccr|s|s of 2OO7-O9)smp|y
|ntcrmsofthcgcncral|awsofmot|onofcap|ta|[th|s |sonc ofmyobjcc-
t|ons to thoscwho tryto cram thc facts ofthcprcscntcr|s|s|nto somc
thcoryofthc fa|||ngratc ofproht). ut, convcrscly, wc cannotattcmpt
such an cxplanat|on w|thout rcfcrcncc to thc gcncral |aws of mot|on
[though Marxh|msclfappcarsto doso D h|s account|n Ca||a| ofthc
|ndcpcndcntandautonomous"hnanc| a| andcommcrc|a|cr|s|sofI 847-
48,orcvcnmorc dramat|cally|n h|s h|stor|ca|stud|csof7e E|gh|een|h
8ruma|re andC|ass 8|ru@|es |n |rance, whcrcthcgcncra||aws ofmot|on
ofcapta|arcncvcrmcnt|oncd) . ' '
Sccond|y,thcabstract|onsw|th|nMarx'schoscn|cvc|o f gcncra||tystart
to fracturcasthcargumcnt|n Ca||a| progrcsscs.Tcrcarcmanycxam-
p|csofth|s,butthconcthat|smostconsp|cuous,and|nanycascmost
gcrmanc to thc argumcnthcrc, rc|atcs to Marx`s hand|ng o|thc crcdt
systcm. Scvcra| t|mcs |n Vo|umc l and rcpcatcd|y |n Vo|umc 2, Marx
|nvokcsthccrcd|tsystcmonlyto|ay|tas|dcasa factofd|str|but|onthat
hc|s notprcparcdycttoconfront. Tcgcncral|awsofmot|onhcstud|cs
in Vo|umc 2, part|cu|arly thosc ofhxcd cdp|tal c|rcu|at|on [ |nc|ud|ng
|nvcstmcnt |n thc bu|lt cnv|ronmcnt) andwork|ng pcr|ods, product|on
pcrods, crcu|atontmcs,andturnovcrt|mcs,a||cndupnoton|y|nvok-
|ngbut necess||a||ng thc crcd|tsystcm. Hc |svcrycxp||c|ton th|s po|nt.
Whcncommcntngonhow thcmoncycapita|advanccdmusta|waysbc
grcatcr than that app||cd |n surplus-va|uc product|on |n ordcr to dca|
w|thd|hcrcnt|a|turnovcrt|mcs,hcnotcshowchangcsm turnovcrt|mcs
J KCCCL | J| Co
can "sct frcc" somcofthcmoncycar|cradvanccd. "Ts moncycapta|
that s sct frcc by thc mcchansm ofthc turnovcr movcmcnt [ togct hcr
wththcmoncycap|ta|sctfrccbythcsucccssvcrcuxofthchxcdcap|ta|
and that nccdcd forvarab|ccapta| ncvcry|abor proccss) mustp|aya
sgnhcantro|c,assoonasthccrcdtsystcm has dcvc|opcd, and mus| a|so
]orm one o] |he ]ounda||ons ]or |h|s'' ' ' Int h|sandothcrsm|arcommcnts
t s madc c|carthatthccrcdtsystcmbccomcsabso|utc|yncccssaryfor
capta| crcu|aton, and that somc account|ng ofthc crcdt systcm has
to bcncorporatcd nto thcgcncra|lawsofmoton ofcapta|. utwhcn
wcgctto thc analyssofthc crcdtsystcmnVo|umcJ, wchnd thatthc
ntcrcstratc [apartcu|arty) ssctj ont|ybysupp|yanddcmandandby
thcstatcofcompctton-two spcchctcs thathavc car|crbccn tota||y
cxcludcd from thc thcorctca| |cvc| ofgcncra|ty atwhch Marx prcfcrs
towork.
l mcntonth|sbccauscthcsgnhcanccofthcrulcsthatMarxmposcd
uponhsnqurcs| nCa||a| has|argc|ybccn gorcd.Whcnthcscru|cs
ncccssar|ygctnot on|ybcntbutbrokcn, ashappcnsn thccasc ofcrcdt
and ntcrcst, thcn ncw prospccts for thcorzng arc opcncd up that go
bcyondthcms|ghtsthat Marxhasalrcadyproduccd. Marx actua||y rcc-
ognzcs ths mght happcn at thc vcry outsct ofhs cndcavors. In thc
Crundr|sse, hcthussaysofconsumpton,thcmostrcca|ctrantofhscat-
cgorcsforana|yssgvcnthcsngu|artcsnvo|vcd,thatwh|ct,|kc thc
studyofuscva|ucs,"actua||ybc|ongsoutsdcofcconomcs,'thcpossb|-
tycxstsforconsumptonto rcact "n turnupon thcpont ofdcparturc
[product|on) andn|tatcthcwho|cproccssancw'` ' ' Th|s s partcu|arly
thc casc w|th productvc consumpton, thc |abor proccss tsc|f. Mar|o
Trontand thoscwho fo||owcd n hs footstcps,such as TonyNcgr,arc
thcrcforcpcrfcct|ycorrccttoscc thc|aborproccssastsclfconsttutcdas
a sngu|arty, ntcrna|zcdwthn thcgcncra||awsofmoton ofcap|ta|. ' '
Thc |cgcndary dmcu|tcs faccd by capta|sts as thcy scck to mob|zc
thc "an|ma|sprts" ofthcworkcrs to produccsurp|usva|uc sgna|sthc
cxstcnccofthssngular|tyIH thc hcart ofthc productonproccss [ths
s nowhcrcmorc obvous than n thc constructon ndustry, aswc sha||
soonscc) . Intcrna|zng thc crcdtsystcm and thcrc|atonbctwccn thc
ratcofntcrcstandthcratcofprohtwthnthcgcncra||awsofproducton,
crcu|aton, and rca|zaton ofcapta| s |kcwsc a dsrupt|vc ncccssty
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo JV
fwcarcto bring Marx`s thcorctca| apparatusmorc acutc|y t obcaron
actua|cvcnts.
Tc intcgration ofcrcdit into thc gcncra| thcory has to bc carcfu||y
donc, howcvcr, |n ways that prcscrvc, a|bcit in a transformcd statc, thc
theorctca| nsghts a|rcady gancd. We cannot, for cxamp|c, trcat thc
crcdtsystcmsmp|yas ancnttyinitsc|f,a kndofcmorcsccncc| ocatcd
on Wa|| Strcct or in thc City of London that hoats frccly abovc thc
grounded activitics on Main Strcct. A |ot ofcrcdit-based activity may
ndccdbc spccu|ativc froth, anda disgustingcxcrcsccnccofhuman|ust
forgo|dandpurcmoncypowcr.Butmuchofitisfundamcnta|andabso-
|utc|y ncccssary to thc function|ng ofcap|ta|. Tc boundarcs bctwccn
what sncccssaryandwhats [a) ncccssari|yhctitous [asin thccascof
statcandmortgagcdcbt)and[b)purccxccss,arcnotcasytodchnc.
C|car|y,totrytoanalyzcthcdynamicsofthcrcccntcrisisandtsahcr-
mathw|thoutrcfcrcnccto thc crcdtsystcm[wthmortgagcs stand|ngat
4OpcrccntofCDPinthcUnitcdStatcs) ,consumcrsm[7Opcrccntofthc
driv|ngforcc inthcUScconomycomparcdtoJ5pcrccntinChina) , and
thcstatcofcompctit|on[ monopo|ypowcrinhnancia|,rca|cstatc, rctai|-
ng, and manyothcrmarkcts) wou|d bc a rdicu|ous cntcrprsc. In thc
UnitcdStatcs $I . 4tri||onnmortgagcs,many ofthcm toxic, arcsitt ing
onthc sccondarymarkctsofFannicMac and Frcdd|cMac, thus forc|ng
thcgovcrnmcnttoa||ocatc$4OObi|liontoa potcnt|a|rcscucchort[w|th
around $ l 42 bi||ion a|rcady spcnt) . To undcrstand this, wc nccd to
unpackwhatMarxmightmcanbythccatcgoryof"hctit|ouscapita|"and
itsconncctivityto |andandpropcrty markcts.Wenecdawayto under-
stand how sccuritization, as Coctzmann and Ncwman put it, connccts
"capta|from a spcculativc pub|ic to buildingvcnturcs.` For was t not
spccu|ationinthcva|ucsof |andandhousingpriccsandrcntsthatp|aycd
a fundamcnta|ro|cinthcformatonofthiscrisis
Fictitiouscapta|,forMarx,snotahgmcntofsomcWa||Strccttradcr's
cocainc-add|cdbran. It sa fctshconstruct,whichmcans,givcn Marx's
charactcrizatonof |ctishisminVo|umc l o|Ca||a|, thattisrca|cnough,
butthatitisa surfaccphcnomcnonthatdisguscssomcthngimportant
about undcr|ying socal rc|ations. Whcn a bank|cnds to thc statc and
rccc|vcs|ntcrcstnrcturn,itappcarsasifthcrcissomcthingdircct|ypro-
ductivc going on within thcstatcthatisactua||yproducingva|uc,whcn
4 KCCCL | J| Co
most[butnota|l, asI sha||short|yshow)ofwhatgocsonwithinthcstatc
[||kc hghtingwars) has nothingto do w|th va|ucproduction. Whcn thc
banklcnds to a consumcr to buya housc and rcccivcs a How ofintcr-
cst |n rcturn, |t makcs |t sccm as |fsomcth|ng |s go|ng on |n thc housc
that is dircct|yproducingva|uc, whcn thatis not thccasc. Whcnbank
takc upbondssucs toconstructhospita|s, un|vcrsitcs, schoo|s and thc
| kc inrcturnforintcrcst, itsccmsasifva|ucisbcingproduccdinthosc
nstitut|onswhcntisnot. Whcnbank|cndtopurchasc|andandprop-
crtyin scarch ofcxtract|ngrcnts, thcnthc dstr|butvc catcgoryofrcnt
bccomcsabsorbcd |nto thc owofhctit|ouscap|ta|crcu|ation. ' ` Whcn
banks | cndto othcrbanks, orwhcnthcCcntralank|cndsto thccom-
mcrca|bankswho|cndto|andspccu|ators |ookingtoappropriatcrcnts,
thcnhctitiouscapita||ooksmorc andmorc |ikcan inhnitcrcgrcssionof
hct|onsbuiltuponhctions. Lcvcrag|ngatcvcrhighcrratios[lcndingout
th|rty as opposcdto thrcc tmcs thc amountofcash dcpos|ts on hand)
magnhcs thc hctonal amounts ofmoncycapita|in circu|ation. Tcsc
arca||cxamp|csofhctitiouscap|ta|formationsandt| ows. And|tisthcsc
Howsthatconvcrtrca|intounrca|cstatc.
Marx`s pont | s that thc |ntcrcst that is pa|d comcs from va|uc pro-
duct|onsomcwhcrcc|sctaxat|onordircctcxtractionsonsurp|us-va|uc
production, or|cv|csonrcvcnucs[wagcs andprohts). Andfor Marx, of
coursc,thcon|yplaccwhcrcva|ucandsurp|usva|ucarccrcatcd|snthc
|aborproccss ofproduction. What gocson in hctitious capta| circu|a-
t|on maybc socia||y ncccssaryto sustain|ngcap|tal|sm. I t may bc part
ofthcncccssarycostsofproductionandrcproducton. Sccondaryforms
ofsurp|us va|uc can bc cxtractcd by captalistcntcrpriscs through thc
cxp|o|tationofworkcrscmp|oycdbyrctailcrs,banksandhcdgcfunds. ut
Marx'spo|ntsthat, fthcrc|snova|ucandsurp|usva|ucbcngproduccd
nproduct|onngcncra|, thcnthcscscctorscannotcx|stbythcmsc|vcs.If
nosh|rtsandshocswcrcproduccd, whatwou|drcta||crssc||
Tcrc is,howcvcr,acavcatthat istcrr|b|yimportant. SomcofthcHow
o|whatsccmstobchcttiouscapta|can ndccdbcnvo|vcdnva|uccrc-
at|on. Whcn I convcrtmymortgagcd houscntoa swcatshopcmp|oy|ng
i|lcga|immigrants,thchouscbccomcshxcdcapita|inproducton. Whcn
thcstatc bu||ds roads and othcr nfrastructurcs thatfunct|on as co||cc-
tivcmcansofproductonforcapital,thcscthcnhavctobccatcgorzcdas
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo 1
"product|vcstatccxpcnditurcs''Whcnthchospitalor univcrs|tybccomcs
thcs|tcfor|nnovat|onanddcs|gnofncwdrugs,cquipmcnt,andthc||kc,
|tbccomcsasitcofproduction. Marxwou|dnotbcfazcdbythcsccavcats
ata||. As hcsays ofhxcd capita|, whcthcrsomcth|ng functions as hxcd
capita|ornotdcpcndsuponitsuscandnot uponitsphysica|qua|it|cs.
lb
Fixcd capita| dcc|incs whcn tcxt||c |ohs arc convcrtcd into condomini -
ums, wh| | cmicro-hnanccconvcrtspcasanthutsi nto[farchcapcr) mcd
capita|ofproduct|on|
Muchofthcva|ucandsurp|usva|uccrcatcdinproductioniss|phoncd
ohtopass,bya||manncrofcomp||catcdpaths,throughhctitiouschan-
nc|s.Andwhcnbanks|cndtoothcrbanks,cvcn|cvcragc oncachothcr,
thcn|t|sc|carthata|lmanncrofbothsocia||yunncccssarys|dc- paymcnts
andspccu|ativcmovcmcntsbccomcpossib|c,bu||tupon thcpcrpctua||y
shihing tcrrain of huctuating assct va|ucs. Tosc assct va|ucs dcpcnd
uponacr|t|ca|proccssof"capita||zat|on,`whi ch Marxv|cwsasaformof
hctitiouscap|ta|formation.
Any rcgu|ar pcriodic incomc can bc capita|ized by rcckoning it up, on thc
b0SiS ofIh0 0V0l0g0I0I0 ofnI0l0SI 0S Ih0I SUm thata capIaI |ont out at
this |nterest rate wouId y|e|d . . . For the person who buys th|s ownersh|p
IiIC thc annua| [money rcceivcd] docs actua||y reprcscnt thc convcrsion
ofthccap|taI hchasinV0Sl0dinIU intorost. In this way, ah connoction with
the actua| process ol capta|'s VaOrZaIOn |s |ost, rght down to tho |ast
tracc, conhrming the notion that ca||a||saurcmar| ca||yra|cr|zcday||s
cancuers.'
A rcvcnuc stream from some asset, such as |and, property, a stock, or
whatcvcr,isass|gncdacap|ta|va|ucatwhich|tcanbctradcd,dcpcnding
upon thc intcrcst and discountratcsdctcrmincdbysupp|y and dcmand
conditions in thc moncymarkct. How to va|uc such asscts whcn thcrc
|s no markct for thcm bccamc a hugc prob|cm in 2OO8, and t has not
goncaway.Tcqucstionofhowtoxicthctoxicassctshc|dbyFannicMac
rca||yarcgivcs almostcvcryonca hcadachc. [What|sthcrca| va|ucofa
forcc|oscd housc for wh|ch thcrc |s no markct) Tcrc is an |mportant
cchohcrcofthccapita|va|uccontrovcrsythatcruptcdandwasprompt|y
bur|cd, | ikc a|| manncr ofothcr inconvcncnt truths, in convcntiona|
cconomicthcory| nthccar|y l 97Os.
+ KCCCL | J| Co
Tcprob|cmthatthccrcdtsystcmposcs|sthatts on thconchand
v|ta| tothcproducton,c|rcu|at|on, andrca||zat|onofcapta|howsatthc
samctmcasts,onthcothcrhand,thcpnnaclcofa| |manncrofspccu-
|at|vc and othcr "|nsanc forms." lt |s th|s thatlcd Marx to charactcr|zc
IsaacPerere-who,a|ongwthhsbrothcr

m|| e, wasoncofthcmastcrs
ofthc spccu|atvc rcconstructon ofurban Pars undcr Haussmann-as
hav|ng"thcn|cc|ym|xcdcharactcrofsw|nd|crandprophct'' '
LP|lJPL PLLONOLPJ| L| JmKLOL|
OKOPl| PJ| Ll
Urbanzaton,l havc |ongargucd, has bccn a kcymcansfor thcabsorp-
t|on ofcap|ta| and |abor surp|uscs throughout capta|sm's hstory. ' It
has a vcrypart|cu|ar funct|on |n thc dynam|cs ofcap|talaccumulat|on
bccausc ofthc long work|ng pcr|ods and turnovcr tmcs and thc |ong
|fct|mcs of most |nvcstmcnts n thc bult cnvronmcnt. It a|so has a
gcograph|ca|spcc|hc|tysuchthatthcproduct|on ofspaccandofspat|a|
monopo||cs bccomcs |ntcgra| to thc dynamcs of accumu|at|on, not
s|mp|ybyv|rtucofthcchangngpattcrnsofcommodtyhowsovcrspacc
buta|sobyv|rtucofthcvcrynaturcofthccrcatcdandproduccdspaccs
and p|accs ovcr wh|ch such movcmcnts occur. But prcc|scly bccausc
a|| ofths actvty-whch, by thc way, s a hugc|y mportant arcna for
valuc and surp|us-va|uc product|on-|s so |ong- tcrm, |t ca||s for somc
comb|nat|onofhnancccapta|andstatc cngagcmcntsasabsolutc|yfun-
damcntalto| t sfunct|on|ng.T| sact|vty|sc|carlyspccu|at|vc |nt hc|ong
tcrm,anda|waysrunsthcrskofrcp|cat|ng,ata muchlatcrdatc andon
a magn|hcd scalc, thcvcryovcraccumu|at|on cond|t|ons that |t|n|t|a||y
hc|ps to rc||cvc. Hcncc thc cr|ss- pronc charactcr of urban and othcr
formsofphys|calnfrastructuralnvcstmcnts [transcont|ncnta|ralroads
andhghways,dams,andthc| kc) .
Tc cycl|ca|charactcrofsuch|nvcstmcntshas bccnwcl|documcntcd
for thc n|nctccnth ccntury |n thc mct|cu|ous workofBr|n|cyTomas
[sccFgurc J ). ' Butthc thcoryofconstructon busncsscyc|cs bccamc
ncg|cctcd ahcr l 945 or so, |n part bccausc statc-|cd Kcyncs|an-sty|c
|ntcrvcnt|ons wcrc dccmcd chcct|vc |n hattcn|ng thcm out. Robcrt
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5mnc:oc-|:y1mmm,Mgahonznd Lconomtc Lrowlh. A b|udyoILrczI hrtam znd |hcAdant|cLconomy,
Cemutdg, C:tm0ritl_c Um|crrtyFn:r
r_ut8 J LCn_-Kun bu8ln888 LyC88 ln lh8 US nO U8 L
++ KCCCL | J| Co
Cott| icb, | n a dcta||cd study of many loca| bu||ding cyc| cs [pub||shcd
in l 976), |dcnthcd |ongswngs n rcs| dcnt|a| bu| |d|ng cyc|cs, with an
avcragc pcrodcityofI 9 . 7 ycars and a standard dcvaton ofhvcycars.
Buths dataa|sosuggcstcdthatthcscswngshadbccn dampcncd,fnot
c|mnatcd,durngthcpcri odahcrWor|dWarI. ' 'utthcabandonmcnt
ofsystcmc Kcyncsiancontra-cyc||ca| ntcrvcnt|ons ahcr thcm|d l 9 7Os
in many parts ofthc wor|dwou|d suggcst that a rcturn to somc such
cyc|ica|bchavorwasmorcthana||tt|c| |ke|y.Tisscxact|ywhatwchavc
sccn, though I thnkthc casc can bc madc that thcsc swings arc morc
strong|yconncctcdtovo|at|cassctbubb|csnowthanwasthccascnthc
past[thoughthcNBERaccountsofthcI 92Osmghtbctakcnascvdcncc
contraryto thatvicw) . Tcsc cyc|ica| movcmcnts-and th|s is ofcqua|
importancchavca| socomctocxhbtamorccomp|catcdgcographca|
conhgurat|on. oomsnoncp|acc[thcUSsouthandwcstnthc I 98Os)
corrcspondtocrashcssomcwhcrcc|sc [thco|dcrdcndustra||z|ngct|cs
ofthcmdwcstofthcsamcpcrod).
Without a gcncra| pcrspcctvc of this sort, wc cannot cvcn bcgn
to undcrstand thc dynamcs that |cd nto thc catastrophc ofhousng
markcts and urban|zat|on |n 2OO8 |n ccrta|n rcg|ons and ctics ofthc
Un|tcd Statcs, aswc|| asn Span, Irc|and, and thc Un|tcdKingdom. y
thc samc tokcn, wc cannot undcrstand somc ofthc paths that arc cur-
rcnt|ybcngtakcn,partcu|ar|yn Chna,togct outofthcmcssthatwas
fundamcnta||y produccd c|scwhcrc. For |n thc samc way that rn|cy
Tomas documcnts contra- cyc|ca|movcmcntsbctwccnBrtan andt hc
Un|tedStates|n thc nnctcenth ccntury, such thata boom |n rcs|dcntia|
constructon on oncsdc ofthc At|ant|c wasba|anccd byrcccssonson
thcothcr, sowcnowsccstagnat|on|nconstructonm thcUntcdStatcs
andmuchofEuropcbcngcountcrba|anccdbya hugc urbanzatonand
nfrastructura| |nvcstmcnt boom ccntcrcd | n Ch|na [wth scvcra| oh-
shootsc|scwhcrc,part|cu|ar|yn thcso- ca||cdBRICcountr|cs). Andjust
to gctthcmacro-pcturcconncctonrght, wc shou|d | mmcdatc|y notc
thatthcUntcdStatcsand Europcarcm|rcdin|owgrowth,wh||cChi na
isrcg|stcrnga IOpcrccntgrowthratc[wththcothcrRICcountrcsnot
farbch|nd).
Tc prcssurc for thchousng markct and urban dcvc|opmcnt n thc
Untcd Statcs to absorb surp|us and ovcraccumu|ating cap|ta| through
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo J
spccu|atvc actvty bcgan to bu|d in thc md I 99Os, whcn Prcsdcnt
C| nton |aunchcd hs Natona| Partncrs n Homcowncrship nitiatvc
to confcr thc supposcd bcnchts of homcowncrship on |owcr-incomc
and minority popu|ations. Po|itical prcssurcs wcrc put on rcspcctab|c
hnancia| institutions, inc|uding Fannic Mac and Frcddic Mac [govcrn-
mcnt-sponsorcdcntcrpriscsho|dngandmarkctingmortgagcs),to|owcr
thcir | cnding standards to accommodatc this initiativc. Tc mortgagc
insttutions rcspondcdwthgusto-|cndmgatw||,short- circutngrcg-
u|atory contro|swh|c thcir drcctors rcapcd hugc pcrsona| fortuncs,
a|| in thcnamc ofdoinggoodbyhc|pingundcrpriv|cgcd pcop|c cnjoy
thc supposcdbcnchts ofhomcowncrship. Tis proccss hcrcc|y accc|cr-
atcdahcrthccndofthchgh- tcchbubb|candthcstockmarkctcrashof
2OO l . ythcn, thc housing |obby, |cd by Fannic Mac, was wc|dcd into
an autonomous ccntcr ofcvcr-growing ad|ucncc, inhucncc, and powcr
capab|c of corrupt|ng cvcrything from Congrcss and thc rcgu|atory
agcncicsto prcstigousacadcmc cconomists [ inc|uding}oscphStig|itz),
who produccdrcams ofrcscarch to showthatthci ractviticswcrcvcry
|ow- risk.Tcinucnccofthcscinstitutions,couplcdwiththc|owintcrcst
ratcsfavorcdbyCrccnspanatthcFcd, unqucstionab|yfuc|cd thcboom
n housing product on and rca| ization. '' As Coctzmann and Ncwman
rcmark, hnancc [backcdbythcstatc) canbui|d citicsandsuburbs,butit
cannotncccssari|ymakc thcm pay.Sowhatfuc|cdthc dcmand
|| LJ| Jl LOb LP|| JPL P|L || LJ| L|b
JmPJ LP||LJ LPbJ
To undcrstand thc dynamcs wc havc to undcrstand how productvc
andhctitiouscapita|circu|ationcombincwithin thccrcditsystcmin thc
contcxt ofpropcrty markcts. Financa| nstitutons |cnd to dcvc|opcrs,
|andowncrs, and constructon companics to bui|d, say, suburban tract
housingaroundSanDicgo,orcondosinF|orida orsouthcrnSpan. Thc
viabi|ityofthisscctorrc|ics on thcassumptionthatva|uccannoton|ybc
produccdbuta| sorca|zcd nt hcmarkct . Ts swhcrchcttiouscapita|
comcsin.Moncyis|cnttopurchascrswhoprcsumab|yhavcthcabi|ityto
pay out ofthcir rcvcnucs [wagcs orprohts), which arc capita|izcd as an
+ KCCCL | J| Co
ntcrcstUowon thccapta||cntout. A Uowofhctitouscapita|isnccdcd
tocomp|ctc thcproccssofthcproductionandrca|zationofhousingand
commcrcialpropcrtyvalucs.
Ts dihcrcncc |s sim|ar to that bctwccn what Marx dcnt|hcs |n
Ca||a
(
as "|oan capita|" forproduction and the discounting ofbil|s of
cxchangc whch fac|tatcs thc rca| ization ofvalucs in thc markct. '' l n
thc cascs ofhous|ng and condominium construct|on i n, say, Southcrn
Ca|i|ornia orFlor|da, thesamehnancccompanycanfurnishthchnancc
to bui|d and thchnancc to buywhat has bccnbuilt. I nsomc instanccs
thc hnanc|al institution organizcs prc-sa|cs on apartmcnts i n condos
thathavc notyct bccn bui|t. Capitalthcrcforc to somc dcgrcc mdnipu"
|atcs and contro|s both supp|y and dcmand for ncw tract housng and
condosaswcl|asforcommcrc|a|propcrtics[whichistotal|yatoddswith
thc idca ofthc frcc|y funct|oning markcts that thc Wor|d ank Rcport
supposcstobcID placc).
utthcsupp|y-dcmandrclationship is|opsidcd, bccauscthcproduc-
tionandcrcu|ationt|mcforhousngand commcrcialpropcrticsisvcry
|ong comparcdwith most othcr commod| t|cs. Tis iswhcrc thc dispa-
ratcproduct|on, circu|ation,and turnovcr t|mcs,wh|chMarx socanni|y
ana|yzcs in Vo|umc2 ofCa||a|, bccomccrucial. Contractsthathnancc
constructionarcdrawnuplongbcforcsa|cscanbcgin.Tctimc-lagsarc
ohcnsubstant ial.Ti ssparticu|arlytrucforcommcrcia|rca|cstatc. 1c
Emprc Statc ui| ding n Ncw York opcncd on May Day l 9J l , almost
twoycars ahcr thc stockmarkct crash and morc than thrccycarsahcr
thc rca| cstatc crash. Tc twin towcrswcrc p|anncd bcforc but opcncd
ahcrthccrashofI 97J [andforycarscou|dhndnoprivatctcnants) . Tc
downtown rcbu|lding on thc 9/ l I si tc is about to comc on |inc whcn
commcrcia|propcrtyvalucsarcdcprcsscdl
Tc cxisting stock of propcrtics that can bc tradcd [somc of |t of
quitcancicntorign) isa|so|argc rc|ativc towhatcanbcproduccd. Tota|
housingsupp|y|s thcrcforc rclativc|y inclastic rclativc to morc vo|ati|c
dcmandshihs:historica||y|thasprovcdvcrydimcultindcvc|opcdcoun-
trcsto incrcasc thc housingstockinanyoncycarbymorc than 2 orJ
pcrccntcvcnwththcgrcatcstchort[ thoughChina, asina||things,may
brcakthroughthatconstraint) .
St|mu|atngdcmandbytaxationandpub|icpo|iLygmmicksandothcr
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo 1
nccntvcs [suchas ncrcasngthcvo|umcofsub-primcmortgagcs) docs
not ncccssarily c|icit an incrcascdsupp|y. it mcrc|y n|| atcs priccs and
stmu|atcsspccu|ation. As much ifnot morc moncycan thcn bc madc
from hnancia| trading on cxisting housing rathcr than from bui|ding
ncw. lt bccomcs morc prohtablcto hnance shady mortgagc-originatng
nst tutons | kc Countrywdc than actua| housng production. Evcn
morc tcmpting is to invcst in co||atcralizcd dcbt ob|igations madc up
of tranchcs ofmortgages gathercd together in somc spurious|y high|y
ratcd invcstmcnt vchic|c [supposcd|y "as safc as houscs") in which thc
Uowofintcrcstfrom homcowncrsprovidcsa stcadyincomc[nomattcr
whcthcrthchomcowncrsarccrcditworthyornot) .1iswascxactlywhat
happcncd n thcUntcdStatcsas thc sub-prmc stcamro||crgotgong.
Copiousamountsofhctitiouscapita|Howcdintohousinghnancctomc|
dcmand, buton|ya partofitcndcdupin ncwhousingproducton. Tc
sub- primc markctfor mortgagcs,whichstoodat around$JObi|lion in
thcmid I 9 9Os,rosc to $ I J Ob||ion by2OOO,andht an al|- timchigh of
S625 bi||ion in 2OO5. '` Tcrc wasnowaythat such a rapd incrcasc in
dcmandcou|d bc parallc|cdbyan cxpansion ofsupply, no mattcr how
hard thc bui|dcrs tricd. So priccs rosc, and it sccmcd |ikc thcy cou|d
riscforcvcr.
ut thisa|| dcpcndcdona continuouscxpansionofthc Hows ofhcti-
tious capital, and on kccping intact thc fctish bclicfthatcapita| can bc
"automatcal|yvalorzcdbytsownpowcrs'`'Marx`spoint,ofcoursc,s
that,inthcfaccofannsumccncyofvaluc- crcationthroughproducton,
thatfantasymustincvitab|ycomctoastickycnd. Andindccditdid.
Tcc|assintcrcstsinvo|vcdon thcproductionsdcarc,howcvcr, a|so
|opsidcd,and ths hasimp|cationsforwho cndsupholdingthc"sticky
cnd'` ankcrs, dcvclopcrs, and constructon companics eas|y combinc
to forgc a c|ass a||iancc [onc that ohcn dominatcs what is ca||cd "thc
urban growth machnc" both po|itca||y and cconomica||y'). ut con-
sumcrhousingmortgagcsarcsingu|arand dispcrscd,andohcninvo|vc
|oanstothoscwho occupya dihcrcntc|ass or,particu|ar|yin thc Untcd
Statcs[thoughnotinIrc|and) , racia|orcthnicposition.Withsccuritiza-
tionofmortgagcs,thchnancccompanycou|dsmplypassanyrskonto
somconcc|sc[forcxamp|c,FannicMac,whichwascagcrtoprocurcsuch
riskaspartofitsgrowthstratcgy) whichisprccisc|ywhatthcydid,ahcr
+ KCCCL | J| Co
hav|ngcrcamcdodal|thcorg|nat|onand|cga|fccsthatthcycou|d. l fthc
hnanccrhastochooscbctwccnthcbankruptcyofadcvclopcrbccauscof
fa|urcsofrca||zatonorthcbankruptcyandforcc|osurconthcpurchascr
ofhous|ng[part|cu|ar|y|fthcpurchascr|sfromthc|owcrc|asscsLfrom
a racal orcthncmmortyand thc mortgagchas a|rcadybccn passcdon
tosomconcc|sc), thcnt|sfa|r|yclcarwh|chwaythchnanc|alsystcmwl|
|can. Classandracal prcjudccsarc|nvarablynvo|vcd.
Spccu|at|vcly, thc assctmarkctsconsttutcdbyhous|ngand|andhavc
a Ponz| charactcr wthouta Bcrnc Madodat thctop. l buya propcrty,
thcpropcrtyprccsgo up, anda rsngmarkctcncouragcsothcrsto buy.
Whcn thcpoo| oftru|y crcd|tworthybuycrs drcs up, thcn why notgo
furthcrdownthc|ncomclaycrstoh|ghcr- r|skconsumcrs,cnd|ngupw|th
no- ncomcandno-assctbuycrswho mghtganbyH|ppngthc propcrty
aspr|ccsr|scAndso|tgocsunt|thcbubb|cpops.Fnanca|nsttutons
havc trcmcndous |nccnt|vcs tosusta|n thcbubb|cas|ongas thcycan |n
ordcrto cxtractmaxmumfccs. Tc problcm s that thcy ohcn can'tgct
ohthctranbcforc twrccks,bccauscthctra|n |saccc|crat|ngsoqu|ck|y.
Tc dc|usonthatcap|ta|can"va|orzctsc|fbyway ofts own powcrs" s
sclf-pcrpctuat|ngandsc|f-fu|h|||ng,at|castforawh|lc.AsoncofM|chac|
Lcw|s's pcrccptvchnanca|ana|ystswhosawthccrashcomngcar|yon
put|t|n 7e 8|g 8hor|. "Ho|ysh|t,th|s |sn'tjustcrcdt. T|s|sa hct|t|ous
Ponz|schcmc'''
Tcrcsyctanothcrwrnk|ctoth|sstory. Rs|nghous|ngpr|ccsnthc
US |ncrcascd cdcct|vc dcmand in thccconomyatlargc.Inthcycar2OOJ
alonc, I J . 6 m|||onmortgagcswcrc |ssucd [as opposcd to |css than half
thattcn ycarsbc|orc) , worth $J . 7tr|l||on. Ofthcsc, $2. 8 tr|| ||on's worth
wcrcforpurposcs ofrchnancng (for comparson, thc tota| US CDP at
thattmcwaslcssthan$ I 5 tr|||on) . Houscho|dswcrccashngnonthc
r|sngva|uc ofthcrpropcrty. W|thwagcsstagnant,t h|s prov|dcda way
for many to acccss cxtra cash c|thcrfor ncccss|t|cs [|kc hca|th carc) or
consumcrgoods[a ncwcarorvacaton). Tchouscbccamcaconvcn|cnt
cash cow, a pcrsonal ATM machnc, thus boost|ng aggrcgatc dcmand,
|nc|ud|ng,ofcoursc, thc furthcrdcmandfor hous|ng. M|chac|Lcws n
7e |g 8hort cxp|ansthcsortofthingthathappcncd. Tcbabynurscof
onc ofh|s |cad charactcrs cndcd upown|ng,wth hcrs|stcr, s|x houscs
|n Quccns n Ncw York Cty. 'Ahcr thcy bought thc hrst onc, and ts
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo V
va|uc rosc, thc |cndcrscamc andsuggcstcd thcy rchnancc and takc out
$25O,OO0-wh|ch thcy uscd to buy anothcr." Tcn thc pr|cc ofthatonc
rosc, too, andthcyrcpcatcdthccxpcrmcnt. ythctmcthcywcrcdonc
thcyowncdhvc ofthcm and thc markct was fa|||ng and thcy cou|dn't
makcanyofthcpaymcnts'`''Propcrtypr|ccscan`tanddon'tr|scforcvcr.
JmL |KLLOLJl L| L| VPLO L P|L OKOPl LK| bLb
But thcrc arc |ongcr- tcrm and dccpcr|ssucshcrc that nccdt obc takcn
|nto account on thc productonsdc.A|though much ofwhatwcntnto
thc rca|cstatcmarkctwaspurcspccu|at|on, thcproduct|on act|v|tywas
|tsc|fan |mportant part ofthc cconomy as a who|c, w|th construct|on
accountngfor 7 pcrccntofGDP, anda|lofthcanc||arcs ofncwprod-
ucts [from furnishings to cars) amounting to morc than doub|c that. lf
thcNERpapcrsarccorrcct,thcco||apscofthcconstruct|onboom ahcr
l 928, wh|ch was manfcst as a $2 b||on drop- od[hugc for thc t|mc)
|n housngconstructonand a co||apscofhous|ngstarts to |cssthan I O
pcrccnto f thc|r formcrvo|umc| nthc|argcrc|tcs,p|aycda n|mportant
butst||notwc||-undcrstoodro|c n thc I 929crash. A Wkpcd|acntry
notcs. "dcvastatngwas thc d|sappcaranccof2 m||||on h|gh payngjobs
|nthcconstructontradcs, p|usthc|ossofprohtsandrcntsthathumb| cd
many |and|ordsandrca|cstatc| nvcstors'`'"T|s surc|yhadmp||cat|ons
forconhdcncc|nthcstockmarkctmorc gcncra||y.
Sma|| wondcr that thcrc wcrc dcspcratc subscqucnt attcmpts by
thc Rooscvc|t adm|nstrat|on back m thc I 9JOs to rcvvc thc hous|ng
scctor. To that cnd a rah ofrcforms n housngmortgagc hnanccwcrc
mp|cmcntcd, cu|mnat|ng n thc crcaton of a sccondary mortgagc
markct through thc foundng n I 9J8ofthc FcdcralNat|ona|Mortgagc
Assoc|at|on [ Fann|cMac). Tc taskofFannc Mac was to |nsurc mort-
gagcs and to a||owbanks and othcr |cndcrs to pass thc mortgagcs on,
t hus provdng much-nccdcd |qudty to thc hous|ng markct. Tcsc
|nsttut|onalrcformswcrc|atcrtop|ayavta|ro|c|nhnanc|ngthcsubur-
ban|zat|onofthcUn|tcdStatcsahcrWor|dWarII. Wh|cncccssary,thcy
wcrcnot, howcvcr,sumccnttoputhousngconstruct|onontoa ddcrcnt
p|anc |nUS cconom|cdcvc|opmcnt. A||sorts oftax |nccnt|vcs [such as
J KCCCL | J| Co
thc mortgagc |ntcrcst taxdcduct|on) , a|ongw|th thcGIB||land a vcry
pos|t|vc hous|ng act ofl 947, wh| ch dcc|arcd thc right ofa||Amcricans
to|ivcin"dcccnthous|ng|na dcccnt| |vingcnvironmcnt,' wcrcdcviscd
to promotc homcowncrsh|p, for pol|t|ca| aswc| | as cconom|c rcasons.
Homcowncrship was w|dc|y promotcd as ccntral to thc "Amcr|can
Drcam,' and| trosc fromjust abovc4Opcrccntofthc populat|on inthc
I 94Osto morc than6O pcrccntbythc I 96Os, andc|osc to 7O pcrccntat
itspcakm 2OO4[asof 2O I O,|thadfa|lcnto66pcrccnt). Homcowncrsh|p
may bc a dccp|y hcld cu|tural va|uc |n thc Un|tcd Statcs, but cu|tura|
valucst| our|shrcmarkab|ywhcnpromotcdandsubsid|zcdbystatcpo| i-
c|cs. Tcstatcdrcasonsforsuchpo||cicsarca| l thoscthatthcWor|dBank
Rcportcitcs.Butthcpo| itica|rcason|srarc|ynowacknow|cdgcd.Aswas
opcn|ynotcdinthc I 9JOs, dcbt-cncumbcrcdhomcowncrsdonotgo on
strikc. ' ' Tcm|| |tarypcrsonnc|rcturn|ngfromscrv|cc | nWor|dWar II
wou|d havc const|tutcda socia|andpolt|ca|thrcathadthcyrcturncdto
uncmp|oymcnt and dcprcss|on. What bcttcr way to ki|| two birds w|th
onc stonc. rcv|vc thc cconomy through mass|vc housing construct|on
and suburban|zat|on and co-opt thc bcttcr- pa|d workcrs |nto con-
scrvat|vc po||t|cs by dcbt-cncumbcrcd homcowncrsh| p! Furthcrmorc,
boost|ng dcmand by pub||c polic|cs |cd to stcady|ncrcascs in thcassct
valucsofhomcowncrs,wh|chwasgrcatfor thcmbuta d|sastcrfromthc
standpo|ntofthcrationa| uscof|andandspacc.
Dur|ng thc l 95Os and I 96Os thcsc pol|c|cs workcd, both from thc
po||tica| and thc macrocconomic v|cwpoints, s|ncc thcy undcrpnncd
two dccadcs ofvcrystronggrowth | n thc UnitcdStatcs, thc chccts of
wh|ch sp||lcd ovcrglobal|y. Hous|ngconstruct|on sh|hcd onto anothcr
p|anccnt|rc|y|nrc|at|ontocconom|cgrowth[sccF|gurc4) ."It|sa|ong-
stand|ngpattcrn,"wrtcsBnyamin Appc|baum,"thatAmcr|cansrccovcr
fromrcccss|onsbybu| dngmorchomcs andh|||ngthcmwith th|ngs."`'
Tc prob|cm back in thc l 96Os was that thc sprawl|ng urban|zat|on
proccsswasdynamic, butboth cnv|ronmcnta||yunsusta|nab|candgco-
graph|ca||y uncvcn. Tc uncvcnncss |argc|y rchcctcd thc d| hcrcnt|atcd
incomcstrcams that Howcd to dihcrcntscgmcntsofthc work|ngc|ass.
Wh||cthcsuburbs thr|vcd, thc |nncrc|ticsstagnatcd and dcc|incd. Tc
whitc work|ng c|ass hour|shcd, but thc |mpactcd |nncr c|ty m|nor|t|cs
Afr|can- Amcrican |n particu|ardid not. Tc rcsu|t was a who|c
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo J 1
scqucncco f |nncr-c|ty upr|sngs-|nc|ud|ngDctro|tandWatts,andcu|-
m|nat|ng|nspontancousupr|smgs |nsomcfortyc|t|csacrossthcUn|tcd
Statcs n thcwakcofthc assassnaton ofMartn Luthcr Kng n I 968.
Somcth|ngthatcamctobcknown as"thcurbancr|s|s"wasthcrc for a||
tosccandcas||ynamc [cvcnthough|twasnot,strct|yspcak|ng,a mac-
rocconomc cr|s|sofurban|zat|on). Massvc fcdcra|fundswcrcrclcascd
to dcalw|th th|s prob|cm ahcr I 968, unt||PrcsdcntNxon dcclarcdthc
cr|ssovcr[forhsca|rcasons) |nthcrcccss|onofl 97J . ''
Tcs|dc-bartoa||o|th|swasthatFanncMacbccamcagovcrnmcnt-
sponsorcd privatc cntcrpr|sc n l 968 and, ahcr t was prov|dcd wth a
"compcttor,' thc Fcdcra| Homc Mortgagc Corporat|on [Frcdd|c Mac)
|n l 9 7O, both nst|tutons p|aycd a hugc|y |mportant and cvcntua||y
dcstruct|vc ro|c |n promot|ng homcowncrsh|p and susta|n|ng hous|ng
constructonovcrncar|yhhyycars. Homc mortgagc dcbtnowaccounts
forsomc4Opcrccntolthcaccumu|atcdpr|vatcdcbtofthcUn|tcdStatcs,
much ofwh|ch, as wc havc sccn, is toxc. And both Fannic Mac and
Frcddc Mac havc passcd back |nto govcrnmcnt contro|. What to do
aboutthcmsanntcnsc|ydcbatcdpo|tca|qucston[asarcthcsubs|dcs
tohomcowncrsh|pdcmand) |nrclat|on to US|ndcbtcdncssmorcgcncr-
a|ly. Whatcvcr happcns w||| havc major conscqucnccs for thcfuturc of
thchous|ngscctornpartcu|arandurban|zat|onmorcgcncra||ynrcla-
t|ontocap|ta|accumu|atonw|th|n thcUntcdStatcs.
2,000,000

l ,000,000

_ 500,000
.
250,000
l 900 | 920 | 940 l 960
Ycar
gUrc 4 OUngbIartln IhcLnll0U bIatc, l 8>-Z8
l 980 2000
J KCCCL | J| Co
Tccurrcnts|gns| nthcUn|tcdStatcsarcnotcncourag|ng.Tchous|ng
scctor|snotrcv|v|ng,andncwhous|ngproduct|on|sdcprcsscdandstag-
nant. Tcrcarcs|gns|t|shcad|ngforadrcadcd"doublc-d|p"rcccss|on,as
Fcdcralmon|cs dryupanduncmp|oymcntrcma|nsh|gh. Hous|ngstarts
havcp|ungcd for thehrstt|mc to bc|owprc- l 94Os|cvcls [sce F|gure 4) .
AsofMarch 2O l l , t hcuncmploymcntratc| nconstruct|onstoodabovc
2Opcrccnt,comparcdtoa ratcof9. 7pcrccnt|n manufactur|ngthatwas
veryc|ose to thenat|ona|avcrage. Tere |snonccdto bu||dnewhomcs
and h| | thcm w| th th|ngs whcn so many homcsstand cmpty. TcSan
Franc|scoFcdcra| Rcscrvc"cst|matcsconstruct|onmaynotrcturntothc
avcragc|cvc|ofprc-bubb|cact|v|tybcforc2O I 6,s|dc||n|ngamajor|ndus-
try"from hav|ngany |mpactonthcrccovcry.''InthcCrcatDcprcss|on,
morc than a quartcrofconstruct|onworkcrs rcma|ncd uncmp|oycd as
|atc as l 9J9. Cctt|ng thcm backto workwas a cruc|al targct for publ|c
|ntcrvcnt|ons[suchasthcWPA) . AttcmptsbythcObamaadm|n|strat|on
to crcatca st|mu|us packagcfor|nfrastructura||nvcstmcntshavclargc|y
bccn frustratcd by Rcpub||can oppos|t|on. To makc mattcrs worsc, thc
cond|t|on ofstatc and |oca|hnanccs n thc US |sso d|rc as to rcsult |n
|ayohs and fur|oughs,aswc|| assavagc cuts |n urban scrv|ccs. Tc co|-
|apscofthchous|ngmarkctandthc2Opcrccntfa|l|nhous|ngpr|ccshas
puta hugcdcnt|n local hnanccs,wh|ch rc|y hcav|lyonpropcrqtaxcs.
Anurbanhsca|cr|s|s |sbrcw|ngasstatcandmun|c|palgovcrnmcntscut
backandconstruct|on|angu|shcs. Whcnwcputth|sa||togcthcr,|t| ooks
|ncrcas|ngly as |fthc post-Wor|dWar ll cra ofaccumulat|on and mac-
rocconom|cstab|l|zat|onbysuburban|zat|onandhous|ngandpropcrty
dcvc|opmcnt|nthcUntcdStatcs|satan cnd.
Ontopofa||t h|scomcsaclasspol|t|csofaustcr|tythat|sbc|ngpursucd
for po||t|ca| and not cconom|crcasons. Rad|cal r|ght-w|ng Rcpub||can
adm|n|strat|onsatthcstatc and |oca||cvc|sarc us|ngthcso- cal|cddcbt
cr|s|s to savagc govcrnmcntprograms and rcducc statc and |oca| gov-
crnmcnt cmp|oymcnt. T|s has, ofcoursc, bccn a |ong-stand|ng tact|c
o|a capta|- |nsp|rcd assault on govcrnmcnt programs morc gcncra|ly.
Rcagan cut taxcs on thc wcalthy from 72 pcrccnt to aroundJO pcrccnt
and|aunchcda dcbt-hnanccdarmsraccw|ththcSov|ctUn|on. Tcdcbt
soarcdundcrRcaganasa rcsu|t. Ash|sbudgctd|rcctorDav|dStockman
|atcrnotcd, runn|ngup thcdcbtbccamca convcn|cntcxcuscto go ahcr
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo JJ
govcrnmcnt rcgulat|on [for cxamplc, on thc cnv|ronmcnt) and soc|al
programs,|ncdcctcxtcrnaliz|ngthccostsofcnv|ronmcnta|dcgradat|on
andsoc|alrcproduct|on. Prcs|dcntBush]nrfa|thful|yfollowcdsu|t,w|th
h|sVcc- Prcs|dcntDckChcncyproclamngthat"Rcagantaughtusthat
dchcitsdonotmattcr'''Taxcutsforthcr|ch, twounfundcdwars|nIraq
andAfghan|stan, and a hugcg|h to b|g pharma through a statc-fundcd
prcscrpt|on drug program, turncd what had bccn a budgct surp|us
undcrClinton |nto a sca ofrcd|nk, cnabl|ng theRcpubl|can party and
conscrvativc dcmocratslatcrtodobig cap|tal`s b| dd|ng, andgoasfar as
possib|cm cxtcrna| |z|ngthosccoststhatcap| ta| ncvcrwantstobcar. thc
costs ofcnvronmcnta|dcgradat|onandsocia|rcproduct|on. Tcassault
onthccnv|ronmcntand thcwcll- bc|ngofthcpcoplcispalpablc,and|n
thcUS andmuch ofEuropc |t|stak|ngp|accfor po| |t|ca|andclass,not
cconom|crcasons. !t| s|nduc|ng, as Dav|d Stockman hasvcryrcccntly
notcd, astatcofplainclasswar. AsWarrcnBuhcttalso put |t,"surcthcrc
|s class war,and |t |s my class, thc r|ch, who arc makmg |t and wc arc
w|nn|ng.`'Tconlyqucst|on|s. Whcnw|llthcpcoplcstarttowagcclass
warbackAndoncofthcplaccstostartwou|dbc to focuson thcrap|dly
dcgrad|ng qua||t|cs ofurban l|fc, through forcclosurcs, thc pcrs|stcncc
ofprcdatorypracticcs|nurbanhousingmarkcts,rcduct|ons|nscrv|ccs,
andabovca|lthcl ackofv|ablccmploymcntopportun|t|cs| nurbanlabor
markcts a|most cvcryhcrc, w|th somc ct|cs [ Dctrot bc| ng thc sad
postcrch|ld)uttcrlybcrchofcmploymcntprospccts. Tccr|s|snow|sas
muchanurbancrs|sas| tcvcrwas.
|KLLPJLKT OKOP| |KPLJ| LLb
In 7e Commun|s| Man]es|o, Marx andEngcls notc | npassngthat,no
sooncrdocst hcworkcr rccc|vc "his wagcs | ncash, than hc| ssct upon
bythc othcr portions ofthc bourgco|s| c, thc land|ord, thcshopkccpcr,
thcpawnbrokcr, ctc."' Marx|sts havc trad|t|ona|lyrclcgatcd such forms
ofcxplo|tat|on,andthcc|assstrugglcs[forsuchthcyarc) that|ncvitably
ar|sc around thcm, to thc shadows ofthc|r thcor|z|ng, aswcll as to thc
marg|nsofthc|rpol|tcs.ButI wanttoarguchcrcthatthcyconst|tutc,at
lcast|nthcadvanccdcapital|stcconom|cs,avasttcrra|nofaccumu|at|on
J+ KCCCL | J| Co
bydisposscssion,throughwhichmoncyissuckcdupintothccircu|ation
ofhctitiouscapita|to undcrpin thcvastfortuncsmadcfrom within thc
hnancia|systcm.
Tcprcdatorypract|ccsthatwcrcomn|prcscntbcforcthccrash|nthc
housingmarkctingcncra|andwithinthcsub-primc|cndnghc|dinpar-
ticularwcrc|cgcndaryinthcirproportions. cforcthcmaincrisisbrokc,
thc |ow-incomcAfr|can-Amcr|can popu|at|on ofthc Un|tcd Statcswas
alrcady cstimatcd to havc lostsomcwhcrc bctwccn $7l and$9J bi|lion
n assctva|ucsthroughprcdatorysub- pr|mc practiccs. 'Tcdisposscs-
sions camc n two wavcsonc mni-wavc bctwccn thc announccmcnt
ofthc Cl|nton n|tat|vc ofI 995 and thc co||apsc ofLongTcrm Cap|ta|
Managcmcnt in l 998, and thc othcr ahcr 2OO l . Contcmporancous|y
with thc|attcrpcriod,thcbonuscsonWa||Strcctandthccarningsinthc
mortgagc- in|tiating industrywcrc soaring, w|th unhcard- ofproht ratcs
from purchnanca|manipu|ations,part|cular|ythoscassoc|atcdw|ththc
sccuritizationofhigh-costbutriskymortgagcs.Tcinfcrcnccs that,by
varioushiddcnchannc|s,massivctransfcrsofwca|thfromthcpoortothc
r|chwcrcoccurr|ng,bcyondthoscsnccdocumcntcd|nthcp|a|n|yshady
and ohcn i||cga| pract|ccs of mortgagc companics |Uc Countrywidc,
throughhnanc|a|man|pu|at|ons|nhousngmarkcts. ''
What has happcncd sincc thc crash |s cvcn morc aston|sh|ng. Many
ofthc forcc|osurcs [ ovcr a ml|on dur|ng 2OI O) turn out to havc bccn
i|lcga|,ifnotdownrightfraudu|cnt, lcadinga congrcssmanfrom F|orda
to wr|tc to thc F|orida Suprcmc Court }ust|cc that "fthc rcports I am
hcaringarctruc, thc|l|cga|forcc|osurcstak|ngp|accrcprcscntthc|argcst
scizurc ofprivatc propcrty cvcr attcmptcd by banks and govcrnmcnt
cntit|cs.`'" Tcattorncygcncra|s in a|lhhystatcsarc nowinvcstigating
thcproblcm, but[asmightbccxpcctcd) most sccm anxiousto c|osc out
thc |nvcst|gat|ons|nassummary a wayasposs|b|cat thc pr|ccofa fcw
hnancia|sctt|cmcnts [but no rcstitutions of i||cga||y sc|zcd propcrtics) .
Ccrtain|y, noonc|s|ikc|ytogotoja||for | t, cvcn though thcrc| sc|car
cv|dcnccofsystcmat|cforgcryof|cga|documcnts.
Prcdatorypract|ccsofthissorthavcbccn|ong-stand|ng.So|ctmcg|vc
somcinstanccsfrom a|timorc. Short|yahcr arrivinginthccityinl 969,
lbccamcinvo|vcd| nastudyof|nncr- c|tyhous|ngprov|s|ont hat focuscd
on thc ro|c of d|hcrcnt actors|and|ords, tcnants and homcowncrs,
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo JJ
thc brokcrs and |cndcrs, thc FHA, thc cty author|tcs [Hous|ng Codc
Enforccmcnt |n partcu|ar)-|n thc producton of thc tcrr|fy|ng rat-
nfcstcd nncr- cq |vng cond|tons n thc arcas wrackcd by uprisngs
n thcwakc olthc assassnaton ofMartn LuthcrK|ng. Tc vcst|gcs of
rcd- | n|ngofarcasof|ow-incomcAfr|can-Amercanpopu|ationsden|cd
crcdtwcrc ctchcd |nto thcmap ofthc c|ty, butcxc|usionswcrcby thcn
j usthcdasa |cgtmatcrcsponsctohighcrcdit rsk, andnotsupposcd|y
to racc. In sevcra| arcas ofthc c|ty, act|ve b| ockbust|ng pract|ccs wcrc
to bc found. T|s gcncratcd h|gh prohts for ruth|css rca| cstatc com-
panics. ut for th|s to work, Afr can-Amcrcans had a|so somchow to
acqurc acccsto mortgagc hnanccwhcnthcywcrca|| |umpcdtogcthcr
asahgh-crcd|t- rskpopu|aton.Tscou|dbcdoncbywayofsomcthng
ca||cd thc "Land Instal|mcnt Contract." In chcct, Afrcan- Amcr|cans
wcrc "hc|pcd"bypropcrtyowncrs who actcd as an ntcrmcdaryto thc
crcdtmarkctsandtookouta mortgagc| nthc| rownnamcs. Ahcra fcw
ycars,whcnsomcofthcprnc|p|cp|usthc|ntcrcsthadbccn pad down,
thusprovng thc fam|y's crcdtworthncss,thc tt|c was supposcd to bc
passcd on t o thc rcsdcnt, wth hc|p from t hcfrcnd|y propcrtyowncr
and |oca|mortgagc |nsttut|on. Somc takcrs madc t [though usua||y |n
nc|ghborhoods thatwcrcdcc|n|ng|nva|uc), but|nunscrupu|oushands
[and thcrcwcrcmany nBa|tmorc-though apparcnt|ynotso manyin
Chicago,whcrc th|s systcm wasa|so common) ths cou|d bc a particu-
|ar|y prcdatoryform ofaccumu|at|on by dsposscss|on. ' ' Tc propcrty
owncrwaspcrmttcdtochargc fccstocovcrpropcrtytaxcs,admn|stra-
tvc and|cga|costs,andthc|kc.Tcscfccs[somctmcscxorbitant)cou|d
bcaddcdtothcpr|nc|pa|ofthcmortgagc.Ahcrycarsofstcadypaymcnt,
manyfam||icsfoundthcyowcdmorc onthcprncipa|onthchouscthan
theyhadatthcstart.Ifthcyfa|cdoncctopaythehghcrpaymcntsahcr
ntcrcst ratcs rosc, thc contract was vodcd and fam|cs wcrc cvctcd.
Suchpractccscauscdsomcthngofa scanda|. A Cv|R|ghtsactonwas
startcdaganstthcworst|and|ord ohcndcrs.Buttfai|cd,bccauscthosc
who had sgncd on to thc |and insta||mcnt contract had simp|yfa||cd
to rcadthcsma||print,or to havc thcrown |aycr[which poorpcop|c
rarc|yhavc) torcadtfor thcm [thcsma||prnts nanycascncomprc-
hcnsib|ctoord|narymorta|s-havcyoucvcrrcadthcsma||pr|ntonyour
crcdtcard) .
J KCCCL | J| Co
Prcdatorypractccsofthssortncvcrwcntaway.Tc|and- nsta||mcnt
contract was d|sp|accd by practiccs of"|||ppng" |n thc l 9 8Os [a prop-
crtydca|crwou|dbuya run- downhousc chcap|y, putna fcw cosmct |c
rcpa|rs-much ovcrva|ucd-and arrangc "favorab|c" mortgagc hnancc
forthcunsuspcctingbuycr,who|ivcdinthchouscon|yso|ongasthcroof
d|dnotfa||inorthcfurnaccb|owup). Andwhcnthcsub- primcmarkct
bcgantoform|nthc I 99Os|nrcsponsctothc C|intonnit|atvc,cit|cs||kc
a|tmorc,C|cvc|and,Dctro|t,uha|o,andthc||kcbccamcmaj orccntcrs
for a growng wavc of accumu|ation by d|sposscsson [ $7O bi|||on or
morcnation-widc) . a|timorccvcntua||y|aunchcda C|v|lRights|awsuit
ahcrthccrash of2OO8 aganst Wc||s Fargo ovcr |ts dscr|mnatorysub-
primclcndingpract|ccs[rcvcrscrcd-lin|ngnwh|chpcop|cwcrcstccrcd
nto tak|ngsub-primcrathcrthanconvcntona||oans, |nwh|chAfr|can-
Amcr|cans and s|ng|c-hcadcd houscho|dshcadcd by womcnwcrc
systcmat|cal|ycxp|o|tcd) . A|mostccrtanlythcsut w|||fa|[a| though at
thcthirdtcrationthasbccn a||owcdtogoforward|nthccourts) ,sincc
it w|| bc a|most |mposs|b|c to provc |ntcnt bascd on racc as opposcd
to crcd|t r|sk. As usua|, thc |ncomprchcns|b|c sma|| pr|nt a||ows for a
|ot [consumcrs bcwarcl ) . C|cvc|and tooka morc nuanccdpath. suc thc
hnancccompan|csforthccrcationofapub||cnu|sanccbccauscthc|and-
scapc was ||ttcrcd w|th forcc|oscd houscs that rcqurcd c|ty action to
boardthcmupl
Prcdatorypracticcsthath|t thcpoor, thc vu|ncrablc, and thca|rcady
undcrpr|v|cgcd arc |cg|on. Anysma|| unpa|db|| | [a|ccnscfccorwatcr
b||,for cxamp|c)canbccomc a| | cnon a propcrtyaboutwh| cha prop-
crqowncrmayrcma|nmystcr|ous|y[and|||cga| |y)unnot|hcdunt||ahcr
t has bccn bought up bya |awycr who cxpcnscs it so that an or|g|na|
unpa|db|||of, say, $I OO rcquircs, say, S2,5OO to rcdccm. For most poor
pcopl c, th| smcansthc|ossofthcpropcrty. Atthc| astroundof||cnsa|cs
na|timorc,somc$6m|||ionworthof|cnsonpropcrtywcrcpurchascd
from thc c|tybya sma||groupof|awycrs. !fthcmarkup is 25O pcrccnt,
thcy stand to amass cons|dcrab|c fortuncs |f thc ||cnsgct pa|doh,and
potcntia||y va|uab|c propcrt|cs for futurc dcvc|opmcnt if thcy smp|y
acqurcthcpropcrtics.
To top t a||, |t has bccnsystcmat|ca||yshownthat,|n US c|tcss|ncc
thc l 96Os, thc poor typca||y pay morc for |nfcr|or bas|c commod|tics
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo J1
such asfood, andthatthcundcr-scrvic|ngof|ow- incomc communitics
p|accs addcd unduc hnanc|a| and practical burdcns upon such popu-
|at|ons. Tc cconomy ofd|sposscss|on ofv|ncrab|c popu|at|ons is as
act|vc as |t |s pcrpctual. Evcn morc start|ng s how many tcmporary
andinsccureworkcrsinlow-wagc industr|cs|nmajorc|t|essuchasNcw
York, Ch|cago,andLosAngclcshavc cxpcr|cnccdsomcdcgrcc ofi||cga|
wagc |osscs, nc|udng fa||urc to pay thcm|nmum wagc, rcfusa|to pay
for ovcrtme, or smply dc|ays n payment thatcou|d m some instanccs
strctch|ntomonths. ''
Mypo|nt |n mcnt|oning a|| thcsc var|ous forms ofcxplo|tat|on and
dsposscssonstosuggcstthatnmanymctropo||tan rcg|onssuchmass
practccs arc systcmat|cal|y v|s|tcd upon vu|ncrab|c popu|ations. l t is
importanttorccogn|zchow cas||yrca|wagcconccss|onstoworkcrscan
bcc|awcdbackfor thccap|ta||stc|assasa who|cthroughprcdatoryand
cxp|otatvcactvtcs|nthcrcalmofconsumpton. Formuchofthclow-
|ncomc urban|zcd populat|on, thc jo|nt cxccss|vc cxp|o|tat|on ofthc|r
|aborandthcd|sposscss|onofthc|rmcagcrassctsconst|tutcsapcrpctua|
dra|n upon thc|r capactyto sustan mn|ma||yadcquatc condt |ons of
soca|rcproduct|on. Ts|sacond|t onthatca||sfor cty-w|dcorgan|za-
t|onanda c|ty-w|dcpo|t|ca|rcsponsc[sccbclow) .
| L LMl |P bLKT
ln so far as t hcrchasbccn anycxt from t hc g|oba|cr|s|s ofcap|ta|th|s
tmc, t |s notab|c thatthc housingandpropcrtyboom n Ch|na, a|ong
w|thahugcwavcofdcbt-hnanccd infrastructura||nvcstmcntsthcrc, has
takcn a |cad|ng ro|c noton|y |n st|mu|at|ngthc| r|nterna|market [and
mopp|ngup uncmp|oymcntn thccxport|ndustr|cs)buta|sonst|mu-
|atingthccconomicsthatarct|ght|y|ntcgratcd|ntothcChinatradc,such
as Austra||a and Ch||c w|th thc|r raw matcr|a|s and Ccrmany w|th |ts
mach|nctoolandautomot|vccxports. InthcUn|tcdStatcs,onthcothcr
hand, constructonhasbccns|owtorcv|vc,wththcuncmp|oymcntratc
inconstruct|on,asnotcdcar||cr,morc thantw|ccthcnationa|avcragc.
Urban nvcstmcntstyp|ca|lytakc a |ongtmc toproduccandancvcn
|ongcrt|mctomaturc.lt|sa|waysd|mcu|ttodctcrmnc,thcrcforc,whcn
58 RLHLc C| T| LS
an ovcraccumuatIon o| capIta has bccn or Is about to bc trans|ormcd
Into an ovcraccumuatIon o| Invcstmcnts In thc buIt cnvIronmcnt.
1hc IkcIhood o| ovcrshootIng, as rcguary happcncd wIth thc raI-
ways In thc nInctccnth ccntury and as Is shown by thc ong hIstory
o| buIdIng cyccs and crashcs IncudIng thc dcbacc o| 2007-0), Is
vcry hIgh.
1c |carcssncss o| thc pc-mc urbanIzatIon and In|rastructura
Invcstmcnt boom that Is compctcy rcconhgurIng thc gcography o| thc
ChIncsc natIona spacc rcsts In part on thc abIIty o| thc ccntra govcrn-
mcnt to Intcrvcnc arbItrarIy In thc bankIng systcm I| anythIng gocs
wrong. A rcatIvcy mId rcccssIon In propcrty markcts In thc atc 10s
In cadIng cItIcs such as ShanghaI ch thc banks hodIng tItc to a vast
array o| non-carnIng asscts toxIc,` wc ca thcm), many o| whIch wcrc
urban and propcrty-dcvcopmcnt bascd. LnomcIa cstImatcs IdcntIhcd
as many as 40 pcrccnt o| bank oans a non-carnIng.'' 1c rcsponsc o| thc
ccntra govcrnmcnt was to usc Its abundant |orcIgn cxchangc rcscrvcs
to rc-capItaIzc thc banks a ChIncsc vcrsIon o| what atcr bccamc
known as thc controvcrsIa 1roubcd Assct RcIc| Program-1ARP-In
thc LnItcd Statcs). It Is known that thc statc uscd somc $45 bIIon o|
Its |orcIgn cxchangc rcscrvcs |or thIs purposc In thc atc 0s, and It
may havc IndIrccty uscd much morc. But as ChInas InstItutIons cvovc
In ways morc consIstcnt wIth goba hnancIa markcts, so It bccomcs
hardcr |or thc ccntra govcrnmcnt to contro what Is happcnIng In thc
hnancIa scctor.
1hc rcports now avaIabc |rom ChIna makc It sccm rathcr too sImIar
|or com|ort to thc AmcrIcan southwcst and ForIda In thc 2000s, or
ForIda In thc 20s. SIncc thc gcncra prIvatIzatIon o| housIng In ChIna
In 18, housIng spccuatIon and constructIon havc takcn oH In a spcc-
tacuar |ashIon. HousIng prIccs arc rcportcd to havc rIscn by 40 pcrccnt
natIonwIdc sIncc 2007, and by as much as 800 pcrccnt In thc maIn cItIcs
such as BcIjIng and ShanghaI ovcr thc ast hvc ycars. In thc attcr cIty,
propcrty prIccs arc rcputcd to havc doubcd ovcr thc ast ycar aonc.
1hc avcragc apartmcnt prIcc thcrc now stands at $500,000 In a country
whcrc pcr capIta GOP was $7,518 In 2010), and cvcn In sccond-tIcr cItIcs
a typIca homc costs about 25 tImcs thc avcragc Incomc o| rcsIdcnts,`
whIch Is ccary unsustaInabc. A o| thIs IndIcatcs that housIng and
THL ORHAN RTS | CAP| TAc| ST CR| SLS 59
commcrcIa propcrty constructIon, |ast and vast as It Is, Is not kccpIng
pacc wIth actua and, cvcn morc Importanty, antIcIpatcd cHcctIvc
dcmand. `` nc conscgucncc Is thc cmcrgcncc o| strong In|atIonary prcs-
surcs that havc promptcd thc ccntra govcrnmcnt to uc a varIcty o| toos
to rcstrIct out-o|-contro oca govcrnmcnt spcndIng.
11c ccntra govcrnmcnt opcn|y statcs Its worry that
IOO mUC O I0 COUDIly8 glOWI CODIIDU08 IO 0 II0O IO IDB8IIOD-
8ly 8Q0DOIDg OD l08 08I8I0 O0V0OQm0DI 8DO gOV0lDm0DI IDV08Im0DI
I D lO8O8, l8IW8y8 8DO OI0l mUIIIIOD OO8l IDll88IlUCIUl0 QlO0CI8.
D I0 hl8I QU8lI0l O 2O! I , hX0O 8880I I DV08Im0DI8 lO8O m088Ul0 O
UI OI Dg 8CIIVIIyUmQ0O 25 Q0lC0DI lOm I0 Q0lOO 8 y08l 08lI0l, 8DO
l08 08I8I0 I DV08Im0DI 8O8l0O 37 Q0lC0DI. '`
1Is Invcstmcnt Is now cgua to ncary 70 pcrccnt o| thc natIon`s gross
domcstIc product.` Mo othcr natIon has approachcd thIs cvc In modcrn
tImcs. Evcn )apan, at thc pcak o| Its buIdIng boom In thc I80s, rcachcd
ony about J5 pcrccnt, and thc hgurc has hovcrcd around 20 pcrccnt |or
dccadcs In thc LnItcd Statcs.`
1c cItIcs` cHorts havc hcpcd govcrnmcnt In|rastructurc and rca
cstatc spcndIng surpass |orcIgn tradc as thc bIggcst contrIbutor to ChInas
growth.` ExtcnsIvc and acguIsItIons and dIspaccmcnts o| cgcndary
proportIons In somc o| thc major cItIcs as many as J mIIon pcopc dIs-
paccd In BcIjIng ovcr thc ast tcn ycars) IndIcatc an actIvc cconomy o|
dIsposscssIon boomIng aongsIdc thIs hugc urbanIzatIon push through-
out thc who|c o| ChIna. 1c |orccd dIsp|accmcnts and dIsposscssIons arc
onc o| thc most Important causcs o| a rIsIng tIdc o| popu|ar and somc-
tImcs vIocnt protcsts.
1hc and sacs to dcvcopcrs havc provIdcd a ucratIvc cash cow to
h| oca| govcrnmcnt coHcrs. But In cary 20 I thc ccntra govcrnmcnt
ordcrcd thcm to bc curbcd In ordcr to hod back an out-o|-contro
propcr markct, and thc ohcn brutay stagcd and dIsposscssIons that
wcrc causIng so much rcsIstancc. 1Is crcatcd hsca dImcutIcs |or many
munIcIpa|ItIcs. 1c sharp rIsc In oca govcrnmcnt dcbt and poor con-
tros ovcr borrowIng by Invcstmcnt companIcs many sponsorcd by oca
govcrnmcnts) arc now consIdcrcd a major rIsk to thc ChIncsc cconomy,
and thIs Is castIng a dccp shadow ovcr thc prospccts |or |uturc growth,
KCCCL | J| Co
not on|yin China but a|so wor|dwidc. As of2Ol I , thc municipa| dcbt
wascstimatedbytheChincscgovcrnmcntataround$2. 2tri||ion, equiva-
|cntto"ncar|ya thirdofthcnation'sgrossdomcsticproduct.'Possib|yas
much at8Opcrccntofth|sdcbt|shc| dbyoh- the-booksinvestmcntcom-
pan|es, sponsorcdbybutnottechnica||yapartofmun|c|pa|government.
Tcscarcthcorganizationsthatarcbui|ding,atimmcnscspccd, boththc
newinfrastructurcsandthesignaturcbui|d|ngsthatmakcChinesccitics
so spcctacu|ar. ut the cumu|ative debt |iabiIities ofthe municipa|ities
archugc.Awavcofdcfau|ts"cou|dbccomcahugc| |abi|ityforthcccntra|
government, which |s sitt|ng on about $2 tri||ion in debt ofits own.'
Tepossibi||tyofa co||apsc fo||owedby a |ongperiod of"}apancsc-| |kc
stagnation" is vcry rca|. Tc s|owing of thc Chincsc cconomic growth
machincin2OI l isa|rcadyproducingreductionsinimports,andthiswi||
inturnrcboundina||thoscarcasofthcwor|dthathavcourishcdont he
backofthcChincsemarkctforrawmater|a|s|nparticu|ar.
Meanwhi|e,who|enewcities,withhard|yany residentsor rea|activi-
ticsasyct,cannowbcfoundintheChincscintcrior,promptingacurious
advcrtisngprogram inthcUn|tcdStatcsbusincssprcsstoattractinvcs-
tors and companics to this ncw urban fronticr of g|oba| capita|ism. '"
Urbandeve|opmcntsince them|d nineteenth ccntury, |fnot beforc,has
a|ways been specu|ative, but the specu|ative sca|e ofChinese deve|op-
ment sccms tobeofan cntire|ydihcrcntorderthananythingbefore |n
human history. ut thcn thc surp|us |iquidity in thc g|oba| cconomy
necding to bc absorbcd, wh|ch is cxpanding at a compound ratc, has
ncvcrbccn grcatcrcithcr.
As m the post-Wor|d War Il suburbanizat|on boom |n the United
States,whena|| theanci||aryhousingapp|iances and appurtenances are
added|n itbecomesc|earthattheChncscurban|zationboomisp|ay|ng
a ccntra|ro|c |nstimu|at|ng thc rcviva|ofg|oba|cconomicgrowthfora
widc rangcofconsumcrgoodsothcrthan automob||cs[ inwhich Ch|na
nowboaststhe|argest marketin thewor| d). "ysomeestimates, China
consumesupto5Operccnto|keyg|oba|commoditesandmatcria|ssuch
as cement, stee| andcoa|, and Chncse rea| estatc isthe ma|n dr|vcr of
thatdcmand.''Since at|castha|fofthcstcc| consumcdcndsup |n thc
bu|tcnvironmcnt, th|smcansthata quartcrofg|oba| stce|outputisnow
absorbedby this activitya|one. Chinais not the on|y p|acewhere such
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo 1
a propcrty boom can bc |dcnt|hcd. A|| oft hcso- ca||cd R!C countr|cs
sccmtobcfo||ow|ngsu|t. Propcrtypriccsthusdoublcd|nbothSoPaulo
andRio|astycar, and|n!ndiaandRussiasim||ar conditionsprcvai|.ut
a| l ofthcsccountr|cs,|tshou|dbcnotcd, arccxpcr|cnc|ngh|ghaggrcgatc
growthratcsalongwithstrongcurrcntsofin||ation. Strongurban|zation
currcntsc|carlyhavcmuchtodow|ththcrapidrccovcryfromthcchccts
ofthcrcccssionof2OO7-O9.
Tc question |s. Howsusta|nab|e |s th|s recovcry, g|ven its roots |n
|argc|yspccu|ativcurbandcvc|opmcntsAttcmptsbythcChincscccntra|
govcrnmcnt to contro| thcir boom and qucl| inhationary prcssurcs by
ra|s|ng stcp-w|sc thc rcscrvc rcqu|rcmcnts of thc banks havc notbccn
toosucccssfu|.A "shadow-bankingsystcm" hascmcrgcdthat|sstrongly
conncctcdtolandand propcrq|nvcstmcnts and |s hard tomonitorand
contro|,andcompriscsncwinvcstmcntvchiclcs[ ana|ogoustothoscthat
cmcrgcd |n thc I 99Os |n thcUSand r|tain) . Tcrcsu|tofaccc|crating
|anddisposscssions and in||ationhasbccn pro|ifcratmg unrcst. Rcports
arc now coming |n of work act|ons by tax| dr|vcrs and truckcrs [in
Shanghai) , a|ongsidc suddcnful|-b|own factorystr|kcs |n thc |ndustr|a|
arcasofGuangdonginrcsponsc to |owwagcs,poorworkingcond|tions,
andcsca|atingpriccs. Omc|al rcportsofunrcsthavcriscn dramatica|ly,
andwagcadjustmcntshavcbccnoccurr|ng,a|ongw|thgovcrnmcntpo||-
c|csdcsigncd to confrontthc swcl||ngunrcstandst|mu|atc thc |ntcrna|
markct asa substitutc for r|skicrandstagnantcxportmarkcts [Chincsc
consumcr|smcurrcnt|yaccountsforonlyJ5pcrccntofCDP,asopposcd
to7Opercent|n thcUn|tcdStatcs).
All o|th|s hasto bcundcrstood, howcvcr,aga|nstthcbackgroundof
thcconcrctcstcpsthcChincscgovcrnmcnttooktodca| withthccrisisof
2OO7-O9. Tcmain |mpactofthccr|s|sonChinawasthcsuddcnco||apsc
ofcxportmarkcts[particu|arlythatofthcUnitcdStatcs)anda2Opcrccnt
fall -ohin cxportsbycarly2OO9.Scvcra|rcasonab|yrcl|ablccstimatcsput
thcnumbcrofjobs|ostinthccxportscctoratclosctoJOm||||onovcra
vcryshortpcr| od|n 2OO8-O9. Yct thcI MFcou|drcportthatthcnctjob
|ossinChina as offall 2OO9wason|yJ mi|lion. Somcofthcd|hcrcncc
bctwccn gross and nct job |osscs may havc bccn duc to thc rcturn of
uncmploycd urban m|grants to thcir rura| basc. Anothcr part ofitwas
doubt|cssthcfastrcviva|ofcxportsand rc-cngagcmcntofworkcrscar||cr
KCCCL | J| Co
|aid oh. utthcrcstofit was a|most ccrtain|yduc to thcgovcrnmcnt's
implcmcntationofamassivcKcyncsian-sty|cstimu|usprogram ofurban
andinfrastructura|invcstmcnt.Ancxtra$6OObi|lionwasmadcavai|ab|c
bythcccntralgovcrnmcnttoaugmcntwhatwasalrcadya largcprogram
ofinfrastructura|invcstment[acumu|ativctota|of$75Obil|ional|ocated
so|c|ytobuild8, I OO mi|csofhigh-spccdand I l ,OOOm|csoftraditiona|
rai|,thoughthcscinvcstmcntsarcnow in troub|cahcra high-spccdra|
crashthatsuggcstspoordcsgn,ifnotcorruptioninconstruction). ' Tc
ccntra| govcrnmcntsmu|tancous|yinstructcd thc banks to lcnd cxtcn-
sivc|ytoallmanncrof |oca|dcvc|opmcntprojccts[nc|udingthcpropcrty
andinfrastructurcscctors)asawaytomopupsurp|us|abor.Tismassivc
program was dcsgncdto |cadthcway towards cconomc rccovcry. Tc
Chincscgovcrnmcntnowc|amsit crcatcdncarlyJ4mi ||ionncwurban
j obsbctwccn2OO8and2OI O.Itccrtain|yappcarstohavc bccnfair|ysuc-
ccssfu|ntsimmcdiatcobjcctvcofabsorbngmuchofthcmassivc|abor
surp|us,ifthcl MFhgurcsonnct job| ossarccorrcct.
Tcbig qucston, ofcoursc, is whcthcr thcsc statc cxpcnditurcs fal|
withinthccatcgoryof "productivc"ornot-and, ifso,productivcofwhat
andforwhomManynvcstmcnts,suchasthchugcshoppingmal|c|osc
to Dongguan, stand almost cmpty, as do quitc a fcw ofthc high-riscs
that |ittcr thc urban landscapc a|mostcvcrywhcrc. And thcn thcrc arc
thccmptyncwciticswait ngforpopu|atonsandindustricstoarrivc.Yct
thcrc is also no qucstion that thc Chincsc natona| spacc could bcncht
from dccpcrandmorccmcicntspata|intcgration, andonthcsurfaccat
|eastthcvastwave ofinfrastructuralinvestmcntsand urbanizationpro-
jccts would appcar to do justthat, |inking thc undcrdcvclopcd ntcrior
to thc wcalthcrcoasta|rcgions and thcwatcr-shortnorthwith thcwcl|-
watcrcdsouth. Atthcmctropo|itanlcvc|, thcproccsscsofurbangrowth
andurbanrcgcncrationwou|da|soappcartobrngmodcrnisttcchniqucs
to urbanization, a|ongwith a divcrsihcation ofactvitics [ inc|uding al|
thcmandatorycu|tura|andknowlcdgcindustrynstitutons,cxcmplihcd
bythcspcctacu|arShanghaiExpo,thatarcsocharactcristcofnco|bcra|
urbanizationinthcUnitcdStatcsandEuropc).
I n somc ways, China's dcvc|opmcnt mmcs and cxaggcratcs that of
thcpost-Wor|d War I I UnitcdStatcs. Duringthoscycars,thcintcrstatc
highwaysystcm intcgratcd thc Amcrican South and thcWcst,and this,
1MC UKPl KLLJo L| P|l !PLl oJ Kl oCo J
couplcd w|th suburban|zat|on, thcn p|aycd a crucal rolc in susta|n|ng
both cmp|oymcnt and cap|tal accumu|at|on. ut thc para||cl |s instruc-
t|vc |nothcrways. US dcvc|opmcntahcrl 945wasnoton|yproh|gatc|n
tsuscofcncrgyand|and, ta|sogcncratcd, aswchavcsccn,a dst|nct|vc
cr|s|sformargina||zcd,cxcludedandrcbc|||ousurbanpopulations,wh|ch
c|c|tcda rahofpol|cyrcsponscsdur|ngthclatc I 9 6Os. A||ofth|s fadcd
ahcrthccrashofI 9 7J, whcnPrcsidcntN|xondcc|arcd|nh|sStatcofthc
Un|on addrcss that the urban cr|s|s was ovcr and that fcdcra| fundmg
wou|d bc w|thdrawn. Tc chcct at thc mun|c|pal |cvc| was to crcatc a
cr|s|s |n urbanscrv|ccs,w|th al| ofthctcrrfyingconscqucnccsofdcgcn-
crat|on n pub||c schoo||ng,pub| | chcalth, andava|ab|||tyofahordablc
housngfrom thc|atc l 97OsonwardsinthcUnitcdStatcs.
Tc accclcratcd urban and |nfrastructural invcstmcnt stratcgy |n
Ch|na|sco|laps|ngthcsctwotcndcnc|csintoa fcwycars. A h|gh-spccd
train bctwccn Shangha and cij ng is hnc for thc bus|ncsspcop|c and
thc uppcr m|dd|c c|ass, but |t docs not const|tutc thc knd ofahorda-
b|c transport systcm that can takc workcrs back to thcr rural or|gns
for thc Ch|ncsc Ncw Ycar. S|m||ar|y, h|gh-r|sc apartmcnt b|ocks, gatcd
commun|t|cs, andgo|fcourscs for thc r| ch, a|ongwith h|gh-cnd shop-
p|ngma||s, do not rca||y hclp to rcconst|tutc an adcquatc da||y||fc for
thc rcstvc, mpovcr|shcd masscs. T|s |ops|dcdncss |n urban dcvc|-
opmcnta|ongclass |ncs |s in facta g|oba||ssuc. It scurrcntly arsng
|n Ind|a, as wc|| as in thc |nnumcrab|c c|tcs around thc world whcrc
thcrc arc cmcrgcnt conccntrat|ons ofmarg|na||zcd popu|at|ons a|ong-
s|dch|gh- modern|sturban|zat|on andconsumer|sm for an mcreas|ng|y
amucntm|nor|ty. Thc ssuco|how to dca| w|th thc |mpovcr|shcd, |nsc-
curc, and cxc|udcd workcrs that now constitutc a major|tar|an and
putatvc|y dominant powcr b|ock |n many ct|cs |s bccom|ng a major
po||t|ca| problcm. Mil itaryplannlng is, as a rcsult, now high|y focuscd
on howto dca|wth rcst|vc and potcnt|a||y rcvolutonaryurban-bascd
movcmcnts.
ut |n thc Ch|ncsc casc thcrc s onc |ntcrcstng wr|nkc to ths nar-
rativc. Tc trajcctoryofdcvc|opmcntsincc ||bcralizationbcgan |n I 979
rcstcd on thc not|on that dcccntral|zat|on is onc ofthc bcst ways to
cxcrc|scccntra||zcdcontro|.Tc|dcawasto||bcratcrcg|onalandmun|c-
|pa| govcrnmcnts, and cvcn v|||agcs and townsh|ps, to scck thc|r own
54 RLHLc C|T| LS
bcttcrmcnt wIthIn a |ramcwork o| ccntraIzcd contro and markct coor-
dInatIons. Succcss|u soutIons arrIvcd at through oca InItIatIvcs thcn
bccamc thc basIs |or thc rc|ormuatIon o| ccntra govcrnmcnt poIcIcs.
Rcports cmanatIng |rom ChIna suggcst that thc powcr-transItIon
antIcIpatcd |or 2012 Is |accd wIth an IntrIguIng choIcc. AttcntIon Is
|ocuscd on thc cIty o| ChonggIng, whcrc a purportcdy radIca shIh
away |rom markct-bascd poIcIcs back onto a path o| statc-cd socIaIst
rcdIstrIbutIon-backcd, IntcrcstIngy, by a grcat dca o| MaoIst-InspIrcd
rhctorIc-has bccn undcrway |or somc tImc. ln thIs modc, cvcrythIng
Inks back to thc Issuc o| povcrty and IncguaIty' Jhc govcrnmcnt has
turncd thc markct prohts o| statc-owncd cntcrprIscs toward tradItIona
socIaIst projccts, usIng thcIr rcvcnucs to |und thc constructIon o| aHord-
abc housIng and transportatIon In|rastructurc.` Jhc housIng InItIatIvc
cntaIs a massIvc constructIon program to provIdc chcap apartmcnts to
a thIrd o| thc J0 mIIon rcsIdcnts IvIng In thc cIty rcgIon. 1c munIcI-
paIty cxpccts to buId 20 satcItc towns, wIth a popuatIon o| J00,000
apIccc. ln cach onc, 50,000 pcopc wI Ivc In statc-subsIdIzcd housIng`
1hc aIm o| thIs cnormousy ambItIous projcct contrary to Word Bank
advIcc) Is to rcducc thc spIraIng socIa ncguaItIcs that havc arIscn
ovcr thc ast two dccadcs across ChIna. lt Is an antIdotc to thc prIvatc
dcvcopcr-cd projccts o| gatcd communItIcs |or thc rIch. But Its down-
sIdc Is that It accccratcs thc dIsposscssIon o| and |rom rura uscs and
pushcs pcasant popuatIons Into a |orccd urbanIzatIon that undcrpIns
swcIng protcst and dIscontcnt, whIch In turn cads to a rcprcssIvc I| not
authorItarIan rcsponsc.
JhIs turn back to a socIaIst rcdIstrIbutIvc agcnda, usIng thc prIvatc
scctor |or pubIc purposcs, Is now provIdIng a modc |or thc ccntra gov-
crnmcnt to |oow. lt pans to buId J5 mIIon aHordabc housIng unIts
ovcr thc hvc ycars bcgInnIng In 20I 0. ln thIs way ChIna proposcs to
sovc thc capIta surpus absorptIon probcm at thc samc tImc as oHcr-
Ing a way to |urthcr urbanIzc thc rura popuatIon, absorb surpus abor,
and hopc|uy) dIspc popuar dIscontcnt by oHcrIng rcasonabc housIng
sccurIty to thc css wc-oH. `' Jhcrc arc cchocs hcrc o| LS urban poIcIcs
ahcr I 45. kccp cconomIc growth on track whIc co-optIng potcntIay
rcstIvc popuatIons through housIng sccurIty. 1c downsIdc Is thc swc-
Ing and somctImcs vIocnt opposItIon to thc ncccssary and acguIsItIons
THL ORHAN RTS | CAP| TAc| ST CR| SLS 55
though thc ChIncsc ccary cIng to thc MaoIst sogan that you cannot
makc an omcct wIthout brcakIng cggs).
But rIva markct-bascd dcvcopmcnta modcs cxIst cscwhcrc In
ChIna, partIcuary In thc coasta and southcrn cItIcs, such as Shcnzhcn.
Hcrc thc proposcd soutIon Is vcry dIHcrcnt. EmphasIs Is morc upon
poItIca IbcraIzatIon and what sounds Ikc morc bourgcoIs urban
dcmocracy, aongsIdc a dccpcnIng o| |rcc markct InItIatIvcs. In thIs
casc, rIsIng socIa IncguaIty Is acccptcd as a ncccssary cost o| sustaIncd
cconomIc growth and compctItIvcncss. WhIch way thc ccntra gov-
crnmcnt wI can Is ImpossIbc at thIs poInt to prcdIct. Jhc kcy poInt
Is thc roc o| urban-bascd InItIatIvcs In pIonccrIng thc way towards
such choIccs o| dIHcrcnt |uturcs, but thc mcans to achIcvc that |uturc
sccm to bc hrmy cmbcddcd In a poarIzcd choIcc bctwccn statc
and markct.
1c cHccts o| ChInas urbanIzatIon In rcccnt dccadcs havc bccn sImpy
phcnomcna and word-shakIng In thcIr ImpIcatIons. 1c absorptIon
o| surpus IguIdIty and ovcraccumuatcd capIta In urbanIzatIon at a
tImc whcn prohtabc opportunItIcs arc othcrwIsc hard to comc by has
ccrtaIny sustaIncd capIta accumuatIon not ony In ChIna but around
much o| thc rcst o| thc gobc ovcr thc ast |cw crIsIs ycars. How stabc
such a soutIon mIght bc Is opcn to gucstIon. 1c burgconIng socIa Inc-
guaItIcs ChIna Is now thIrd In thc numbcr o| bIIonaIrcs In thc word),
thc cnvIronmcnta dcgradatIon whIch cvcn thc ChIncsc govcrnmcnt
opcny admIts), aong wIth mutIpc sIgns o| ovcrcxtcnsIons and ovcr-
vauatIon o| asscts In thc buIt cnvIronmcnt, suggcst that thc ChIncsc
modc Is |ar |rom troubc-|rcc, and that It coud a too casIy morph
ovcrnIght |rom bcnc|actor to probcm chId o| capItaIst dcvcopmcnt.
I| thIs modc`` |aIs, thcn thc |uturc o| capItaIsm Is dIrc Indccd. 1hIs
woud thcn Impy that thc ony path opcn Is to ook morc crcatIvcy to
thc optIon o| cxporIng antI-capItaIst atcrnatIvcs. I| thc capItaIst |orm
o| urbanIzatIon Is so compctcy cmbcddcd In and |oundatIona |or thc
rcproductIon o| capItaIsm, thcn It aso |oows that atcrnatIvc |orms o|
urbanIzatIon must ncccssarIy bccomc ccntra to any pursuIt o| an antI-
capItaIst atcrnatIvc.
KCCCL | J| Co
J|L UKOPl| PJl L| L| LP|| JPL
Tcrcproducton ofcapta|passcsthrough proccsscsofurbanzaton n
myradways. ut thc urbanzaton ofcapta| prcsupposcs thc capacty
ofcap|ta|st c|ass powcrs to dom|natc thc urban proccss. T|s imp||cs
cap|ta||st c|ass dom|nat|on not on|yovcrstatc apparatuscs [n partcu-
|ar thosc aspccts ofstatc powcr that admnstcr and govcrn thc soca|
and|nfrastructura|cond|tonswth|ntcrrtor|a|structurcs) , buta|soovcr
who|cpopu|atons-thcr|fcsty|csaswc||asthcr|aborpower,thcrcu|-
tura|andpo|tca|va|ucsaswc||asthcrmcnta|conccptonso|thcwor|d.
Tat|cvc|ofcontro|docsnotcomccas||y,fata||.Tcctyandthcurban
proccssthatproduccs|t arcthcrcforcmajors|tcsofpo|t|ca|,soc|a|, and
c|assstrugg|cs.Wchavchcrctoforccxamncdthcdynamcsofthsstrug-
g|c from thc standpont ofcapta|. It thcrcforc rcmans to cxamnc thc
urban proccssts d|sc|p|naryapparatuscsand rcstrants aswc||as ts
cmancpatoryandant|- capta||stpossib|tcs-fromthcstandpontofa||
thoscwhoattcmpttoganthcr|vc||hoodandrcproduccthcrda|y| |vcs
nthcmdstofthsurbanproccss.
LMP|JCKJMKCL
1OC L|C!| O| O IOC
U|O| LOUUO|8
J
hc c|ty |s thc s|tc whcrc pcop|c of a|| sorts and c|asscs m|ng|c,
howcvcr rc|uctant|yandagonistca||y, to producc a common fpcr-
pctua||ychang|ng and trans|tory||fc. Tc commona||ty ofthat | |fc has
|ong bccn a mattcr ofcommcntaryby urbanists ofa|| stripcs,and thc
compc|||ngsubjcctofa w|dc rangc ofcvocat|vc wr|t|ngs and rcprcscn-
tat|ons [in novc|s, h|ms, painting, vidcos, and thc |ikc) thatattcmpt to
p|n down thc charactcr of that ||fc [or thc particu|ar charactcr of| fc
|n a part|cu|ar c|ty in a gvcn p|acc and timc) and ts dccpcrmcanngs.
And |n thc |ong h|story of urban utop|an|sm, wc havc a rccord ofa||
manner of human asp rat|ons to makc thc c|ty |n a diherent |magc,
morc "ahcr our hcart's dcs|rc" as Park wou|d put |t. Tc rcccnt rcv|va|
of cmphasis upon thc supposcd |oss of urban commona|itics rchccts
thc sccming|y profound |mpacts of thc rcccnt wavc ofprvatzat|ons,
cnc|osurcs, spat|a| contro|s, po||c|ng, and survc|||ancc upon thc qua||-
t|cs ofurban | | fc in gcncra|, and in part|cu|ar upon thc potcnt|a||ty to
bu||d or |nhibitncw forms ofsoc|a| rclat|ons [a ncwcommons) w|th|n
an urban proccss in||ucnccd |fnot dom|natcd bycap|ta|st c|ass intcr-
csts.WhcnHardtandNcgr|,forcxamplc,argucthatwcshou|dv|cw"thc
mctropo|sasa factoryfor thcproductionofthccommon,"thcysuggcst
th|s as an cntrypo|ntforant|-cap|ta||st cr|tiquc and po||t|ca| act|vism.
L|kcthcr|ghttothcc|q,thc|dcasoundscatchyand|ntr|gu|ng,butwhat
cou|d |tposs|b|ymcan Andhow docsth|src|atcto thc|ongh|storyof
KCCCL | J| Co
argumcntsanddcbatcsconccrningthccrcationanduti|izationofcommon
propcrtyrcsourccs
I havc |ostcountofthcnumbcroftimcsI havc sccnCarrcttHardin's
c|ass|c art|c|c on "Tc Tragcdy of thc Commons" c|tcd as an |rrcfuta-
b|e argumcntfor thc superior cmccncy ofprivatc propcrtyrights with
rcspcct to |and and rcsourcc uscs, and thcrcforc an irrcfutab|c justih-
cation for privatizat|on. ' Tis mistakcn rcading |n part dcrivcs from
Hard|n's appca|to thc metaphorofcatt|e,undcrthe privatcownership of
scvcra| ndividua|s conccrncd to maximizc thcirindividua| uti|ity, pas-
turcd on a pccc ofcommon |and. Tc owncrs ind|v|dua||y gan from
addngcatt|c,wh||cany|osscs|nfcrt|||tyfromsodoingarcsprcadacross
al|uscrs.So a||thehcrdcrs continuctoaddcattlcunti| thc common |and
|oscs a||product|v|ty. lfthc catt|c wcrc hc|d incommon, ofcoursc, thc
mctaphorwou| dnot work. Tisshowsthatiti sprivatcpropcrtyincatt|c
and |nd|v|dua| uti |ity- max|mizing bchavior that ||c at thc hcart ofthc
prob|cm, rathcr than thc common-propcrtycharactcr ofthc rcsourcc.
Butnoncofthswas Hard|n's fundamcnta| conccrn. H|s prcoccupat|on
waspopu|at|ongrowth. Tcpcrsona|dccisiontohavcch||drcnwou|d, hc
fcarcd,cvcntua||y|cadtothcdcstruct|onofthcg|oba|commonsandthc
cxhaustionofa||rcsourccs[asMa| thusa|soargucd). Tcon|yso|ution,in
h|sv|cw,|sauthor|tar|anrcgu|atorypopu|at|oncontro|. '
I c|tcth|s cxamp|ctoh|gh| |ght thcwaythinkngaboutthccommons
has a|| too ohcn itsc|fbccomccnc|oscdwithin far too narrow a sct of
prcsumptions,largc|ydrivcn bythccxamp|cofthe|andcnc|osurcsthat
occurrcd inritainfrom thc|atcmcd|cva|pcriodonwards. As a rcsu|t,
th|nk|ng has ohcn po|ar|zcd bctwccn pr|vatc propcrty so|utions and
authoritaran statc intcrvcntion. From a po|itica|pcrspcctivc, thcwho|c
ssuchasbccnc|oudcdovcrby agut-rcact|on [|accdwithhchy doscsof
nosta|giaforaoncc-upon- a- t|mcsupposcd|ymora|cconomyofcommon
action)c|thcrfor or-morccommon|yonthelch-againstenc|osurc.
E||norOstromscckstodisruptsomcofthcprcsumptionsinhcrbook,
Covern|ng the Commons.

Shc systcmatizcs thc anthropo|ogica|, socio-
|og|ca|, andhistorica|cv|dcncc thathad|ongshown that |fthchcrdcrs
talkcdwithcachothcr[orhadcultura|ru|csofsharing)thcnthcymght
cas||yso|vcanycommonsissuc.Ostromshowsfrom innumcrab|ccxam-
p|cs that ind|vdua|s can and ohcn do dcv|sc ingcn|ous and cmincnt|y
1MC KCPJ| LP L| JMC UKPP LLPo V
scnsiblcco||cctivcwaystomanagccommonpropcrtyrcsourccsforindi-
v|dua|andcol|cctivc bcncht. Hcrconccrnwasto cstabl|shwhy|n somc
nstanccs thcysuccccdnso doing, and undcrwhatc|rcumstanccsthcy
m|ghtnot. Hcrcascstudcs"shattcrthcconv|ct|onsofmanypo||cyana-
|ysts thatthcon|ywaytoso|veCPRprob|cmsisfor cxterna|authorit|cs
tomposcfu||privatcpropcrtyrightsorccntralzcdrcgulaton.`Instcad,
thcydcmonstratc"r|chmixturcsofpubl|candpr|vatcnstrumcntaltics'
Armcd w|th that conc|usion, shc cou|d do batt|c w|th that econom|c
orthodoxy that simp|y vicws policy in tcrms ofa d|chotomous cho|cc
bcn ccnstatcandmarkct.
Butmostofhcrcxamp|cs|nvolvcdasfcwasahundrcdorsoappropr|-
ators. Anythingmuch|argcr[hcr|argcstcxamplcwasl 5, OOOpcop|c) ,shc
found, rcqu|rcda "ncstcd"structurc ofdcc|son-making,bccauscdrcct
ncgot|ation bctwccn al| ndividua|s was impossblc. Tis |mp|ics that
ncstcd, and thcrcforc n somc scnsc "h|crarch|cal" forms oforganza-
tionarcnccdcd toaddrcss|argc-sca|cproblcmssuch asg|obalwarming.
Unfortunatc|y thc tcrm "h|crarchy" |s anathcma n convcnt|ona|th|nk-
|ng [ Ostrom avo|ds it), andv|rulcnt|y unpopu|ar w|th much ofthc|ch
thcsc days. Tc on|y pol |tica||y corrcct form of organ|zat|on |n many
rad|calcirclcsisnon-statc,non-hicrarchica|,andhorzontal. Toavoi dthc
|mp|icat|on thatsomc sorts ofncstcd h|crarch|cal arrangcmcnts m|ght
bc ncccssary, thcqucst|on ofhow to managc thc commons at |argc as
opposcd to smal| and |ocal sca|cs [for cxamp|c, thc g|oba| popu|ation
prob|cmthatwasHard|n'sconccrn)tcndstobccvadcd.
Tcrc |s,dear|y, an ana|ytical|yd|mcu|t"sca|e prob| cm" atworkhcrc
that nccds [but docs not rccc|vc) carcfu| cvaluat|on. Tc poss|b|l|t|cs
for scns|blc managcmcnt ofcommon propcrty rcsourccs that cxist at
oncsca|c [such as sharcdwatcrrightsbctwccn onc hundrcd farmcrsin
a sma|l rvcr basin) do not and cannot carry ovcr to prob|cms such as
g|obalwarming,orcvcntothcrcgionaldiHus|onofaciddcpositionfrom
powcr statons. As wc "jump sca|cs" [as gcographcrs |ikc to put |t) , so
thc wholcnaturc o|thc commons prob|cm andthcprospccts ofhnding
a so|ution changc dramatica||y. Whatlooks ||kc a goodway to rcso|vc
prob|cmsatoncsca|cdocsnotho|datanothcrsca|c. Evcnworsc,patcntly
good solut|ons at onc sca|c [thc "loca|,' say) do not ncccssarily aggrc-
gatc up [or cascadc down) to makc for goodso|utons at anothcrsca|c
1 KCCCL | J| Co
[thcg|oba|, forcxamp|c) . TsswhyHardn'smctaphorssoms|cadng.
hcuscs a sma||-sca|c cxamp|c ofprvatc capta| opcratingon a common
pasturcto cxp|icatc a g|oba|prob|cm, asifthcrcis noprob|cmwhatso-
cvcrnshhngsca|cs.
Tis s a|so, incidcnta||y, why thc va|uab|c |cssons gaincd from
thc co||cctvc organizaton of sma||-sca|c so|darty cconomics a|ong
common-propcrty |ncs cannot trans|atc into g|oba| so|utions without
rcsort to "ncstcd" and thcrcforc hicrarchca| organizatona| forms.
Unfortunatc|y,asa|rcadynotcd,thcidcaofhcrarchyisanathcmatomany
scgmcntsofthcoppositonal|chthcscdays.Afctishismoforganzatona|
prcfcrcncc [purc horzonta|ity, for cxamp|c) a|| too ohcn stands in thc
wayofcxp|orngappropratcandchcctvcso|utions.`}usttobcc|car,Iam
notsaynghorizonta|tysbad-ndccd, Ithnktancxcc||cntobjcctvc-
but thatwcshou|dackow|cdgcits| imitsasahcgcmonicorganizationa|
prnc|p|c,andbcprcparcdtogofarbcyonditwhcnncccssary.
Tcrc is much confusion a|so ovcr thc rc|ationshp bctwccn thc
commons and thc supposcd cvi|s ofcnc|osurc. In thc grandcr schcmc
ofth ngs [andparticu|ar|y atthcg|oba| |cvc| ) , somcsortofcnc|osurcis
ohcn thc bcst way to prcscrvc ccrtan knds ofva|ucd commons. Tat
sounds| ikc,andis, a contradctorystatcmcnt,butitrc||ccts a tru|y con-
tradictorysituation.Itwi||takcadraconianactofcnc|osurcinAmazona,
forcxamp|c, toprotcctboth b odivcrstyand thccu|turcsofindigcnous
popu|ations aspartofourg|oba|natura| and cu|turalcommons. Itwil|
a|mostccrtanlyrcquircstatcauthoritytoprotcctthosccommonsagainst
thc ph|istnc dcmocracy ofshort- tcrm moncycd intcrcstsravagingthc
|and wth soy bcan p|antat|ons and catt|c ranchng. Sonota||formsof
cnc|osurc can bc dsmsscd as bad by dchntion. Tc production and
cnc|osurc of non- commodihcd spaccs in a ruth|css|y commodifying
wor|d s surc|y a goodthing. utin this instancc thcrc may bc anothcr
prob|cm. cxpcl|ngndgcnouspopu|atonsfromthcrforcst|ands[asthc
Wor|dWidcFundforNaturcohcnadvocatcs)maybcdccmcdncccssary
toprcscrvcbodvcrs|ty. Onccommonmaybcprotcctcdatthccxpcnsco|
anothcr.Whcnanaturcrcscrvcsfcnccdoh,pub|cacccss sdcni cd. Iti s
dangcrous,howcvcr,toprcsumcthatthcbcstwaytoprcscrvconcsortof
commonistodcnyanothcr.Tcrcisp|cntyofcvidcnccfromjointforcst
managcmcntschcmcs,forcxamp|c,thatthcdua|objcctvcofimprovng
1MC KCPJ| LP L| JMC UKPP LLPo 11
habitatsandforcstgrowthwh|cmaintainingacccssfor traditionaluscrs
to forcstrcsourccsohcncnds upbcnchtngboth. Thc idca ofprotccting
thccommonsthroughcnc|osurcsisnota|wayscasi|ybroachcd, howcvcr,
whcntnccdstobcactvc|ycxp|orcdasanant-cap|ta|ststratcgy. Infact
a commondcmandont hc| chfor"|oca|autonomy"isactual|yadcmand
forsomckndofcnc|osurc.
Qucst|ons of thc commons, wc must conc|udc, arc contradictory
and thcreforc a|ways contcsted. chind thcsc contcstations |ie con||ict-
ngsoca|andpo|itica| intcrcsts. Indccd,"po|itics,'}acqucsRancierc has
rcmarkcd, "is thcsphcrc ofactivity ofa common thatcan on|ycvcrbc
contcntious.' At thc cndof|ta||, thc ana|yst isohcn |chw|th a smp|c
dccision. Whoscsidcarcyouon, whosccommonntcrcstsdoyouscckto
protcct,andbywhatmcans
Tc rich thcsc days havc thc habit, for cxamp|c, of sca|ng thcm-
sc|vcsoHngatcdcommun|tcswthnwhchancxclusonarycommons
bccomcsdchncd. Tis isinprincip|cnodihcrcntthanhhyuscrsdivvy-
ng up commonwatcr rcsourccs among thcmsc|vcs without rcgard for
anyoncc|sc.Tcrichcvcnhavcthc ga||tomarkctthcircxc|usionaryurban
spaccs as a traditiona|v||agc commons, as in thc casc ofthc Kicr|and
Commons in Phocnix,Arizona,which isdcscribcdasan "urbanv||agc
withspaccforrctai|, rcstaurants,omccs,' andso on.Radica|groupscan
a|so procurcspaccs[somct|mcsthroughthccxcrcisc ofpr|vatcpropcrty
rights,aswhcnthcyco||cctvc|y buy a bui|dngto bc uscdfor somcpro-
grcssivc purposc) from which thcy can rcach out to furthcr a po|itcs
ofcommonaction. Orthcycancstab|isha communcora sovictwthin
somcprotcctcdspacc. Tc poltica||y activc "houscs ofthc pcoplc" that
Margarct Kohn dcscribcsasccntra| topo|itica|actionincar|ytwcnticth
ccnturyIta|ywcrccxact|yofth|ssort. "
Nota| |formsofthccommoncnta|opcnacccss.Somc[ ||kcthcairwc
brcathc) arc, wh|c othcrs [ | kc thcstrccts ofour citics) arc inprincip|c
opcn, but rcgu|atcd, po|iccd, and cvcn privatc|y managcd in thc form
of busincss mprovcmcnt districts. Sti|| othcrs [ | ikc a common watcr
rcsourcccontro||cdbyhhyfarmcrs)arcfrom thcvcrystartcxc|usivctoa
particu|arsocia|group.MostofOstrom`s cxamp|csinhcrhrstbookwcrc
ofthc|astsort.Furthcrmorc,|nhcr|nita|studicsshc|imitcdhcrinqury
toso-ca||cd"natura|"rcsourccssuchas|and, forcsts,watcr,hshcrics,and
1 KCCCL | J| Co
thc |kc. [ I say"so-ca|| cd" bccausc a|| rcsourccs arc tcchno|ogca|, cco-
nomc,andcu|tura|apprasa|s,andthcrcforcsocia||ydchncd. )
Ostrom, a|ong wth many col|cagucs and co||aborators, |atcr wcnt
on to cxam|nc othcr forms ofthc commons,such as gcnctc matcra|s,
kow|cdgc, cu|tura| asscts, and thc |ikc. Tesc commons arc a|so vcry
much undcrassau|tthcsc daysthroughcommodhcationandcnc|osurc.
Cu|tura| commons bccomc commodihcd [and ohcnbowd|crizcd) by a
hcritagcndustrybentonDisncyhcation,for cxamp|c. Intel|cctua|prop-
crtyandpatcntngrightsovcrgcnctcmatcria|sandsccnthcknow|cdgc
morc gcncra||y consttutc onc ofthc hottcst topcs ofour tmcs. Whcn
pub|ishngcompan|cs chargc for acccss to art|c|cs n thc scicnthc and
tcchnica| journa|s thcy pub|sh, thc prob|cm of acccss to what shou|d
bc commonknow|cdgcopcnto a||is p|ain to scc. Ovcr thc|asttwcnty
ycarsorsothcrchasbccnancxp|osionofstudicsandpractca|proposa|s,
as wc||as hcrcc|cga|strugg|csovcrcrcatng an opcn-acccss know|cdgc
commons.
Cu|tura|andntc||cctua| commonsofths|astsortarcohcnnotsubj cct
to thc |ogic ofscarcty, or to cxc|usonaryuscs ofthc sortthat app|y to
mostnatura|rcsourccs.Wc can a|| |istcnto thcsamcradiobroadcastor
TVshowatthcsamcti mcwthoutdiminishingi t. Tccu|tura|commons,
HardtandNcgr|writc,"sdynamc,nvo|vngboththcproductof|abor
andthcmcansoffuturcproduct|on. Tscommonisnoton|ythccarth
wc sharcbuta|so thc|anguagcswc crcatc,thcsocia|practccswccstab-
|sh, thc modcs ofsoca|ty thatdchnc ourrc|ationshps, andso forth."
Tcsccommonsarc bui|tupovcr timc, andarc inprncp|copcntoa||.
'
0
Tc human qua| tics of thc city cmcrgc out ofour practccs in thc
dvcrsc spaccs ofthc ctycvcn asthosc spaccs arc subj cctto cnc|osurc,
socia|contro|,andappropriationbyboth prvate andpub|c/statcinter-
csts. Tcrc s an important dstnction hcrc bctwccn pub|c spaccs and
pub|icgoods, on thc onc hand, and thc commons on thc othcr. Pub|ic
spaccs andpub|ic goods in thc cty havc a|ways bccn a mattcr ofstatc
powcrandpub|cadmnstraton,andsuchspaccsandgoodsdonotncc-
cssar|y a commonsmakc. Troughoutthc h|storyofurbanizaton, thc
provsion ofpub|cspaccs and pub|ic goods [such as santaton, pub|c
hca|th, cducat|on, and thc | ikc) by cthcr pub||c or prvatc mcans has
bccn cruc|a|for capita|istdcvc|opmcnt.
'
` To thcdcgrcc that cit|cshavc
1MC KCPJ| LP L| JMC UKPP LLPo 1J
bccnsitcsofvigorousc|asscon|l ictsandstrugglcs,sourbanadmnstra-
tonshavc ohcnbccn forccdtosupp|y pub||cgoods [such asahordablc
pub|ic housing, hca|th carc, cducation, pavcd strccts, sanitation, and
watcr) to an urban|zcd workng c|ass. Wh|lc thcsc pub|c spaccs and
pub|icgoodscontributcmighti|ytothcqua|itcsofthccommons,ittakcs
poltica|actiononthcpartofcitizcnsandthcpcoplctoappropratcthcm
orto makc thcm so. Pub||c cducationbccomcs a common whcnsoc|a|
forccs appropratc, protcct, and cnhancc it for mutua| bcncht [thrcc
chccrsforthcPTA). SyntagmaSquarcnAthcns, TahrrSquarcinCairo,
and thc P|aza dcCata|unya inarcc|onawcrc pub||c spaccs thatbccamc
anurban commons aspcop|casscmb|cdthcrc to cxprcssthc|rpo||tca|
vi cwsandmakcdcmands.Tcstrcctsapub|icspaccthathashstorica||y
ohcnbccntransformcdbysocia|act|onintothccommonofrcvo|ut|on-
ary movcmcnt, as wcll as into a sitc ofb|oodysupprcssion. ' ' Tcrc is
a|ways a strugglcovcr how thcproductionofandacccss to pub||cspacc
andpub|icgoodsistobcrcgu|atcd, bywhom, andinwhoscintcrcsts.Tc
strugglctoappropriatc thcpublicspaccsandpub|icgoods in thccityfor
a commonpurposcisongong.Butin ordcrtoprotcctthccommon t |s
ohcnv|ta| toprotcctthcUowofpub|cgoodsthatundcrpnthcqualit|cs
ofthccommon. Asnco|ibcra|polticsdimnishcsthchnancingofpub|ic
goods,so it dimin|shcs thc avai|ab|c common, forcngsoca|groups to
hnd othcrwaystosupportthatcommon [ cducaton, forcxamplc) .
Tccommon is not to bc construcd, thcrcforc, as a particu|ar kind
ofthing, assctor cvcn soc|a|proccss, but as an unstab|c and ma||cab|c
soc|a|rc|aton bctwccn a particu|arscU-dchncdsocia|group and thosc
aspcctsofitsactua|lycxst|ngoryct- to- bc- crcatcdsocaland/orphysca|
cnvironmcntdccmcd cruc|a|toits|ifcandlivc|hood. Tcrc is,inchcct,
a socalpract|cc ofcommon|ng. Ts practccproduccsor cstab|ishcs a
soc|a|rc|atonwthacommonwhoscuscsarc c|thcrcxclus|vctoasoc|a|
grouporpartia||yorful|yopcntoa||andsundry.Atthchcartofthcprac-
ticcofcommonng|icsthcprinciplcthatthcrc|ationbctwccnthcsocial
group and that aspcct o|thc cnvironmcnt bc|ng trcatcd as a common
sha||bcbothco|lcct|vcandnon-commodhcd-oh- |mits tothclog|cof
markctcxchangcandmarkctva|uations.Tis| astpoi ntiscruca|bccausc
t hclpsd|stngushbctwccnpublcgoodsconstrucd asproduct|vc statc
cxpcnd|turcsandacommonwhchscstablishcdoruscdinacomplctc|y
1+ KCCCL | J| Co
dihcrcntwayandfor a comp|ctc|ydihcrcntpurposc, cvcnwhcn itcnds
up ndircct|y cnhancmgthcwca|thandncomcofthcsocia|group that
claims it. A communtygardcn can thus bcvicwcdas a goodthng in
tsc|f,nomattcrwhatfoodmaybcproduccdthcrc. Ts docsnotprcvcnt
somcofthcfoodbcngso|d.
P|ain|y, many dhcrcnt socal groups can cngagc n thc practcc of
commoningfor manydhcrcntrcasons. Tistakcsusbackto thcfoun-
dationa|qucstonofwhchsoca|groupsshou|dbcsupportcdandwhich
shouldnotinthccourscofcommoningstrugg|cs.Tcu|tra-rich,ahcra||,
arcj ustashcrcc|yprotcctvcofthcirrcsidcntalcommonsasanyonc, and
havcfar morchrc- powcrandnHucnccncrcatingandprotcctingthcm.
Tc common, cvcn-and particu|ar|y-whcn t cannot bc cncloscd,
can a|ways bc tradcd upon cvcn though t s not in tsclfa commod-
ty. Tcambcnccandattractivcncssofa city, for cxamp|c,isa co||cctvc
productof|ts ct|zcns,but itis thc tour|sttradc that commcrc|a||ycapi-
ta|izcs upon that common to cxtract monopoly rcnts [scc Chaptcr 4) .
Troughthcirdai|yactivitcsandstrugg|cs,ndvidua|sandsoca|groups
crcatcthcsocia|wor|dofthccity,andthcrcbycrcatcsomct hingcommon
as a framcworkwth|n wh|ch a|| can dwcl|. Whi|c this cu|tura|ly crca-
tivc common cannotbcdcstroycd through usc, t canbcdcgradcdand
banalzcd through cxccssivc abusc. Strccts that gct c|oggcd with tramc
makc that particu|ar pub|ic spacc a|most unusab|c cvcn for drvcrs [| ct
al oncpcdcstransand protcstors) , |cading atsomc point to thc lcvying
ofcongcstion and acccss chargcs n anahcmptto rcstrct usc so that t
canfunctionmorccmccnt|y. Tskindofstrcctsnotacommon. cforc
thc car camc a|ong, howcvcr, strccts wcrc ohcn a common-a p|acc o|
popu|ar socia|ity, a playspacc for kids [I am o| dcnough to rcmcmbcr
thatwaswhcrc wcp|aycd a| | thc tmc) . utthatki ndofcommon was
dcstroycdandturncdintoapub|lcspaccdominatcdbythcadvcntofthc
automobi|c[promptngattcmptsbycityadmnistrationstorccovcrsomc
aspcctsofa"morccivi| zcd"commonpastbyorganizingpcdcstranprc-
cincts,sidcwa|kca|es, b kc paths, pockct parks as p|ay spaccs, and thc
| ikc) . ut such attcmpts to crcatc ncw knds ofurban commons can aU
too casi|y bc capita|izcd upon. In fact thcy may bc dcsigncd prcciscly
withthatinmnd. Urbanparksa|mostalwaysincrcascncarbyrcsdcntia|
propcrtypriccsinsurroundingarcas[providcd,ofcoursc,thatthcpublic
1MC KCPJ| LP L| JMC UKPP LLPo 1J
spacc ofthcpark|s rcgulatcd and patrol|cdto kccp thc rih- rahandthc
drugdcalcrsout). TcncwlycrcatcdHghL|nc|nNcwYorkC|tyhashad
atrcmcndous|mpactonncarbyrcsdcnt|a|propcrtyva|ucs,thusdcny|ng
acccss to ahordab|c hous|ngin thc arca for most ofthc cit|zcns ofNcw
YorkCty byv|rtuc ofrap|d|y rsngrcnts. Tc crcation ofth|s kind of
pub||c spacc rad|ca|ly d|min|shcs rathcrt hancnhanccst hcpotcnt|a||ty
ofcommonngfor al|butthc vcryrch.
Tcrca|prob|cmhcrc,asm Hard|n's orig|na|mora||tyta|c, |s notthc
commonspcrsc, butthcfa|urcof|ndividua||zcdprvatcpropcrtyr|ghts
tofu|h||commonintcrcstsnthcwaythcyarcsupposcdtodo. Whydowc
not, thcrcforc, focusonthcnd|v|dua| owncrshp ofthccatt|c andindi-
v|dua|ut||ty-maximlzingbchavor,rathcrthanthccommonpasturc,as
thcbas|cprob|cmtobcaddrcsscdTcjusthcatonforpr|vatcpropcrty
rightsn||bcra|thcory,ahcra||,sthatthcyshou|dscrvctomaxmzcthc
common goodwhcn soc| a||y |ntcgratcd through thc nst|tut ons offa|r
andfrcc markctcxchangc.A commonwca|th [sadHobbcs) sproduccd
through pr|vat|zng compct|t|vc ntcrcstswthn a framcworkofstrong
statc powcr. Th|s op|n|on, articu|atcd by |bcra| thcorsts such as }ohn
Lockc andAdamSm|th, cont|nucs tobcprcachcd. Tcscdays,thctr|ck,
ofcoursc, |s to downp|ay thc nccd for strong statc powcr wh||c |n fact
dcp|oying|t-somct|mcsbruta||y. Thcso|ut|ontothcprob|cmsofg|oba|
povcrty, thc Wor|dankcontnucstoassurcus [|cannghcavi|y on thc
thcor|csofdc Soto), ispr|vatcpropcrtyr|ghtsfor a||s|um- dwc|lcrs and
acccsstom|cro-hnancc [wh|chjusthappcnstoy|c|dthcwor|d'shnanci-
crs hchyratcs ofrcturn whUc drvngnota fcw partc|pants to comm|t
su|c|dc |n thc facc o| dcbt pconagc) 'Yct thc myth prcva||s. oncc thc
|nhcrcntcntrcprcncur|a| |nstncts ofthcpoorarc|bcratcdas a forcc of
naturc,it|ssaid, thcna||w||bcwcUandthcprob|cmofchronicpovcrty
wi|| bc brokcn andthc commonwca|th cnhanccd. T|s was ndccd thc
argumcntmadc|nsupportofthcor|g|na|cnc|osurcmovcmcnt|nrtain
from thc|atcmcdicva|pcr|odon.And|twasnotcnt|rc|ywrong.
ForLockc,|nd|vdua|propcrty|sanatura|rghtthatar|scswhcnind|-
vidua|s crcatc va|uc by mxng thcr |aborwith thc |and. Tc fruits of
t hcir |aborbc|ong to thcm and to thcm a|onc. T| swas thc csscncc of
Lockc'svcrsonofthc|aborthcoryofva|uc. ' Markctcxchangcsoc|a|zcs
thatr|ghtwhcncach indvdua|gctsbackthcva|ucthcyhavc crcatcdby
1 KCCCL | J| Co
cxchanging it againstan cquiva|cntva|uccrcatcdbyanothcr. In chcct,
individua|s maintain, cxtcnd, and socia|izc thcir privatc propcrty right
through valuc- crcation and supposcd|y frcc andfair markct cxchangc.
Tis|show,saysAdam Sm|th,thcwca|thofnations|smostcasi|ycrcatcd
andthccommongoodbcstscrvcd. Hcwasnotcntirc|ywrong.
Tcprcsumptionis,howcvcr,thatmarkctscanbcfairandfrcc,andin
class|calpol iticalcconomyitwasassumcd thatthcstatcwou|dntcrvcnc
to makc thcm so [at |cast that is what Adam Smith adviscs statcsmcn
to do) . ut thcrc is an ug|ycorol|arytoLockc`s thcory. Individuals who
fai| to producc va|uc havc no c|a|m to propcrty. Tc disposscssion of
indigcnouspopu|ations|nNorthAmcrcaby"productivc" co|onistswas
justihcdbccauscindigcnouspopu|ationsdidnotproduccva|uc. ' `
So how docs Marx dca| with a| | ofthis Marxacccpts t hcLockcan
hct|on in thc opcning chaptcrs ofCa| |a| [ though thc argumcntisccr-
ta|n|y|ardcdwthironywhcn, for cxamp|c, hc takcs up thcstrangc ro|c
ofthcRobinsonCrusocmyth inpo| itica|- cconomic thinking, m which
somconc thrown into a statc of naturc acts |ikc a truc-born cntrcprc-
ncuria| riton) . ' ut whcn Marx takcs up how |abor-powcr bccomcs
an ind|vidualizcd commodity that is bought and sold m fair and frcc
markcts, wc scc thc Lockcan hction unmaskcd for what it rca||y is. a
systcmfoundcdon cqua|ity|nva|uc-cxchangcproduccssurp|usva|ucfor
thccap|ta|istowncrofthcmcansofproductionthroughthccxploitation
of|iving|aborinproduction [not |n thcmarkct,whcrc bourgco|s r|ghts
andconstitutona|it|cscanprcva|l).
Tc Lockcan formu|ation is cvcn morc dramatica||y undcrmincd
whcn Marx takcs up thc qucstion ofco||cctivc labor. In a wor|d whcrc
|ndividua|artisanproduccrscontro|lingthcirown mcansofproduction
cou|d cngagc in frcc cxchangc |n rc|at |vc|y frcc markcts, thc Lockcan
hct|onm|ghthavcsomcpurchasc. utthcriscofthcfactorysystcmfrom
thc |atc cightccnth ccntury onwards, Marx argucd, rcndcrcd Lockc's
thcorctica| formu|ations rcdundant [ cvcn if thcyhad not bccn rcdun-
dant in thc hrstp|acc). In thc factory, |aboriscol| cctivc|y organizcd. If
thcrc sany propcrty r|ght to bcdcrivcd from this form of|aboring, i t
wou|dsurclyhavc to bca co||cctivc orassociatcdrathcrthanindividua|
propcrtyright. Tcdchnit|onofva|uc- producing|abor, which grounds
Lockc`s thcory ofprivatc propcrty, no longcr holds for thc individua|,
1MC KCPJ| LP L| JMC UKPP LLPo 11
but |s shihcd to thc co||cctivc |aborcr. Commun|sm shou|d thcn arisc
on thcbasis of"anassociation offrccmcn, workingw|th thc mcansof
product|on hc|d in common, andcxpcnd|ngthc|r manyd|dcrcntforms
of|abour-powcr|nfu||sc|f- awarcncssasoncs|ng|c|abourforcc." ''Marx
docsnotadvocatestatcownership,butsomeformofowncrshipvestcdin
thcco||cctivc|aborcrproducingforthccommongood.
How that form ofowncrsh|p might comc into bcing |s cstab||shcd
by turning Lockc's argumcnt on thc product|on ofva| ucaga|nst itsc|f.
Supposc, says Marx, that a capita|ist bcg|ns production with a capita|
of$I ,OOO and in thchrstycarmanagcs to gain$2OOsurp|usva|ucfrom
|aborcrsm|x|ngthc|r|aborwith thc|and,andthcnuscsthatsurp|us |n
pcrsona|consumption. Tcn, ahcrhvcycars,thc$l ,OOOshou|dbc|ongto
thcco||cctivc|aborcrs,sinccthcyarcthconcswhohavcmixcdthc|r|abor
w|th thc |and. Tc capita|isthasconsumcdawaya|| h| sor hcr or|gina|
wca|th. ' L|kc thc |nd|gcnouspopu|at|ons ofNorth Amcr|ca, cap|ta|sts
dcscrvcto|oscthcirrights,accordingtoth|s|ogic,sinccthcythcmsc|vcs
havcproduccdnova|uc.
Wh|cthisidcasoundsoutragcous,|t|aybchindthcSwcd|sh Mcidncr
p|anproposcdin thc|atc I 96Os. ' 'Tcrccciptsfroma taxp|accdon cor-
poratcprohts,inrcturnforwagcrcstraintonthcpartofunions,wcrcto
bcp|accd in aworkcr-contro||cdfund thatwou|d |nvcstin andcvcntu-
a||ybuyoutthc corporat|on,thusbr|ng|ng|tundcrthccommon contro|
ofthc associatcd |aborcrs. Capita| rcsistcd th|s idca w|th a|| its might,
and |twas ncvcr imp|cmcntcd. But thc |dca ought to bc rcconsidcrcd.
Tc ccntra| conc|us|on is that thc co||cct|vc |abor|ng that is now pro-
duct|vc ofva|uc mustgroundco||cct|vc not individua| propcrty rights.
Va|ucsoc|a||yncccssary|abortimcisthccapita|istcommon,anditis
rcprcscntcdbymoncy,thcun|vcrsa|cquiva|cntinwhichcommonwca|th
|smcasurcd. Tccommonis not,thcrcforc,somcthingthatcx|stcdoncc
upona timcthathassinccbccn|ost,butsomcth|ngthatis,| ikcthcurban
commons,cont|nuous|ybcngproduccd. Tcprob|cm|sthatit|sj ustas
cont|nuous|ybcngcnc|oscdandappropr|atcdbycapita|in|tscommod -
hcd and monctizcdform, cvcn as |ti sbc|ng cont|nuous|y produccdby
co||cctivc|abor.
1cprimarymcansbywhichitisappropriatcdinurbancontcxts|s, of
coursc,throughthccxtractionof| andandpropcrtyrcnts." P commun|ty
1 KCCCL | J| Co
group that strugg|cs to maintain cthnic divcrsity i n its ncighborhood
andprotcctagainstgcntrihcat|on maysuddcn|yhndi tspropcrtypriccs
[and taxcs) rising as rca| cstatc agcnts markct thc "charactcr" ofthcir
ncighborhoodto thcwca|thyas mu|ticu|tura|,strcct-| vc|y, anddivcrsc.
y thc timc thc markct has donc its dcstructivc work, not on|y havc
thc origina| rcsdcnts bccn disposscsscd of that common which thcy
hadcrcatcd[ohcnbcingforccd outbyrisingrcntsandpropcrtyt axcs) ,
but t hc common itsc|| bccomcs so dcbascd as t o bc unrccognizab|c.
Nc|ghborhoodrcvita|ization through gcntrihcation |n South a|t imorc
disp|accd a |ivc|y strcct |ifc, whcrc pcop| c sat on thcirstoops onwarm
summcrnghtsandconvcrscdwithncighbors,with air- condtioncdand
burg|ar- proofcd houscs with a MW parkcd out front and a roohop
dcck,butwithnoonctobcsccnonthcstrcct. Rcvita|izationmcantdcvi-
ta|ization,accordingto|oca|opinion.Tisisthcfatcthatagainandagain
thrcatcnsp|accs ||kcChr|stian|a|nCopcnhagcn, thc St. Pau|id|str|cts of
Hamburg, or Wi||amsburg and DUMO in Ncw York City, and it was
a|sowhatdcstroycd thatcty`sSoHodistrict.
Tisis,surc|y,afarbcttcrta|cbywhchtocxp|icatcthctructragcdyof
thcurban commonsforour t|mcs.Toscwhocrcatcan|ntcrcstingand
stimu|at ingcvcrydayncighborhood|ifc |oscittothcprcdatorypracticcs
ofthcrca|cstatccntrcprcncurs,thchnanccrsanduppcrc|assconsumcrs
bcrchofany urbansocia|maginaton. Tc bcttcr thc commonqua|itics
a socia|groupcrcatcs,thcmorc|ikc|yitistobcraidcdandappropriatcd
byprivatcproht-maximizingntcrcsts.
ut thcrc isa furthcrana|yt|cpoint hcrc thatmustbcrcmarkcd.Tc
co||cct|vc|aborthatMarxcnvisagcdwasforthcmostpartconhncdt othc
factory.Whatifwcbroadcnthatconccptiontothink,asHardtandNcgri
suggcst,thatitsthcmctropo| sthatnowconstitutcsavastcommonpro-
duccdbythc col|cctivc |abor cxpcndcdonandinthc city Tc rightto
usc that common must surc|y thcn bc accordcd to a|| thosc who havc
had a part in producing |t. 1is is, ofcoursc, thcbasis for thc c|aim to
thc r|ghtto thccityon thc parto|thc co||cct|vc |aborcrswhohavcmadc
it. Tcstrugg|c for thc right to thc city is against thcpowcrs ofcapita|
that ruth|css|y fccd upon and cxtractrcntsfrom thc common |ifc that
othcrshavcproduccd.1isrcmindsusthatthcrca|prob|cm| icswiththc
privatccharactcrofpropcrtyr|ghtsandthcpowcrthcscr|ghtscon|crto
1MC KCPJ| LP L| JMC UKPP LLPo 1V
appropriatcnot on|y the|aborbut a|so thc co||cctivc productsofothcrs.
Put anothcr way, thc prob|cm |s not thc common pcr sc, but the rc|a-
t|onsbctwccnthoscwho produccorcapturc tatavar ctyofsca|csand
thosc who appropr|atc |t for prvatc ga|n. Much ofthc corrupton that
attachcstourbanpo||t|csrc|atcstohowpub|cinvcstmcntsarca||ocatcd
to producc somcth|ng that |ooks | ikc a common but which promotcs
ga|ns|npr|vatcassctva|ucsfor pr|v|cgcdpropcrtyowncrs. Tcdst|nc-
t|onbetweenurbanpub||cgoods and urbancommons|sboth ||u|dand
dangcrous|yporous.Howohcnarcdcvc|opmcnta|proj cctssubs|d|zcdby
thcstatcmthcnamcofthccommonntcrcstwhcnthctrucbcnchc|ar|cs
arcafcw|andho|dcrs,hnanc|crs,anddcvc|opcrs
How, thcn, arc urban commons produccd, organizcd, uscd, and
appropr|atcdacrossawho|cmctropo||tanarcaHowcommon|ngmight
workatthc |oca|nc|ghborhood|cvc| |src|at|vc|yc|car. lt|nvo|vcs somc
m|xofndv|dua|andprvatc|nt|atvctoorgan|zc andcapturccxtcrnal-
tychcctswh|c puttingsomc aspcct ofthc cnvironmcntoutsidc ofthc
markct. Tc|oca|statc|s|nvo|vcdthroughrcgu|at|ons,codcs,standards,
andpub||c nvcstmcnts, a|ongw|th |nforma|andforma|ncghborhood
organ|zation [ forcxamp|e, a commun|tyassoc|atonwhchmayormay
notbc po||t|ca||yactivc andm|||tant,dcpcnd|ngonthccrcumstanccs) .
Tcrcarcmanycascs|nwh|ch tcrr|tor|a|stratcg|csandcnc|osurcsw|thin
thcurbanm|||cucanbccomcavch|c|cforthcpo||t|ca||chtoadvanccts
causc. Thc organ|zcrs of|ow- ncomc and prccarious|abor|n a|timorc
dcc|arcd thcwho|c Inncr Harborarca a "human rghtszonc"asortof
common-where everyworkershou|drcce|ve a |ivingwage. Tep|acc-
bound FcdcratonofNc|ghborhoodAssoc|at|ons|n E|A|tobccamconc
ofthckcybascsofthcE|A|torcbc||ionsof2OOJ and2OO5,inwh|ch thc
who|cc|tybccamcco||cct|vc|ymob|||zcdaga|nstthcdomnantformsof
po||t|ca| powcr. ' ' Enc|osurc |s a tcmporary po|t|ca| mcans to pursuc a
commonpo|tica|end.
Tcgcncra|outcomcthatMarxdcscr|bcsst|||ho|ds,howcvcr.cap|ta|,
mpc||cdonwardsbythccocrcvc| awsofcompct|tiontomaxmizcuti|ty
[prohtab||ty)-as do thccatt|cowncrsnHard|n's ta|c-produccs
progrcss in thc art, not on|y ol robbing thc workcr, but ol Iobbing tbc
so|I, a|I progrcss |n | ncrcas|ng thc fcHuity ol thc so|| for B g|vcn t|mc |s a
KCCCL | J| Co
progrcss towards ruining tbc morc |ong Iasting sourccs ol that fcrtility.
1c morcacountryprocoods |mm argcscac| ndustry as tho background
ol i|s dcvcIopmcnt, as in thc casc ol thc Unitcd Statcs, thcmorc rapid is
ths procoss of dostructon. CaptaIst productIon, thoroforo, on|y dovo|-
ops thc tcchnigucs and thc dcgrcc ol combination ol thc sociaI proccss
ol product|on by simuItancously undcrmining thcorigna|souncs of aII
woaIth-tho so| and tho workor.'
Captal|st urban|zat|on pcrpctua||y tcnds to dcstroythc c|ty as a soc|al,
po||tcaland||vablccommons.
Ts "tragcdy" |s sm|ar to thatwh|ch Hardn dep|cts, but thc log|c
from wh| ch |t ar|scs |s cnt|rc|y dhcrcnt. Lch unrcgu|atcd, |ndvdua|-
zed cap|ta|accumu|at|onperpetuallythrcatensto destroythetwobasc
common propertyresourccsthatundcrg|rd a|l forms ofproducton: thc
laborcrandthc|and.utthclandwcnow|nhab|tsa productofco||ec-
t|vchuman |abor. Urbanzat|on |s aboutthc pcrpctua| product|on ofan
urbancommons[ortsshadow-formofpublcspacesandpub||cgoods)
and ts pcrpctua| appropr|aton and dcstructon by pr|vatc |ntcrcsts.
Andwth cap|talaccumu|at|onoccurr|ngata compoundratcofgrowth
[usua||yat thc m|n|mum sat|sfactorylcvc| ofJ pcrccnt) , so thcsc dua|
thrcats to thcenv|ronmcnt[both"natura|"andbult) andto|aboresca-
| atc |n sca|c and ntcns|ty ovcr t|mc. '' Look at the urban wrcckagc |n
Dctrottogcta scnscofhowdcvastat|ngth|sproccsscanbc.
Butwhat|sso|ntcrcstngabouttheconccptofthcurbancommons|s
that|tposesa||ofthcpo|itcalcontradctionsofthccommonsinhgh|y
conccntratcd form. Cons|dcr, for cxamp|c, thc qucstion ofsca|cw|t h|n
wh|ch wc movc from thc qucst|on of |ocal nc|ghborhoods and po||t|-
ca| organzaton to the mctropol|tan rcg|on as a who|c. Tradt|ona|ly,
qucstons of thc commons at thcmctropo|tan|cvcl havc bccn hand|cd
throughmcchansmsofstatcrcgiona|andurbanplann|ng,nrccogn|t|on
ofthc fact that thc common rcsourccs rcqu|rcd for urban popu|at|ons
to functon chcct|vc|y, such as watcr prov|s|on, transportation, scwagc
d|sposal, and opcn spacc for rccrcat|on, havc to bc prov|dcd at a mct-
ropo||tan,rcg|ona|scalc. utwhcn |tcomcstobundlngtogcthcrssucs
of t hs k|nd, | ch-ana|ys|s typ|cal|y bccomcs vaguc, gcstur|ng hopcful|y
towards somc magca| concordancc of|oca| act|ons that w||| bc chcc-
t|vc at a rcgona| org|oba|lcvc|, or s|mply not|ng thsas an |mportant
1MC KCPJ| LP L| JMC UKPP LLPo 1
prob|cm bcforc moving back to that sca|c-usua||y thc m|cro and thc
|oca|-atwhch thcyfcc|mostcomfortab|c.
Wccanhcrc|carnsomcthingofthcrcccnthistoryofcommonsthink-
ng inmorc convcntona|circ|cs.Ostrom,forcxamp|c,whi|cdwc||ingin
hcrNobe|Pr|zc|ccturconsma||-sca|ccascs,takcsrcfugcinhcrsubtit|cof
"Po|yccntricCovcrnanccofComp|cxEconomicSystcms"to suggcstshc
hassomcso|ution to commonsissucs across a varicty ofsca|cs. In fact,
a||shedoes isgcsture hopefu||y to the |dea that"when a common-poo|
rcsourcc is c|osc|y conncctcd to a largcr socia|- cco|ogica| systcm, gov-
crnancc activitics arc organ|zcd in mu|tip|c ncstcd |aycrs,' but without
rcsort,shc|nsists,toanymonoccntrichicrarchica|structurc. '
Tccrucia|prob|cmhcrcistohgurcouthowapo|yccntr|cgovcrnancc
systcm [orsomcth|ngana|ogous,such asMurrayookch|n's confcdcra-
t|onof|ibcrtarianmunicipa|itics)mightactua||ywork,andtomakcsurc
thattdocsnotmasksomcthngvcrydihcrcnt. Ti squcstons oncthat
bcdcvi|s noton|yOstrom's argumcnts, but a vcrywidcrangc ofradica|
|chcommuna||stproposa|stoaddrcssthcprob|cmofthccommons. For
thisrcason,itisvcryimportanttogctthccritiquc right.
In a papcr prcparcd |or a confcrcncc on G|oba| C||matc Changc,
Ostrom c|aboratcd furthcr on thc naturc ofthc argumcnt which rcsts,
convcnicnt|y for us, on rcsu|ts from a |ong- tcrm study ofthc dc|ivcry
ofpub|icgoods inmunicipa| rcgons. '` Tcassumption had |ongbccn
that thc consol|dation ofpub||c scrv|cc prov|s|on |nto |argc-sca|c mct-
ropo||tan forms ofgovcrnmcnt, as opposcd to thcir organizat|on into
numcroussccming|y chaot|c |oca| administrations,wou|dimprovc cm-
c cncyandchcctvcncss.utthcstudcsconvncng|yshowcdth| snotto
bc so. Tcrcasonsa||boilcddowntohowmuchcasicritwastoorganizc
andcnforccco||cctivcandcoopcrativcactionwithstrongparticipationof
|oca|inhabitantsi nsma||crj urisdictions,andtothcfactthatt hccapac|ty
for part cipat|on dimin|shcd rapid|yw|th |argcr sizcs ofadmn|strativc
unit.OstromcndsbycitingAndrcwSanctontothc chcctthat
municipaIitcs arc morc Iban just providcrs of scrviccs. Tcy arc dcmo-
cratc mcchanisms thmugh which tcrfitoria|ly bascd communitics ol
pcopIc govcrn tbcmsc|vcs at a |oca| IcvcI . . . tbosc who wou|d |orcc munic-
ipaltics to ama|gamatc with cach otbcr inVariab|yc|am that thcir mot ivc
is to makc muncpa|itcs s|rongcr. Such an approach-howcvcr wc|I
KCCCL | J| Co
intontionod-orodos tho loundatons ol our |ibcral domocracios bocauso
it undorm| nos tho not|on thattherccanbc lorms of so|l-govornmont tbat
oxis| ou|sido thcinstitutions ol tho contraI govornmont.'
Bcyondmarkctcmc|cncyandchcct|vcncss,thcrc|sanon-commod|hab| c
rcasontogotoasma| | crsca|c.
"Wh||c |argc-scalc un|ts wcrc part ofchcct|vc govcrnancc ofmctro-
po||tanrcg|ons,'Ostromconc|udcs,"sma||andmcd|um-sca|cun|tswcrc
alsoncccssarycomponcnts''Tcconstruct|vcrolcofthcscsmallcrun|ts,
shcargucd,"nccdstobcscr|ous|yrcthought.`Tcqucstonthcn ar|scsof
howrc|at|onsbctwccnthcsma||crun|tsm|ghtbcstructurcd. Tcanswcr,
saysV|nccntOstrom,|sasa"po|yccntr|cordcr"|nwh|ch"manyc|cmcnts
are capab|e ofmakmg mutual ad]ustments order|ng thc|rre|at|onsh|ps
w|th onc anothcr w|thn a gcncralsystcm ofru|cswhcrc cach c|cmcnt
actsw|th|ndcpcndcnccofothcrc|cmcnts."''
So whatswrong w|th th|sp| cturcTh|swho|cargumcnthas |tsroots
n thc so- ca||cd "T|cbout hypothcs|s'' What T|cbout proposcd was a
fragmcntcd mctropo||s |n wh|ch manyjur|sd|ct|ons wou|d cach ohcr a
particu|ar |oca| tax rcg|mc and a part|cu|ar bundlc of pub||c goods to
prospcctivc rcs|dcnts, who wou|d "votc w|th thc|r fcct" andchosc that
part|cu|arm|xoftaxcsandscrvccsthatsutcdthc|rownnccdsandprcf-
crcnccs`Athrstglanccthcproposa|sccmsvcry attractvc. Tc prob|cm
|s that thc r|chcr you arc thc morc cas||y you can votc w|th your fcct
andpaythccntrypr|ccofpropcrtyand|andcosts.Supcr|orpub||ccdu-
cat|on may bc prov|dcd at thc cost ofh|gh propcrty pr|ccs and taxcs,
butthc poorarcdcpr|vcdofacccsstothcsupcr|orpub||ccducationand
arc condcmncd to l vc n a poor jur|sd|ct|on w|th poor pub||c cduca-
t|on. Tc rcsu|tant rcproduct|on ofc|ass prv||cgc and powcr through
po|yccntr|cgovcrnancchtsncat|y|ntonco||bcralclassstratcg|csofsoc|a|
reproduct|on.
A| ongw|thmanymorcrad|ca|proposa|s|or dcccntralizcdautonomy,
Ostrom's |s |n dangcr offa||ng |nto cxactlyth|strap. Nco||bcra|po||t|cs
actua||y favorsboth adm|n|strat|vc dcccntra||zat|on and thcmaxm|za-
t|onof|oca|autonomy. Whlconthconchandth|sopcnsaspaccw|th|n
wh|ch rad|ca| forccs can morc cas||y p|ant thc sccds ofa morc rcvo|u-
t|onaryagcnda, thc countcr-rcvo|ut|onary takcovcr ofCochabamba |n
1MC KCPJ| LP L| JMC UKPP LLPo J
thcnamcofautonomybythcforccsofrcaction in2OO7[unti|thcywcrc
forccd out by popu|ar rcbcl|ion) suggcsts that thc cmbracc of|oca|ism
andautonomyby much ofthc lch as a purc stratcgy is problcmatic. In
thc Un|tcd Statcs, thc |cadcrsh|p ofthc C|cvc|and |n|tat|vc cc|cbratcd
as an cxamp|c of autonomous communitariansm in action sup-
portcd thcc|cction ofa radca||yrght-wing andant- unonrcpub|can
forgovcrnor.
Dcccntra|zaton and autonomy arc primaryvchiclcs for producing
grcatcr ncqua|ity through nco|ibcralzation. Tus, in Ncw York Statc,
thc uncqua| provison ofpub|ic cducation scrvccs across jurisdictions
w|th rad|cal|y d|hcrcnt hnanc|a| rcsourccs has bccn dccmcd by thc
courts as unconstitutona|, and thc statc is undcr court ordcr to movc
towards grcatcr cqua||zat|on of cducationa| provis|on. It has fai|cd to
do so, and now uscs thc hsca| cmcrgcncy as a furthcr cxcusc to dc|ay
acti on. utnotcwc||,it|sthchghcr- ordcrandhcrarchica||ydctcrm|ncd
mandatc ofthc statc courts that is crucia| in mandatinggrcatcr cqua|-
tyoftrcatmcntasa const|tut|ona|r|ght. Ostromdocsnotru| coutsuch
h|ghcr-ordcrru|c-making. Rc|at|onsbctwccn|ndcpcndcnt and autono-
mous|y functioning communitics havc tobc cstab|shcd and rcgu|atcd
somchow[hcnccV|nccntOstrom's rcfcrcnccto "cstab|shcdrulcs"). ut
wcarclchnthcdarkastohowsuchhghcr-ordcrru|csm|ghtbcconst|-
tutcd,bywhom,andhowthcymghtbcopcnto dcmocrat|ccontrol. For
thcwho|cmctropoltanrcgonsomcsuchru|cs[orcustomarypracticcs)
arcbothncccssaryandcrucia|. Furthcrmorc,suchru|csmustnotonlybc
cstab|ishcdandasscrtcd.Tcymusta|sobccnforccdandactivc|ypo||ccd
[as s thc casc with any common). Wc nccd look no |urthcr than thc
"po|yccntric"Eurozoncforacatastrophccxamp|cofwhatcangowrong:
a|lmcmbcrswcrcsupposcdto abidcby ru|csrcstricting thcirbudgctary
dchcits,andwhcnmostofthcmbrokcthcru|csthcrcwasnowaytoforcc
comp|anccordcalwiththchsca|mba|anccsthat thcncmcrgcdbctwccn
statcs. Ccttingstatcstocomp|ywthcarboncmissionstargctsappcarsan
cqua|lyhopclcsstask. Whlc thch storca|answcrto thcqucston"Who
putsthc`common`|ntothcCommonMarkct"maycorrcct|ybcdcpictcd
ascmbodyngcvcrythingthatiswrongabouthcrarchicalformsofgov-
crnancc, thc a|tcrnat|vc imaginary of thousands upon thousands of
autonomous municipa|itcshcrcc|ydcfcndng thcirautonomyand thcr
+ KCCCL | J| Co
turfwhilc cnd|css|y [andundoubtcd|y acrimonious|y) ncgotiatingthcir
positionwithinEuropc-widcdivisionsoflaborishard|ya|luring.
How can radcal dcccntralzationsurc|y a worthwhi|c objcctivc
workwthout const|tuting somc h|ghcr-ordcrh|crarchical authorty It
ssimplynavcto bc|ievcthatpo|yccntrsmorany othcrformofdcccn-
tra|ization can workwithoutstronghicrarchica| constraints and activc
cnforccmcnt. Much ofthcradca||ch-partcular|y ofan anarch|stand
autonomistpcrsuasion-has no answerto this prob|em. State interven-
tions[ tosaynothingofstatccnforccmcntandpolcing)arcunacccptablc,
and thc |cgitimacy of bourgcois constitutiona|ity is gcncra||y dcnicd.
lnstcadthcrc |s thc vaguc and navc hopc that socia| groups who havc
organizcd thcir rclations to thcir |oca| commons satisfactori|y w|l do
thc r|ght thing or convcrgc upon somc satisfactory intcr-group prac-
ticcsthroughncgotiationandintcract|on. Fort hs tooccur, loca|groups
wou|dhavc tobcuntroublcdbyanycxtcrnalitychccts thatthcr act|ons
mghthavc onthcrcstofthcwor|d,andtogivc up accrucdadvantagcs,
dcmocratca|ly dstr|butcd withnthcsocia|group,nordcrto rcscuc or
supp|cmcnt thc wc||-bc|ng ofncar [|ct a|onc dstant) othcrs, who as a
result of cithcr bad dccis|ons or mis|ortunc havc fa||cn into a statc of
starvationandmiscry. Hstoryprovidcsuswithvcrylittlccvidcncc that
such rcdistribut|ons can workon anything othcrthan an occasiona| or
onc-ohbasis. Tcrc|s,thcrcforc,nothngwhatsocvcr to prcvcntcscalat-
ingsoca| incqua|itics bctwccn communitics. Ts accords a|| too wcl|
w|ththcnco|ibcra|projcctofnoton|yprotcct|ngbutfurthcrprv|cg|ng
structuresofc|asspower [ofthcsortsoc|earlycvidentm thc NewYork
Statcschoo|hnancingdcbac| c).
Murrayookchinsacutc|yawarc ofsuch dangcrsthc"agcndaofa
|ibcrtaranmunc|pa|ismcancasi|ybccomcvacuousatbcstorbc uscdfor
high|yparochia|cndsatworst,' hc writcs.Hisanswcris"confcdcralism.'
Whi|c municipa| asscmb|ics working through dircct dcmocracy form
thcpo|icy-makingbasc, thcstatcisrcplaccd"byaconfcdcralncworkof
municipal asscmb|ics,thccorporatccconomyrcduccdtoatru|ypo|itica|
cconomyinwhich muncipaltics,intcractngwithcachothcrcconomi-
ca|lyas wc|las politica||y,wi||rcso|vc thcir matcrialprob|cmsascitizcn
bodics in opcn asscmb| cs" Tcsc confcdcra| asscmb|ics w|l bc g|vcn
over to administration and govcrnancc o| po|icics dctcrmincd in thc
1MC KCPJ| LP L| JMC UKPP LLPo J
mun|c|pa| asscmb|ics,and thc dc|cgatcs w|l| bcrcca||ab|c and answcr-
ab|c at a|| tmcs to thcw|l| ofthcmun|c|pa| asscmb||cs. Tc confcdcra|
counc||s
become tbe means |or interI| nking vU|ages, towns, ne|gbborboods, and
cties into conledera| networks. Power thus l|ows lrom the bottom up
instead ol lrom |be |op down, and in conledera|ions, |he l|ow ol power
hom tbe bottom up dim|n|sbes witb the scope o| the federa| counciI
ranging territora|Iy lrom Ioca|ities and regions and lrom regons to ever-
broadcr |crritoria| areas. '"
ookch|n's proposa| is by far thc most soph|stcated rad|ca| proposa|
to dca| wth thc crcat|on and co||cctivc usc of thc commons across a
var|ctyofsca|cs,andswc||worthc|aboratingaspartofthc rad|ca|ant|-
capta||stagcnda.
Ts ssuc s a|| the morc prss|ng bccausc ofthe v| olent neo||bera|
attackuponthcpub||cprovis|onofsoc|a|pub|icgoodsovcrthc|astth|rty
ycarsormorc. T|scorrcspondcdtothcroot-and-branchattackuponthc
r|ghtsandpowcroforganizcd|aborthatbcganinthc l 97Os[fromChi| c
to r|tain) but |t focuscd on thc costs ofsocia| rcproduction of|abor
d|rcct|y.Cap|ta|has|ongprcfcrrcdtotrcatthccostsofsocia|rcproduct|on
asaneterna||ty"acostforwhch|tbearsnomarketrespons|b||ity"but
thcsoca|-dcmocratc movcmcnt and thc act|vc thrcat ofa commun|st
a|tcrnativc forccd capta| to intcrna|zc somc ofthosc costs, a|ongw|th
somc ofthccxtcrna|itycosts attrbutab|cto cnvronmcnta|dcgradation,
upunt|lthcl 97Osinthcadvanccdcap|ta||stwor|d.Tca|mofnco||bcra|
po|ccs s|ncc l 98O orso hasbccn to dump thcsc costs |nto thc g|oba|
commons ofsoc|a| rproduct|on and thc cnv ronmcnt, creat|ng, as t
wcrc, a ncgat|vc commons |n wh|ch who|c popu|atons arc forccd now
todwc||.Qucst|onsofsocia|rcproducton,gcndcr,andthccommonsarc
|ntcr||nkcd. '"
1c rcsponsc on thc part of cap|ta| to thc g|oba| crs|s condit|ons
aher2OO7hasbcen to |mp|emcnt a dracon|ang|oba|austcr|typ|an that
dimi n|shcs thcsupp|y ofpub||cgoodstosupportboth soc|a|rcproduc-
t|on andcnv|ronmcnta|amc||oration,thcrcbydmmishingthcqua||tcs
ofthc commons i nboth |nstanccs. It has a|so uscd thc cris|s to fac|||-
tatc cvcn morc prcdatory activi ty in th pr|vatc appropiation ofthc
KCCCL | J| Co
commons as a ncccssary prccond|tion for thc rcviva| ofgrowth. Tc
uscs ofcmincntdomain, for cxamp|c, to appropriatc spaccsfor privatc
purposcs [as opposcd to thc "pub|ic ut|||ty" for wh|ch such |aws wcrc
or|g|na||y|ntcndcd)|sac|ass|ccascofthcrcdchn|t|onofpub||cpurposc
asstatc-|cdsponsorship ofprivatcdcvc|opment.
From Ca|iforn|ato Crcccc, thc cris|sproduccd |osscs |n urban assct
va|ucs,r|ghts, andcntit|cmcnts for thcmass ofthcpopu|at|on,coup|cd
with thc extension ofpredatory cap|ta|ist powcr ovcr |ow- incomc and
hithcrto marg|na||zcd popu|at|ons. It was, |n short, a who|csa|c attack
upon thc rcproduct|vc and cnv|ronmcnta| commons. Living on |css
than $2 a day, a g|oba| popu|at|on ofmorc than 2 b|||on orso |s now
bcingtakcninbymicrohnanccasthc"subpr|mcofa||subprimcformsof
|cnding,'soasto cxtractwca|thfromthcm [as happcncd|nUS hous|ng
markctsthrough sub-pr|mcprcdatory|cnd|ngfo||owcdbyforcc|osurcs)
to g||d thc MacMans|ons ofthc rich. Tc cnvironmcnta| commons arc
no |css thrcatcncd,whi|c thc proposcdanswcrs [such as carbon trading
and ncw cnvronmcnta| tcchno|og|cs) mcrc|y proposc that wc scck to
cxtthcmpasscusngthcsamctoo|sofcap|ta|accumu|at|onandspccu-
|ativc markct cxchangc thatgot usintothcdm cu|t|cs |n thchrstp|acc.
Itisunsurprising, thcrcforc, noton|ythatthcpoor arcsti||w|thus, but
thatthc|rnumbcrsgrowrathcrthand|m|n|shovcrt|mc. Wh||cInd|ahas
bccn racking up a rcspcctab|c rccord ofgrowth throughoutthscr|sis,
for cxamp|c, thc numbcr ofbi||iona|rcs has lcapt from 26 to 69 | n thc
|ast thrcc ycars, wh||c thcnumbcrofs|um- dwc||crshasncar|ydoub|cd
ovcr thc|astdccade. Tcurbanimpacts arcquitestunn|ng,as|uxurious
air- cond|tioncd condominiumsarisc |n thcmidstofuncarcd- |orurban
squa|or, out ofwhich impovcr|shcd pcop|c strugg|c mighti|y to makc
somcsortofacccptab|ccx|stcnccforthcmsc|vcs.
Tc dismantling of thc rcgu|atory framcwork and contro|s that
sought,howcvcrinadcquatc|y, to curb thcpcnchantfor prcdatoryprac-
ticcs of accumu|ation has un|cashcd thc ares mo| |e d|uge |og|c of
unbr|d|cd accumu|ation and hnanca| spccu| ation thathas now turncd
|nto a vcr|tab|c l|ood of crcativc dcstruction, inc|uding that wrought
through cap|ta||sturban|zation. Tis damagc canon|ybccontaincd and
rcvcrscdbythcsoc|a||zat|onofsurp|usproduct|onandd|str|bution,and
thccstab||shmcntofancwcommonofwca|thopcntoa||.
THL CRLAT| N | THL ORHAN CMMNS 87
lt Is In thIs contcxt that thc rcvIva o| a rhctorIc and thcory o| thc
commons takcs on an addcd sIgnIhcancc. l| statc-suppIcd pubIc goods
cIthcr dccInc or bccomc a mcrc vchIcc |or prIvatc accumuatIon as Is
happcnIng to cducatIon), and I| thc statc wIthdraws |rom thcIr provIsIon,
thcn thcrc Is ony onc possIbc rcsponsc, whIch Is |or popuatIons to sc|-
organIzc to provIdc thcIr own commons as happcncd In 8oIvIa, as wc
sha scc In Chaptcr 5). 1c poItIca rccognItIon that thc commons can
bc produccd, protcctcd, and uscd |or socIa bcncht bccomcs a |ramcwork
|or rcsIstIng capItaIst powcr and rcthInkIng thc poItIcs o| an antI-
capItaIst transItIon.
8ut what mattcrs hcrc Is not thc partIcuar mIx o| InstItutIona
arrangcmcnts-thc cncosurcs hcrc, thc cxtcnsIons o| a varIcty o| co-
cctIvc and common-propcrty arrangcmcnts thcrc-but that thc unIhcd
cHcct o| poItIca actIon addrcss thc spIraIng dcgradatIon o| abor and
and rcsourccs IncudIng thc rcsourccs cmbcddcd In thc sccond naturc
o| thc buIt cnvIronmcnt) at thc hands o| capIta. ln thIs cHort, thc rIch
mIx o| InstrumcntaItIcs that EInor strom bcgIns to IdcntI]-not ony
pubIc and prIvatc, but cocctIvc and assocIatIona, ncstcd, hIcrarchIca
and horIzonta, cxcusIonary and opcn-wI a havc a kcy roc to pay
In hndIng ways to organIzc productIon, dIstrIbutIon, cxchangc, and con-
sumptIon In ordcr to mcct human wants and nccds on an antI-capItaIst
basIs. 1Is rIch mIx Is not gIvcn, but has to bc constructcd.
1hc poInt Is not to |uh thc rcguIrcmcnts o| accumuatIon |or accu-
muatIon`s sakc on thc part o| thc cass that approprIatcs thc common
wcath |rom thc cass that produccs It. 1hc rcturn o| thc commons as a
poItIca gucstIon has to bc Intcgratcd whoy Into antI-capItaIst strug-
gc In a vcry spccIhc way. Ln|ortunatcy thc Idca o| thc commons Ikc
thc rIght to thc cIty) Is just as casIy approprIatcd by cxIstIng poItIca
powcr as Is thc vauc to bc cxtractcd |rom an actua urban common by
rca cstatc Intcrcsts. 1hc poInt, thcrc|orc, Is to changc a that and to hnd
crcatIvc ways to usc thc powcrs o| cocctIvc abor |or thc common good,
and to kccp thc vauc produccd undcr thc contro o| thc aborcrs who
produccd It.
1Is rcguIrcs a doubc-prongcd poItIca attack, through whIch thc
statc Is |orccd to suppy morc and morc In thc way o| pubIc goods |or
pubIc purposcs, aong wIth thc sc|-organIzatIon o| whoc popuatIons
88 RLHLc C| T| LS
to approprIatc, usc, and suppcmcnt thosc goods In ways that cxtcnd and
cnhancc thc guaItIcs o| thc non-commodIhcd rcproductIvc and cnvIron-
mcnta commons. 1c productIon, protcctIon, and usc o| pubIc goods
and thc urban commons In cItIcs Ikc MumbaI, So Fauo, )ohanncsburg,
Los Angccs, ShanghaI, and 1okyo bccomcs a ccntra Issuc |or dcmocratIc
socIa movcmcnts to addrcss. And that wI takc much morc ImagInatIon
and sophIstIcatIon than Is currcnty brought to bcar In thc hcgcmonIc
radIca thcorIcs o| thc commons currcnty cIrcuatIng, partIcuary as
thcsc commons arc bcIng contInuousy crcatcd and approprIatcd through
thc capItaIst |orm o| urbanIzatIon. Jhc roc o| thc commons In cIty |or-
matIon and In urban poItIcs Is ony now bcIng ccary acknowcdgcd
and workcd upon, both thcorctIcay and In thc word o| radIca practIcc.
1crc Is much work to do, but thcrc arc abundant sIgns In thc urban
socIa movcmcnts occurrIng around thc word that thcrc arc pcnty o|
pcopc and a crItIca mass o| poItIca cncrgy avaIabc to do It.
LMP|JCK |LOK
1OC /G O! KC|!
J
hcnumbcrofworkcrscngagcd|ncu|tura|act|v|tcsand product|on
has |ncrcascd cons| dcrab|y ovcr thc past fcw dccadcs [from somc
l 5O,OOO artsts rcg|stcrcd |n thc Ncw York mctropo|tan rcgon |n thc
car|y I 98Os to ||kc|y morc than doub|c that by now), and contnucs to
r|sc. Tcyform thc crcat|vc corc ofwhat Dan|c| Bc| | ca||s "thc cu|tura|
mass" [notthccrcators butthctransm|ttcrsofcu|turc|n thc mcdia and
c|scwhcrc) , ' andhavcsh|hcd|nthc|r po|t|ca|stanccsovcrthcycars. In
thc196Os, thc artco||cgcs wcrc hotbcds ofrad| ca| d|scuss|on, butthcr
subscqucntpac|hcatonandprofcss|ona||zat|onhasscr|ous|yd|mn|shcd
ag|tat|ona|po||t|cs.Toughsoca||ststratcgyandthoughtmayncedtobc
rcconhgurcd,rcv|ta|zngsuchnsttut onsasccntcrsofpo||tca|cngagc-
mcnt and mob|zing thc po||t|ca| and ag|tat|ona| powcrs of cu|tura|
produccrs |ssurc|y a worthwh||e objectvc for thc |eh. Wh|le commcr-
c|a||zaton and markct |nccnt|vcs unqucst|onab|y domnatc |n thcsc
t|mcs, thcrc arc p|cnty ofd|ss|dcnt sub-currcnts and d|scontcnts to bc
dctcctcdamongcu|tura|produccrs to makc th|sa fcrt||chc|dforcrit|ca|
cxprcss|on and po||t|ca| ag|tat|on for thc product|on ofa ncw kind of
commons.
Tatcu|turc|saformofcommons, andthatthasbccomcacommod-
|tyofsomcsort, s undcn|ab|c.Yct thcrc|sa|soa w|dcsprcadbc||cfthat
thcrc|ssomcth|ngsospcca|aboutccrta|ncu|tura|productsandcvcnts
[bcthcy|nthc arts,thcatcr,mus|c,cncma, archtccturc,ormorcbroad|y
V KCCCL | J| Co
ln|oca||zcdwaysof|lfc,hcr|tagc,co||cct|vcmcmor|cs,andahcctvccom-
mun|t|cs) as to sct thcm apart from ord|nary commod|t|cs ||kc sh|rts
andshocs. Wh||cthcboundarybctwccnthctwosortsofcommod|t|css
h|gh|yporous[pcrhaps|ncrcas|ng|yso), thcrcarcst|||groundsforma|n-
tanngan ana|yt|cscparaton. ltmay bc, ofcoursc,thatwc d|stngush
cu|tura| artfacts and cvcnts bccausc wc cannot bcar to th|nk ofthcm
as anyt h|ng othcr than authcnt|ca||y d|hcrcnt, cx|st|ng on somc h|ghcr
p|anc ofhuman crcat|v|ty and mcan|ng than that |ocatcd |n thc facto-
r|csofmassproduct|onandconsumpton.utcvcnwhcnwcstrpaway
al| rcs|ducs ofwshfu| th|nk|ng [ohcn backcd by powcrfu| dco|ogcs) ,
wcarcst||| | chw|th somcth|ng vcry spcc|a| about thosc products dcs-
lgnatcdas"cu|tura|'` Artstud|o andga||crydstr|cts,andstrpsofcafes
and bars whcrc muscans mcct and p|ay, arc not thc samc as c|oth|ng
storcssmp|ybccauscthcytoocanon|ycx|stfthcyturncnoughprohtto
paythc|r rcnt. How, thcn, canthccommod|tystatusofso manyofthcsc
phcnomcnabcrcconc|cdw|ththc|rspcc|a|charactcr
NLlL|LLT KLlJ PlL LLN|LJ|J| Ll
To thc cu| tura| produccrs thcmsc|vcs, usuaUy morc ntcrcstcd n ahars
ofacsthct|cs[somct|mcscvcndcd|catcdto|dca|s ofartforart'ssakc) , of
ahcctvcva|ucs,ofsoc|a||fcandofthchcart, atcrm|kc"monopo|yrcnt"
m|ghtappcarfartoo tcchn|ca|andar|dtobcarmuch wc|ghtbcyondthc
poss|b|cca|cu|ofthchnanc|cr,thcdcvc|opcr,thcrca|cstatcspccu|ator,
and thc |and|ord. ut I hopc to show that t has a much grandcr pur-
chasc: that,propcr|yconstructcd, t cangcncratcr|ch |ntcrprctatons of
thcmanypract|ca|andpcrsona|d||cmmasar|s|ng |n thcncxusbctwccn
cap|ta||stg|oba||zat|on, |oca| po||t|ca|-cconom|c dcvc|opmcnts, and thc
cvo|ut|on ofcu|tura|mcan|ngs andacsthct|cva|ucs. '
A|| rcnt |s bascd on thc monopo|y powcr of pr|vatc owncrs ovcr
ccrtan asscts. Monopo|yrcnt arscs bccauscsoc|a|actors canrca|zcan
cnhanccd|ncomcstrcamovcrancxtcndcdt|mcbyv|rtucofthc|r cxc|u-
svc control ovcr somc drcct|y or |nd|rcct|y tradab|c tcm wh|ch s |n
somc cruc|a| rcspccts un|quc and non-rcp||cab|c. Tcrc arc two s|tu-
atons |n wh|ch thc catcgoryofmonopo|y rcnt comcs to thc forc. Tc
1MC PK1 L| KCP1 V 1
hrst ariscs bccausc soc|a| actors control somc spcclal qua|ity rcsourcc,
commod|ty, or| ocat|onwh|ch, |n rc|at|on to a ccrta|n k|ndofactvq,
cnab|cs thcm to cxtract monopoly rcnts from thosc dcsir|ng to usc it.
In thc rca|m ofproducton, Marx argucs, thc mostobviouscxamp|c |s
the vincyard producing winc ofextraordinary qua|ity that can be sold
at a monopo|y pricc. In this circumstancc "thc monopo|y pricc crcatcs
thcrcnt'''Tc|ocatona|vcrsionwou|dbcccntral|ty[forthccommcrca|
capita||st) rc|at|ve to, say, the transport and communcat |ons nctwork,
or proxmity [ for t hc hotcl chan) tosomc hghlyconccntratcd act|v|ty
[suchasahnanc|alccntcr) .Tccommcrcia|capita|istandthchotc||crarc
w|||ngtopayaprcmumforthclandbccauscoftsacccssblty.
Tcsc arc thc lnd|rcct cascs of monopoly rcnt. It is not thc |and,
rcsourccorlocationofunqucqualitcswhichistradcd,butt hccommod-
i tyorscrvccproduccd through thci rusc. !nthcsccondcasc,thc|and,
rcsourccorassct|sd|rcct|ytradcdupon[aswhcnv|ncyardsorpr|mcrca|
cstatcsitcsarcso|dtomu|tinationalcapital|stsandhnancicrsforspccula-
tvc purposcs) .Scarctycan bc crcatcdbywthholdingthcland, rcsourcc,
orassctfrom currcnt uscs and spccu|ating onfuturc valucs. Monopo|y
rcntofth|s sortcanbecxtcndcdto owncrsh|pofworksofart, such asa
Rod| nora Picasso,whichcan bc [andincrcas|ng|yarc)boughtandsold
asnvcstmcnts.lt|s thcun|qucncssofthcPcassoorthcsitcwhchhcrc
formsthcbassforthcmonopo|yprcc.
Tc two formsofmonopo|yrcntohcn intcrscct. A vincyard [withlts
unquc chtcau and bcautfu| physcal sctt|ng) rcnowncd for ts wncs
canbe tradcd ata monopolyprlccd|rectly, ascan the unique|yhavorcd
wincsproduccdon lts |and. A P|casso canbcpurchascdforcap|tal ga|n
and thcn lcascd to somconc clsc who puts it on vcw for a monopo|y
prcc. Tc proxm|ty to a hnanca| ccntcr can bc tradcdd|rcct|y aswc||
asnd| rcct|yto,say, thchotc| cha|n that uscs itforitsownpurposcs. ut
thc dihcrcncc bctwccn thctworcnta| forms ls important. It |s un| ike|y
[though not mpossib| c), for cxamp|c, that Wcstminstcr Abbcy and
ucknghamPa| accwil|bctradcdd| rcct| y[ cvcn thcmostardcntprvat-
izcrs mght balk at that). ut thcy can bc and pla|nly arc tradcd uon
throughthcmarkctingpracticcsofthctouristndustry[or,in thccascof
BuckinghamPa|acc, bythcQuccn) .
Two contrad|ctionsattachtot hccatcgoryofmonopo|yrcnt. Both of
V KCCCL | J| Co
thcm arc important to thc argumcnt that fol|ows. Frst, whi|c uniquc-
ncss andparticu|arity arc cruc|a| to thc dchntion of"spccia| qua|itics,"
thc rcqurcmcnt oftradab||tymcans that no |tcm can bc so un|quc or
so spcca| as to bc cnt|rc|y outsdc thc monctary ca|cu|us. Tc P|casso
has to havc a moncyva|uc, as docs thc Monct, thc Manct, thc aborgi-
na| art, thc archaco|ogica| artifacts, thc hstoric bu|dngs, thc ancicnt
monumcnts, thc Buddh|sttcmp|cs, andthc cxpcr|cncc ofrahngdown
thcCo|orado,orofbc|ngn Istanbu| orontop ofEvcrest. Tcrc |s,as|s
cv|dcntfrom such a |st, a ccrta|n dimcu|tyof"markct formaton" hcrc.
Forwh||cmarkctshavcformcdaroundworksofart,andtosomc dcgrcc
aroundarchaco|og|ca|art|facts,thcrc arc p|an|yscvcra||tcmsonths||st
that arc hard to incorporatc dircct|y into a markct [ths is thc prob|cm
w|th Wcstm|nstcr Abbcy) . Many |tcms may notcvcn bc casy to tradc
uponnd|rcct|y.
Tccontradicton hcrc s thatthcmorc casi|ymarkctab|csuch itcms
bccomc, thc|css un|quc andspcc|a|thcyappcar. Insomc nstanccs thc
markct|ng tsclf tcnds to dcstroy thc unquc qua||tcs [ part|cu|ar|y f
thcsc dcpcnd onqua||tcssuch asw||dcrncss, rcmotcncss, thc pur|tyof
somc acsthctic cxpcrcncc, and thc |ikc). Morc gcncra||y, to thc dcgrcc
that such tcms or cvcnts arc cas|y markctab|c [and subjcctto rcp||ca-
t|onbyforgcr|cs,fakcs, m|tat|ons,ors|mu|acra), thclcssthcyprov|dca
bas|sformonopo|yrcnt.I amputnmndhcrcofthcstudcntwhocom-
p|aincd abouthow infcriorhcr cxpcricncc ofEuropcwascomparcdto
D|sncyWor|d.
At Disney WorId aLthe countries are much cIoser together, and they show
you the best ol each country. Europe is bor| ng. Peop|e taIk strange | an-
gages and things are dirty. Some|mes you don't see anythng interestng
in Europe lor days, but at Disney World something diherent happens a|l
the t| me andpeop|e are happy. It's much more fun. lt's we|l dcsi_cd. `
Whi|cth|s soundsa |aughab|cjudgmcnt,t |ssobcringtorchcctonhow
much Europc |s attcmpt|ng to rcdcs|gn |tsc|fto D|sncystandards [and
noton|yforthcbcnchtofAmcr|cantour|sts) . ut-andhcrc| sthchcart
of thc contradct| on-thc morc Europc bccomcs D|sncyhcd, thc |css
uniqucandspccia|its.Tcb|andhomogcncitythatgocsw|thpurccom-
mod| hcatoncrascsmonopo|yadvantagcs,cu| tura|productsbccomcno
1MC PK1 L| KCP1 VJ
dihcrcnt from commoditics in gcncra|. "Tc advanccd transformation
ofconsumcrgoodsinto corporatcproducts or`tradcmarkartc|cs' that
ho|da monopolyonacsthct|cva|uc,`wr|tcsWo|fgangHaug,"hasbyand
|argc rcp|accd thc c|cmcntary or'gcncrc' products,'so that "commod-
tyacsthct|cs" cxtcnds|tsbordcr "furthcr and furthcrintothcrca|mof
cu|tura| |ndustr|cs.``Convcrsc|y, cvcrycapita|istscckst opcrsuadccon-
sumcrs ofthcunquc andnon-rcp|cab|c qua|tcsofthcr commod|tcs
[ hcnccnamcbrands,advcrtsng,andthc|kc) . Prcssurcsfromboths|dcs
t hrcatcn to squcczc out thc unquc qua|tcs that undcrlc monopo|y
rcnts. Ifthc |attcr arc to bc susta|ncdand rcal|zcd,thcrcforc, somc way
hastobcfoundtokccpsomccommodt |csorp|accsunqucand partcu-
|arenough [andI wil||atcrrcf|cctonwhatthsm|ghtmcan)tomaintain
a monopo|st|c cdgc n an othcrwsc commodhcd and ohcn hcrcc|y
compct|tivccconomy.
But why, n a nco|bcra| wor|d whcrc compct|tvc markcts arc sup-
poscd|y dom|nant, wou|d monopo|y ofany sort bcto|cratcd, |ct alonc
sccn as dcsrab|c Wc hcrc cncountcr thc sccond contradcton whch,
at root, turns out to bc a mrror magc of thc hrst. Compctton, as
Marx |ong ago obscrvcd, a|ways tcnds towards monopo|y [or o|gop-
o|y) s|mp|y bccausc thc surv|va| ofthc httcst n thc war ofal| aganst
a|l c| mnatcs thc wcakcr hrms. Tc hcrccr thc compctt on, thcfastcr
thctrcndtowardso|gopo|y, fnotmonopo|y. It s thcrcforc noaccdcnt
thatthc|ibcra|zatonofmarkctsandthccc|cbrationofmarkctcompct|-
ton |n rcccnt ycars havc produccd ncrcdb|c ccntra|zation ofcapta|
[ Mcrosoh,RupcrtMurdoch, Bcrtclsmann, hnanca|scrvccs,andawavc
oltakcovcrs,mcrgcrsandconso||dat|onsinair| |ncs,rcta| |ngand cvcn |n
o|dcrindustrcs| |kcautomob|cs,pctro|cum,and thc||kc) .T|stcndcncy
has|ongbccnrccognzcd asa troublcsomcfcaturc ofcapta|stdynam-
cs-hcncc thcanttrustlcgs|atonnthcUntcdStatcsandthcworkof
thcMonopo||csandMcrgcrsCommssionsinEuropc.utthcscarcwcak
dcfcnscsaga|nstanovcrwhc|mngforcc.
T|sstructura|dynam|cwou|dnothavcthcimportancctdocswcrc| t
notfor thcfact thatcapta|stsactvc|ycu|tvatcmonopo|ypowcrs.Tcy
t hcrcbyrca|zcfar- rcachngcontro|ovcr product|onand markcting,and
hcncc stab| |zc thcrbus|ncsscnvronmcntto al|owfor ratona|ca|cu|a-
tionandlong- tcrm p|ann|ng, thcrcduct|onofr|skandunccrtanty, and
94 RLHLc C| T| LS
morc gcncray guarantcc thcmscvcs a rcatIvcy pcacc|u and untrou-
bcd cxIstcncc. 1hc vIsIbc hand o| thc corporatIon, as A|rcd Chandcr
tcrms It, has conscgucnty bccn o| |ar grcatcr Importancc to capItaIst hIs-
torIca gcography than thc InvIsIbc hand o| thc markct madc so much o|
by Adam SmIth, and paradcd ad nauscam bc|orc us In rcccnt ycars as thc
guIdIng powcr In thc ncoIbcra Idcoogy o| contcmporary gobaIzatIon.
8ut It Is hcrc that thc mIrror Imagc o| thc hrst contradIctIon comcs
most ccary Into vIcw. markct proccsscs crucIay dcpcnd upon thc IndI-
vIdua monopoy o| capItaIsts o| a sorts) ovcr owncrshIp o| thc mcans
o| productIon, IncudIng hnancc and and. A rcnt, rcca, Is a rcturn to
thc monopoy powcr o| prIvatc owncrshIp o| somc crucIa assct, such as
and or a patcnt. 1hc monopoy powcr o| prIvatc propcrty Is thcrc|orc
both thc bcgInnIng-poInt and thc cnd-poInt o| a capItaIst actIvIty. A
non-tradabc jurIdIca rIght cxIsts at thc vcry |oundatIon o| a capItaIst
tradc, makIng thc optIon o| non-tradIng hoardIng, wIthhodIng, mIscry
bchavIor) an Important probcm In capItaIst markcts. Furc markct com-
pctItIon, |rcc commodIty cxchangc, and pcr|cct markct ratIonaIty arc
thcrc|orc rathcr rarc and chronIcay unstabc dcvIccs |or coordInatIng
productIon and consumptIon dccIsIons. Jhc probcm Is to kccp cco-
nomIc rcatIons compctItIvc n0ugh whIc sustaInIng thc IndIvIdua and
cass monopoy prIvIcgcs o| prIvatc propcrty that arc thc |oundatIon o|
capItaIsm as a poItIca-cconomIc systcm.
1Is ast poInt dcmands onc |urthcr caboratIon to brIng us coscr to
thc topIc at hand. It Is wIdcy but crroncousy assumcd that monopoy
powcr o| thc grand and cumInatIng sort Is most ccary sIgnacd by
thc ccntraIzatIon and conccntratIon o| capIta In mcga-corporatIons.
Convcrscy, sma hrm sIzc Is wIdcy assumcd, agaIn crroncousy, to
bc a sIgn o| a compctItIvc markct sItuatIon. 8y thIs mcasurc, a oncc-
compctItIvc capItaIsm has bccomc IncrcasIngy monopoIzcd ovcr tImc.
1hIs crror arIscs In part bccausc o| a rathcr too |acIc appIcatIon o|
Marx`s argumcnts conccrnIng thc aw o| thc tcndcncy |or thc ccntraIza-
tIon o| capIta,` whIch Ignorcs hIs countcr-argumcnt that ccntraIzatIon
woud soon brIng about thc coapsc o| capItaIst productIon I| It wcrc
not |or countcractIng tcndcncIcs, whIch havc a contInuous dcccntraIz-
Ing cHcct` 8ut It Is aso supportcd by an cconomIc thcory o| thc hrm
that gcncray Ignorcs Its spatIa and ocatIona contcxt, cvcn though
THL ART | RLNT 95
It docs acccpt on thosc rarc occasIons whcrc It dcIgns to consIdcr thc
mattcr) that ocatIona advantagc Invovcs monopoIstIc compctItIon.`
In thc nInctccnth ccntury, |or cxampc, thc brcwcr, thc bakcr, and
thc candcstIck makcr wcrc a protcctcd to consIdcrabc dcgrcc |rom
compctItIon In oca markcts by thc hIgh cost o| transportatIon. Loca
monopoy powcrs wcrc omnIprcscnt cvcn though hrms wcrc sma In
sIzc) , and vcry hard to brcak, In cvcrythIng |rom cncrgy to |ood suppy.
By thIs mcasurc, sma-scac nInctccnth-ccntury capItaIsm was |ar css
compctItIvc than now. It Is at thIs poInt that thc changIng condItIons o|
transport and communIcatIons cntcr In as crucIa dctcrmInIng varIabcs.
As spatIa barrIcrs dImInIshcd through thc capItaIst pcnchant |or thc
annIhIatIon o| spacc through tImc,` many oca IndustrIcs and scrvIccs
ost thcIr oca protcctIons and monopoy prIvIcgcs.' Hcy wcrc |orccd
Into compctItIon wIth produccrs In othcr ocatIons-at hrst rcatIvcy
ncarby, but thcn much |arthcr away.
1hc hIstorIca gcography o| thc brcwIng tradc Is vcry InstructIvc In thIs
rcgard. In thc nInctccnth ccntury most pcopc drank oca brcw bccausc
thcy had no choIcc. By thc cnd o| thc nInctccnth ccntury bccr produc-
tIon and consumptIon In BrItaIn had bccn rcgIonaIzcd to a consIdcrabc
dcgrcc, and rcmaIncd so untI thc I 50s |orcIgn Imports, wIth thc cxccp-
tIon o| GuInncss, wcrc unhcard o|). But thcn thc markct bccamc natIona
Mcwcastc Brown and ScottIsh Youngcrs appcarcd In London and thc
South) , bc|orc bccomIng IntcrnatIona Imports suddcny bccamc a thc
ragc). I| onc drInks oca brcw now It Is by choIcc, usuay out o| somc
mIx o| prIncIpcd attachmcnt to ocaIty and somc spccIa guaIty o| thc
bccr bascd on thc tcchnIguc, thc watcr, or whatcvcr) that dIHcrcntIatcs It
|rom othcrs. I1crc arc bars In Manhattan whcrc you can drInk dIHcrcnt
oca brcws |rom a ovcr thc word|
FaIny, thc cconomIc spacc o| compctItIon has changcd In both
|orm and scac ovcr tImc. 1c rcccnt bout o| gobaIzatIon has sIgnIh-
canty dImInIshcd thc monopoy protcctIons gIvcn hIstorIcay by hIgh
transport and communIcatIons costs, whIc thc rcmova o| InstItutIona
barrIcrs to tradc protcctIonIsm) has IkcwIsc dImInIshcd thc monopoy
rcnts to bc procurcd by kccpIng |orcIgn compctItIon out. But capIta-
Ism cannot do wIthout monopoy powcrs, and cravcs mcans to asscmbc
thcm. So thc gucstIon upon thc agcnda Is how to asscmbc monopoy
95 RLHLc C| T| LS
powcrs In a sItuatIon whcrc thc protcctIons aHordcd by thc so-cacd
natura monopoIcs o| spacc and ocatIon, and thc poItIca protcctIons
o| natIona boundarIcs and tarIHs, havc bccn scrIousy dImInIshcd, I| not
cImInatcd.
1hc obvIous answcr Is to ccntraIzc capIta In mcga-corporatIons or
sct up ooscr aIanccs as In thc aIrInc and automobIc IndustrIcs) that
domInatc markcts. And wc havc sccn pcnty o| that. 1hc sccond path Is to
sccurc cvcr morc hrmy thc monopoy rIghts o| prIvatc propcrty through
IntcrnatIona commcrcIa aws that rcguatc a goba tradc. Patcnts
and so-cacd Intccctua propcrty rIghts havc conscgucnty bccomc
a major hcd o| struggc through whIch monopoy powcrs morc gcncr-
ay arc asscrtcd. 1c pharmaccutIca Industry, to takc a paradIgmatIc
cxampc, has acguIrcd cxtraordInary monopoy powcrs, In part through
massIvc ccntraIzatIons o| capIta and In part through thc protcctIon o|
patcnts and IccnsIng agrccmcnts. And It Is hungrIy pursuIng cvcn morc
monopoy powcrs as It sccks to cstabIsh propcrty rIghts ovcr gcnctIc
matcrIas o| a sorts IncudIng thosc o| rarc pants In tropIca raIn|orcsts
tradItIonay cocctcd by IndIgcnous InhabItants). As monopoy prIvI-
cgcs |rom onc sourcc dImInIsh, so wc wItncss a varIcty o| aUcmpts to
prcscrvc and asscmbc thcm by othcr mcans.
l cannot possIby rcvIcw a o| thcsc tcndcncIcs hcrc. l do want,
howcvcr, to ook morc coscy at thosc aspccts o| thIs proccss that ImpIngc
most dIrccty upon thc probcms o| oca dcvcopmcnt and cutura actIv-
ItIcs. I wIsh to show, hrst, that thcrc arc contInuIng struggcs ovcr thc
dchnItIon o| thc monopoy powcrs that mIght bc accordcd to ocatIon
and ocaItIcs, and that thc Idca o| cuturc Is morc and morc cntangcd
wIth attcmpts to rcasscrt such monopoy powcrs prccIscy bccausc caIms
to unIgucncss and authcntIcIty can bcst bc artIcuatcd as dIstInctIvc and
non-rcpIcabc cutura caIms. I bcgIn wIth thc most obvIous cxampc o|
monopoy rcnt, gIvcn by thc vIncyard producIng wInc o| cxtraordInary
guaIty that can bc sod at a monopoy prIcc.`
1MC PK1 L| KCP1 V1
PLVLlJUKLb l | JML V| |L JKPLL
Tcwlnc tradc, llkc brcwing, has bccomcmorc andmorc |ntcrnationa|
ovcr thc |ast thr tyycars,and thc strcsscs ofntcrnatona| compctiton
havc produccdsomccurous chccts. Undcrprcssurc from thcEuropcan
Unon,forcxamp|c,|ntcrnatona| wncproduccrshavcagrccd[ahcr|ong
|cga|batt|csand|ntcnscncgotiations)tophascoutthcuscof"tradltiona|
cxprcssions" on winc |abc|s, whch cou|d cvcntua||y |ncludc tcrms |kc
"chtcau"and"domaine"aswc|lasgcner|ctcrms||ke"champagnc,""bur-
gundy,' "chablis" or "sautcrnc'' In thlswaythcEuropcan wlnc | ndustry,
|cdbythcFrcnch,scckstoprcscrvcmonopolyrcntsbynsstnguponthc
unqucvrtucsof|and,c|matc,andtradtion[|umpcdtogcthcrundcrthc
Frcnchtcrm"tcrroir") andthcdistlnctivcncssofltsproductccrtihcdby
a namc. Rcinforccdbylnst|tutiona|contro|s|lkc"appc||atloncontr|ec,'
thc Frcnch wnc tradc nssts upon thc authcntcty and orgna|ty of
ltsproduct,wh|chgrounds thc unlqucncss upon wh|ch monopolyrcnt
canbcbascd.
Austra|ia |s onc ofthc countrics that agrccd to this move. Chatcau
Tahb|k n Vctora ob|igcd by dropp|ng thc "Chatcau" from ts labc|,
a|r| |ypronounc|ngthat"wcarcproudlyAustra|ianwlthno nccd to usc
tcrms nhcrtcd from othcr countrcs and cu|turcs ofbygonc days'` To
compcnsatc,thcyidcnthcdtwo factorswhlch, whcncombincd, "givc us
a unlqucpos|tonnthcwor|dofwnc' Tclrsisonc ofon|ysx wor|d-
widc wlnc rcgions whcrc thc mcso- c|imatc is dramatica||y nhucnccd
by ln|and watcr mass [thc numcrous |akcs and | oca| |agoons modcr-
atc and coo| thc c|matc) . Tcr so| s ofa unquc t_c [found n on|y
onc othcr|ocat|on |nVlctorla) , dcscrlbcdasrcd/sandyloam colorcdby
a vcry high fcrrlc oxdc contcnt, whch "has a positivc chcct on grapc
quallty and adds a ccrtaln dlst|nctivc rcglona| charactcr to ourwncs''
Tcsc two factors arc brought togcthcr to dchnc "Nagamblc Lakcs" as
a uniquc Vticu|tural Rcg|on [ to bc authcnt|catcd, prcsumab|y, by thc
Austra|ian Winc and Brandy Corporaton's Ccographica| Indcat|ons
Comm|ttcc,sctupto|dcnt|[V|tlcultura|rcglonsthroughoutAustra| | a).
Tahb||k thcrcby cstab|ishcs a countcr- c|alm to monopoly rcnts on thc
grounds of thc unlquc mx ofcnvironmcnta| conditions in thc rcgion
whcrc t lsstuatcd.Itdocsso n a waythatparal|c|sand compctcswith
V KCCCL | J| Co
thc uniqucncss cla|ms of "tcrroir" and "domainc" prcsscd by Frcnch
w|nc produccrs. '
Butwct hcncncountcr t hchrst contradict|on. A| l winc | stradablc,
and thcrcforc |n somc scnsc comparab|c, no mattcr whcrc t |s from.
EntcrRobcrt Parkcr and thc w|ne Advocate, wh|ch hcpub||shcsrcgu-
|ar|y. Parkcr cvaluatcswincsforthcirtastc and pays nopart|cu|arm|nd
to "tcrroir" or any othcr cu|tura|-h|stor|ca| clams. Hc s notor|ous|y
indcpcndcnt [most other gu|dcs arc supportcd by |n||uentia| sectors
ofthc w|nc |ndustry) . Hc ranks wincs on a sca|c accord|ng to h|sown
d|st|nct|vc tastc. Hc has an cxtcnsivc fo||ow|ng |n thc Un|tcd Statcs, a
majormarkct. If hc ratcs a Chtcauwnc from Bordcaux 65 pontsand
an Austra||an w|nc 95 points, thcn priccs arc ahcctcd. Tc Bordcaux
w|ncproduccrsarctcrrihcdofhim. Tcyhavcsucdhm, dcn|gratcdh|m,
abuscdh| m, andcvcnphys|ca||yassaultcd hm. Hccha||cngcsthcbascs
ofthcrmonopo|yrcnts. ' '
Monopo|y c|a|ms, wc can conc|udc, arc a s much a n "chcct of d|s-
coursc"andanoutcomcof strugg|casthcyarcarchcct|onofthcqua| |t|cs
ofthcproduct. But|fthc|anguagcof "tcrroir"andtradit|on|stobcaban-
doncd,thcnwhatk| ndofd|scoursccanbcput|n | tsp| accParkcr and
many othcrs |nthcwinc tradchavc|n rcccntycars|nvcntcd a |anguagc
inwh|chw|ncsarcdcscr|bcd|ntcrms such as"Havorofpcach andp|um,
w|th a hi nt of thymc and gooscbcrry." Tc |anguagc sounds bizarrc,
but this discurs|vc shih, which corrcsponds to r|sing |ntcrnationa|
compct|t|on and g|oba|ization in thc winc tradc, takcs on a d|stinc-
tivc rolc, rc|| cct|ng thc commodhcat|on ofwnc consumpt|on a|ong
standardizcd||ncs.
Butw|ncconsumptionhasmanyd|mcns|onsthatopcnpathstoprof-
tab|c cxp|oitat|on. For many t |s an acsthctc cxpcricncc. Bcyond thc
shccr plcasurc [ for somc) of a hnc winc w|th thc rght food, thcrc l |c
al| sorts ofothcrrcfcrcntswithin thc Wcstcrn tradit|on that trackback
to mytho|ogy [D|onysus and Bacchus), rc||g|on [thc blood of |csus
and commun|on r|tua|s), and trad|tions cc|cbratcd |n fcst|va|s, poctry,
song, and||tcraturc. Knowlcdgc ofwncs and "propcr"apprcc|at|on arc
ohcnsignsofc|ass, andarcanalyzab|casa form of"cultura|" capital [as
Bourdicuwou|dputit) . Cctt|ngthcwincr|ghtmay havc hc|pcdto sca|
morc than a fcw majorbusincss dcals. [Wouldyou trustsomconcwho
1MC PK1 L| KCP1 VV
ddnot know how to sc|cct a wnc) Sty|c ofwnc |s rc|atcdto rcg|ona|
cusncs,andthcrcby cmbcddcd n thosc practccs that turn rcgona|ty
ntoawayof| | fcmarkcdbydstnctvcstructurcs offcc|ng[t shardto
mag|ncZorba thc CrcckdrnkngMondavCa| fornanj ug wnc,cvcn
thoughthclattcrssoldnAthcnsarport) .
Tcwnctradc|saboutmoncyand proht,buttsalsoaboutculturcn
a|loftsscnscs[fromthccu|turcofthcproducttothccu|turalpractccs
thatsurround |ts consumpt|on and thc cu|tura| cap|ta| that can cvo|vc
a|ongsdctamongbothproduccrsandconsumcrs) .Tcpcrpctua|scarch
for monopo|y rcnts cntals scckng out crtcra of spcc|alty, un|quc-
ncss,orgna| ty, andauthcnt ctyncach ofthcscrca|ms. Ifunqucncss
cannotbccstab||shcdbyappca| to"tcrror" and trad|ton,orbystraght
dcscr|pton ofHavor, thcn othcrmodcs ofdstnct|on must bc nvokcd
to cstablsh monopoly c|ams and dscourscs dcvscd to guarantcc thc
truth ofthosc clams [thcw nc thatguarantccs scduct|on or thc w|nc
thatgocs wth nostalga and thc log hrc arc currcnt advcrtsng tropcs
n thc Untcd Statcs) . In practcc, what wc hnd wthn thc wnc tradc
|s a host ofcompctng dscourscs, al| wth dhcrcnt truth clams about
thcun|qucncssofthcproduct. But, torcturnto mystart|ngpo|nt,a||of
thcscdscursvcshhsandhuxons, aswc||asmanyofthcshhsandturns
that havc occurrcd n thc stratcgcs for commandng thc ntcrnatona|
markctnwnc,havc at thcrroot noton|y thcscarchfor prohtbuta|so
thcscarchformonopolyrcnts.Int h|sthc|anguagc ofauthcntcty, org|-
nalty, unqucncss, and spcca| un- rcp|cab|c qua|tcs |ooms |argc. Tc
gcncra| | tyofa g|oba||zedmarket produces, na manncrcons|stentw|th
thcsccond contradct|onI |dcnt|hcdcar|cr, a powcrfu| lorccscckngto
guarantccnoton|y thccontnungmonopo|yprv|cgcsofprvatc prop-
crty, but thc monopo|y rcnts that dcrvc from dcpctng commodtcs
asncomparablc.
UKOP| L|JKL|KL|LUK| PL| bN P|L JmL
bCPKLM |LK NLlL|LL1 KCl1b
Rcccntstrugg|cswthnthcwnctradcprovdcauscfulmodc| forundcr-
standnga wdcrangcofphcnomcnawthn thccontcmporaryphascof
KCCCL l Jl Co
globa||zat|on.Tcyhavcpart|cu|arrc|cvanccforundcrstand|nghow| oca|
cu| tura| dcvc|opmcntsandtrad|t|onsbccomcabsorbcdw| th|nthcca|cu||
ofpo| |t|ca|cconomy through attcmpts togarncrmonopo|yrcnts. Tcy
a|soposcthc qucst|onofhowmuch thc currcnt|ntcrcst|n |oca|cu| tura|
innovationandthcrcsurrcct|onand|nvcntionof | oca| trad|t|onsattachcs
to thcdcs|rctocxtractandappropr|atcsuchrcnts. S|ncccap|ta||stsofal|
sorts[ |nc|ud|ngthcmostcxubcrantof|ntcrnat|ona|hnanc|crs)arccasi|y
scduccdbythc |ucrat|vcprospcctsofmonopo|ypowcrs,wcmmcd|atc|y
d|sccrna th|rdcontrad|ct|on. thatthc mostavidg|oba||zcrsw|l|support
|ocal dcvc|opmcntsthathavcthcpotcntia|toy|c|dmonopo|yrcntscvcn
ifthcchcctofsuch support|stoproducca|oca| po||t|ca|c||matcantago-
n|st|cto g|oba||zat|on. Emphasiz|ng thc un|qucncss andpur|ty of| oca|
a| |ncscculturcmaybcv|ta| tothchotc|, a|rlinc,andtour|st|ndustry,but
whathappcnswhcnth|s cncouragcsaa| |ncscmovcmcntthatv|o|cnt|y
rcs|sts thc "|mpurity" ofcommcrc|a||zat|on Tc Basquc Country may
appcara potcntia||yva|uab|ccu|tura|conhgurationprcc|sc|ybccauscof
its uniqucncss,but ETA, w|th |ts dcmand for autonomy and prcparcd-
ncssfrom t|mc to t|mc to takc v|olcntaction, |s notcasiIyamcnab| c to
commcrc|al|zat|on.Butthc|cngthstowh|chcommcrc|a||ntcrcstscango
arcamaz|ng.Ahcrthcrc|cascofthch|mC||y o] Cod, whichdcpictcdthc
v|o|cnccanddrugwarsofRio's favc|asnmonstrous|y[ and,somcwou|d
say,m|s|cad|ng)graph|cdcta||,ancntcrpris|ngtour|st|ndustrystartcdto
markctfavc|atours |n somc ofthcmorc dangcrous nc|ghborhoods[you
cou|d chosc yourownprcfcrrcd | cvc| oftour r|sk) . Lct usprobc a | |tt|c
morc dccp|y|nto th|scontrad|ct|on as |t|mpmgcs upon urbandcvclop-
mcnt po| |t|cs. Inordcrto doso, howcvcr,wc mustbr|cHy s|tuatc thosc
po||tics|nrc|at|ontog|oba||zat|on.
Urbancntrcprcncur|a||smhasbccomc|mportantbothnat|ona||yand
lntcrnat|onal|y | nrcccntdccadcs. y th|s I mcan thatpattcrn ofbchav-
ior w|th|n urban govcrnancc that mixcs togcthcr statc powcrs [|oca|,
mctropo| |tan, rcg|ona|, nat|onal, orsupranat|ona|)with a widcarray of
organ| zat|ona| forms in c|v|| soc| cty [ chambcrs ofcommcrcc, un|ons,
churchcs, cducat|ona| and rcscarch inst|tut|ons, community groups,
NCOs, and so on) and pr|vatc |ntcrcsts [ corporatc and | nd|v|dua|) to
form coa||tions to promotc or managc urban or rcg|ona| dcvc|opmcnt
ofoncsortoranothcr. Tcrc |snowan cxtcns|vc | |tcraturconth|stop|c
JMC PKJ L KC|J 1 1
whch shows that thc forms, actvtcs, and goals ofthcsc govcrnancc
systcms [varous|y known as "urban rcgmcs," "growth machncs" or
"rcgona| growth coa|tons") vary w|dc|y dcpcndng upon |oca| con-
dtions and thc mx of forccs at work wthn thcm. Tc ro|c of ths
urban cntrcprcncuria|sm in rc|aton to thc nco|bcra| form of g|o-
ba| zaton has a|so bccn scrutnzcd at |cngth, most usua||y undcr thc
rubrc of | oca|-g|oba| rc|atons and thc so-ca||cd "spacc-p|acc da|cc-
tc.' Most gcographcrs who havc |ookcd mto thc prob|cm havc rght|y
conc|udcd thatit s a catcgorca|crror to vcw g|oba|zaton as a causa|
forcc nrc|atonto|oca|dcvc|opmcnt. Whats atstakc hcrc,thcyrght|y
arguc, s a rathcr morc comp|icatcd rclationship across sca|cs in which
|oca| ntatvcs can pcrco|atc upwards to a g|oba| sca|c and vcc vcrsa,
at thc samc timc as proccsscs wthn a particu|ar dchnton ofsca|c
ntcrurban and ntcrrcgona| compctton bcng thc most obvous
cxamp|cs-can rcwork thc |oca| and rcgiona| conhguratons of what
g|oba|zatonsabout.
C|oba|zation shou| d not bc sccn, thcrcforc, as an undhcrcntatcd
unity, but as a gcographca||y articu|atcd pattcrning ofg|oba| capta|-
stact|v|tcs and rc|atons'Butwhat,cxact|y, docst mcan to spcakof
a "gcographca||yartcu|atcd pattcrnng" Tcrc s, of coursc, p|cnty of
cvidcncc ofuncvcn gcographca| dcvc|opmcnt [at a varcty ofsca|cs),
and at|cast somc cogcnt thcorzng to undcrstand itscapta|stic |ogic.
Somc oftcanbcundcrstood n convcntona| tcrms as a scarch on thc
part of mob|c captals [wth hnanca|, commcrcia|, and production
capta| havng dhcrcnt capactcs in ths rcgard) to gan advantagcs in
thc producton and appropraton ofsurp|us va|ucs bymovngaround.
Trcnds can indccd bc dcnt|hcd that ht wth smp|c modc|s ofa "racc
to thc bottom" n whch thc chcapcst and most cas|y cxp|oitcd |abor-
powcrbccomcs thcguidingbcaconfor capta|mob|ty and invcstmcnt
dccs ons. But thcrc sp|cntyofcountcrvai| ngcvdcnccto suggcstthat
ths|s agrossovcrsimp|ihcat|onwhcnprojcctcdasa monocausa|cxp|a-
nat|on of thc dynamcs of uncvcn gcograph|ca| dcvc|opmcnt. Capta|
n gcncra|j ust as cas|y Uows nto high-wagc rcgons as nto |ow- wagc
oncs, and ohcn sccms to bc gcographca||y guidcd by qutc dihcrcnt
critcra to thosc convcntiona||y sct out n both bourgcos and Marxst
po|tca|cconomy.
KCCCL l Jl Co
Tc problcm dcrvcs part|y from thc habt ofgnor|ng thc catcgory
of| andcd cap|ta| and thc consdcrablc |mportancc oflong- tcrm nvcst-
mcnts n thc bu|ltcnvronmcnt,wh|ch arc bydchntongcographca||y
|mmob|c. Such nvcstmcnts, partcu|arly whcn thcy arc of a spccu|a-
t|vc sort, |nvarab|y nv|tc cvcn furthcr wavcs ofnvcstmcnt | fthc hrst
wavc provcsprohtab|c[toh|lthcconvcnt|onccntcrwc nccdthchotcls,
wh|ch rcqurc bcttcr transport and communcat|ons, wh|ch crcatc thc
poss|b||ty ofcxpand|ng thc capacty ofthc convcnt|on ccntcr . . . ). So
thcrc |s anc|cmcntofc|rcularand cumulatvccausatonatworknthc
dynamcs ofmctropo| |tan arca |nvcstmcnts [|ook, for cxamp|c, at thc
who|c Dock|ands rcdcvclopmcnt n London and thc hnanca| vab|ty
ofCanaryWharf,wh| ch p|vots on furthcr|nvcstmcnts,bothpub||cand
pr|vatc,|nthcarca) . T|s|swhatso-ca||cd"urbangrowthmach|ncs"arc
ohcn a|| about. thc orchcstraton of|nvcstmcnt proccss dynam|cs and
thc prov|son ofkcypub| c nvcstmcnts at thc r|ghtp|acc and t|mc to
promotcsucccssnlntcr- urbanand|ntcr-rcgona|compctton. '
ut thswou|dnot bcas attract|vc as | t |s wcrc| t notfor thcways |n
whch monopo|y rcnts mght a|so bc capturcd. A wc||- known stratcgy
ofdcvc|opcrs,forcxamp|c, |s to rcscrvc thc cho|ccstand most rcntab|c
p|ccc of|and l n somc dcvc|opmcnt n ordcr to cxtract monopo|y rcnt
from t ahcr thc rcst ofthc projcct s rca||zcd. Savvygovcrnmcntswth
thcrcqu|s|tcpowcrs can cngagcn thc samc pract|ccs. Tc govcrnmcnt
ofHongKong,asI undcrstand|t,|s|argc|yhnanccdbycontro||cdsa|cs
ofpub||c doma|n |and for dcvc|opmcnt atvcryh|gh monopo|y prccs.
Ts convcrts,|n turn, |ntomonopolyrcntsonpropcrtcs,whchmakcs
HongKongvcry attract|vc to |ntcrnatona| hnanc|a| |nvcstmcntcapta|
work|ng through propcrty markcts. Ofcoursc, Hong Kong has othcr
un|qucncss c|ams, gvcn |ts |ocaton, upon wh|ch t can a|so tradc
vcry v|gorously n ohcr|ng monopo|y advantagcs. Sngaporc, ncdcn-
ta||y, sctouttocapturc monopo|yrcnts,andwash|gh|ysucccssfu| |n so
do|ng n somcwhat s| m| |ar fash|on, though byvcry d|hcrcnt po||t|ca|-
cconom|cmcans.
Urbangovcrnanccofth|ssorts most|yor|cntcdtoconstructngpat-
tcrns of|oca| |nvcstmcnts not on|y n phys|ca| lnfrastructurcs such as
transportandcommun|cat|ons,portfac|t|cs,scwagc,andwatcr,buta|so
n thcsoc|a| |nfrastructurcsofcducat|on,tcchno|ogyandsccncc,soca|
JMC PKJ L KC|J 1J
contro|,cu|turc, and| |v|ngqua|ity.Tca |m istocrcatcsumcicntsyncrgy
within thc urbanization proccss for monopo|y rcnts to bc crcatcd and
rca|zcdbybothpr|vatcntcrcstsandstatcpowcrs.Nota||suchchortsarc
succcssfu|, ofcoursc,but cvcn thc unsucccssfu| cxamp|cscanpart|yor
|argc|ybcundcrstood|ntcrmsofthc|rfa|urctorca| |zcmonopo|yrcnts.
utthcscarchformonopo|yrcnts |snotconhncdto thcpract|ccsofrca|
cstatcdcvc|opmcnt,cconomcntativcs,andgovcrnmcnthnancc. Ithas
a farwi derapp|ication.
LLLLLLJ| VL b1NOLLl L LP|lJPL, NPKNb L|
L| bJl |LJl L|, P|L NL|L|LLT KL|Jb
I fc|amstounqucncss,authcntcty,partcu|arty,andspcca|tyundcr|c
thc ab||ty to capmrc monopo|y rcnts, thcn on what bcttcr tcrrain s it
possb|ctomakcsuchc|aimsthan|n thc hc|d ofh|stor|ca||yconst|tutcd
cu|tura|artifactsandpract|ccs andspcca|cnv|ronmcnta|charactcr|stics
[ nc|udng, ofcoursc, thc bui|t, soca|, and cu|tura| cnvironmcnts) As
n thcwinc tradc,a||such c|a|msarc as much an outcomcofdiscursivc
construct|ons and strugg|csas thcyarcgroundcd|nmatcr|a|fact. Many
rcstuponhstor|ca|narratvcs,ntcrprctat|onsand mcanngsofco||cct|vc
mcmorics,sgnhcatonsofcu|tura|practccs,andthc| kc.thcrcsa|ways
astrongsoc|a| anddscurs|vcc|cmcntatworkinthcconstructon ofsuch
causcsforcxtractngmonopo|yrcnts,sinccthcrcw||bc, at|castinmany
pcop|c's mnds, no othcr p|acc than London, Caro, arcc|ona, M| an,
Istanbu|,SanFrancisco,orwhcrcvcr,inwhich togainacccsstowhatcvcr
t|sthatssupposcd|yunquctosuch p|accs.
Tc most obvous cxamp|c s contcmporary toursm, but I thnk t
wou|d bc a mstakc to |ct thcmattcrrcstthcrc. Forwhat s atstakc hcrc
is thc powcr ofco||cctivc symbo|ic capita|, ofspcc|a| marks ofdist|nc-
t|on that attach to somcp|acc, which havc a sgnhcant drawngpowcr
upon thchowsofcapita|morcgcncra||y. ourdicu,towhomwc owcthc
gcncra| usagcofthcsc tcrms,unfortunatc|yrcstrcts thcm tondvdua|s
[rathcr | |kc atoms oatng |n a sca ofstructurcd acsthct|c judgmcnts) ,
whcntsccms to mcthatthcco||cctvc forms[ andthcrc|atonofnd-
vidua|s to thosc co||cctivc forms) might bc of cvcn grcatcr intcrcst. ' `
+ KCCCL l Jl Co
Tcco||cct|vc symboliccap| ta| wh| ch attachcs to namcsandp|accs||kc
Par|s, Athcns, Ncw York, R|o dc }anciro, cr| in, and Romc is of grcat
importandgivcssuch p|accsgrcatcconom|c advantagcsrc|at|vcto,say,
a|timorc, L|vcrpool, Esscn, Li||c, and Clasgow. Tcproblcm for thcsc
|attcrp|accs|sto raiscthcirquot|cntofsymbo||ccap|ta|and to|ncrcasc
thcir mark of d|st|nction so as to bcttcr ground thcir c|aims to thc
un|qucncssthatyic|dsmonopolyrcnt. Tc"branding"ofciticsbccomcs
bigbus|ncss. ' C|vcnthegeneral|ossofothcrmonopo|ypowcrsthrough
casicr transportandcommun|cat|onsandthc rcduct|on ofothcrbarr|-
crstotradc, th|sstrugg|cforco||cct|vcsymbo|iccap|ta|hasbccomccvcn
morc importantasa basisformonopolyrcnts. How c|sc can wccxp|ain
thc sp|ash madcby thc Cuggcnhc| m Muscum in i|bao, w|th its signa-
turcCchryarchitccturcAndhowc|sccanwccxp|a|nthcw||||ngncssof
majorhnanc|a| institutions,with considcrablcintcrnationa|intcrcsts,to
hnanccsuchas|gnaturc projcct
Tcr|sc to prom|ncncc ofarcc|onawith|n thc Europcan systcm of
citics,totakcanothcrcxamplc,hasinpartbccnbascdonitsstcadyamass-
ingofsymbo|iccapita| andits accumu|ation ofmarks ofdistinction. ln
th| s thc cxcavation ofa dist|nct|vcly Cata| anh|story andtradit| on, thc
markct|ngof| tsstrongart|st|caccomp|ishmcntsandarch|tccturalhcr|t-
agc [ Caud, ofcoursc) , and its distinctivc marks of|ifcstylc and|itcrary
traditions, havc |oomcd|argc, backcd bya dc|ugc ofbooks,cxhibit|ons,
and cu| tura| cvcnts that cc|cbratc its dist|nctivcncss. T |s has al| bccn
showcascd with ncw signaturc architcctura| cmbc||ishmcnts [Norman
Foster's rad|o communications towcr and Me| cr's g|caming white
MuscumofModcrnArt|n thcm|dstofthcsomcwhatdcgradcdfabrico|
t hcol dc| ty) andawholchostofinvcstmcntstoopcnupt hcharborand
thcbcach, rcc|aimdcrc|ict|andsforthcOlympicVi||agc[withcutcrcfcr-
cnccto thc utop|an|smofthc Icarians) , and turn whatwas oncca rathcr
murky and cvcn dangcrous night|ifc |nto an opcn panorama ofurban
spcctac|c.A||ofthiswashc|pcdonbythcO|ympicCamcs, whichopcncd
up hugc opportun|ticstogarncrmonopolyrcnts [Samaranch,prcs|dcnt
ofthcIntcrnat|ona|OlympicCommittcc,justhappcncdtohavc|argcrca|
cstatc|ntcrcsts| narcc|ona) . '
ut Barcc|ona's initia|succcssappcarstobchcadcddccpintot hchrst
contradiction. Asopportuniticstopockctmonopo|yrcntsga|orcprcscnt
THL ART | RLNT I O5
thcmscvcs on thc basIs o| thc cocctIvc symboIc capIta o| Barccona as a
cIty propcrty prIccs havc skyrockctcd sIncc thc Roya lnstItutc o| BrItIsh
ArchItccts awardcd thc whoc cIty Its mcda |or archItcctura accompIsh-
mcnts), so thcIr IrrcsIstIbc urc draws morc and morc homogcnIzIng
mutInatIona commodIhcatIon In Its wakc. 1c atcr phascs o| watcr-
|ront dcvcopmcnt ook cxacty Ikc cvcry othcr In thc wcstcrn word. thc
stupc|yIng congcstIon o| thc tramc cads to prcssurcs to put boucvards
through parts o| thc od cIty, mutInatIona storcs rcpacc oca shops,
gcntrIhcatIon rcmovcs ong-tcrm rcsIdcntIa popuatIons and dcstroys
odcr urban |abrIc, and Barccona oscs somc o| Its marks o| dIstInctIon.
1crc arc cvcn unsubtc sIgns o| OIsncycatIon.
1Is contradIctIon Is markcd by gucstIons and rcsIstancc. Whosc co-
cctIvc mcmory Is to bc cccbratcd hcrc-thc anarchIsts, Ikc thc lcarIans,
who paycd such an Important roc In Barcconas hIstory, thc rcpubI-
cans who |ought so hcrccy agaInst Franco, thc Cataan natIonaIsts,
ImmIgrants |rom AndausIa, or a ong-tImc Franco ay Ikc Samaranch:
Whosc acsthctIcs rcay count-thc |amousy powcr|u archItccts o|
Barccona, Ikc BohIgas: Why acccpt OIsncyhcatIon o| any sort: Ocbatcs
o| thIs sort cannot casIy bc stIcd prccIscy bccausc It Is ccar to a that
thc cocctIvc symboIc capIta that Barccona has accumuatcd dcpcnds
upon vaucs o| authcntIcIty, unIgucncss, and partIcuar non-rcpIcabc
guaItIcs. Such marks o| oca dIstInctIon arc hard to accumuatc wIthout
raIsIng thc Issuc o| oca cmpowcrmcnt, cvcn o| popuar and opposI-
tIona movcmcnts. At that poInt, o| coursc, thc guardIans o| cocctIvc
symboIc and cutura capIta-thc muscums, thc unIvcrsItIcs, thc cass
o| bcnc|actors, and thc statc apparatus-typIcay cosc thcIr doors and
InsIst upon kccpIng thc rIH-raH out though In Barccona thc Muscum
o| Modcrn Art, unIkc most InstItutIons o| Its kInd, has rcmaIncd amaz-
Ingy and constructIvcy opcn to popuar scnsIbIItIcs). And I| that |aIs,
thcn thc statc can stcp In wIth anythIng |rom somcthIng Ikc thc dcccncy
commIttcc sct up by Mayor GIuIanI to monItor cutura tastc In Mcw
York CIty to outrIght poIcc rcprcssIon. Mcvcrthccss, thc stakcs hcrc arc
sIgnIhcant. It Is a mattcr o| dctcrmInIng whIch scgmcnts o| thc popua-
tIon arc to bcncht most |rom thc cocctIvc symboIc capIta to whIch
cvcryonc has, In thcIr own dIstInctIvc ways, contrIbutcd both now and In
thc past. Why ct thc monopoy rcnt attachcd to that symboIc capIta bc
lO5 RLHLc C| T| LS
capturcd ony by thc mutInatIonas, or by a sma, powcr|u scgmcnt o|
thc oca bourgcoIsIc: Evcn SIngaporc, whIch crcatcd and approprIatcd
monopoy rcnts so ruthcssy and so succcss|uy ovcr thc ycars maIny
out o| Its ocatIona and posItIona advantagc), saw to It that thc bcnchts
wcrc wIdcy dIstrIbutcd through housIng, hcath carc and cducatIon.
For thc sorts o| rcasons that thc rcccnt hIstory o| 8arccona cxcm-
pIhcs, thc knowcdgc and hcrItagc IndustrIcs, thc vItaIty and |crmcnt
o| cutura productIon, sIgnaturc archItccturc and thc cutIvatIon o| dIs-
tInctIvc acsthctIc judgmcnts havc bccomc powcr|u constItutIvc ccmcnts
In thc poItIcs o| urban cntrcprcncurIaIsm In many paccs partIcuary
Europc). 1hc struggc Is on to accumuatc marks o| dIstInctIon and co-
cctIvc symboIc capIta In a hIghy compctItIvc word. 8ut thIs brIngs In
Its wakc a o| thc ocaIzcd gucstIons about whosc cocctIvc mcmory,
whosc acsthctIcs, and whosc bcnchts arc to bc prIorItIzcd. McIghborhood
movcmcnts In Barccona makc caIms |or rccognItIon and cmpowcrmcnt
on thc basIs o| symboIc capIta, and can asscrt a poItIca prcscncc In
thc cIty as a rcsut. lt Is thcIr urban commons that arc approprIatcd a
too ohcn not ony by dcvcopcrs, but by thc tourIst tradc. But thc sccc-
tIvc naturc o| such approprIatIons can mobIIzc |urthcr ncw avcnucs o|
poItIca struggc. 11c InItIa crasurc o| a mcntIon o| thc savc tradc In
thc rcconstructIon o| Abcrt Oock In LIvcrpoo gcncratcd protcsts on
thc part o| thc cxcudcd popuatIon o| CarIbbcan background, and pro-
duccd ncw poItIca soIdarItIcs among a margInaIzcd popuatIon. 1c
hoocaust mcmorIa In 8crIn has sparkcd ong-drawn-out controvcr-
sIcs. Evcn ancIcnt monumcnts such as thc AcropoIs, whosc mcanIng
onc woud havc thought by now woud bc wc-scttcd, arc subjcct to
contcstatIon. ' Such contcstatIons can havc wIdcsprcad, cvcn I| IndIrcct,
poItIca ImpIcatIons. 1hc popuar productIon o| a ncw urban commons,
thc amassIng o| cocctIvc symboIc capIta, thc mobIIzatIon o| cocctIvc
mcmorIcs and mythoogIcs, and appcas to spccIhc cutura tradItIons arc
Important |accts o| a |orms o| poItIca actIon, o| both ch and rIght.
ConsIdcr, |or cxampc, thc argumcnts that swIrcd around thc rccon-
structIon o| 8crIn ahcr Gcrman rcunIhcatIon. A manncr o| dIvcrgcnt
|orccs coIdcd thcrc as thc struggc to dchnc 8crIn`s symboIc capIta
un|odcd. BcrIn, rathcr obvIousy, can stakc a caIm to unIgucncss on
thc basIs o| Its potcntIa to mcdIatc bctwccn cast and wcst. lts stratcgIc
JMC PKJ L KC|J 11
pos|t |on |n rc|at|on to thc uncvcn gcograph|ca| dcvc|opmcnt of con-
tcmporarycap|tal|sm [w|ththcopcn|ngup ofthcformcrSov|ctUnion)
confcrsobviousadvantagcs. utthcrc is a|soanothcrknd ofbattlc for
idcntty bcing wagcd whch nvokcs co||cctivc mcmorics, mytho|ogcs,
hstory, culturc,acsthctics, and tradition. I takc upjustonc particu|ar|y
troublngd|mcnsion ofth|s strugglc-onc that |s not ncccssar||y domi-
nant, and whosc capacity to ground c|aims to monopo|y rcnt undcr
g|oba|compct|t|on s notata||c|carorccrta|n. A |act|onof|oca|arch|-
tccts andp|anncrs[with thc support ofccrtanpartsofthc loca| statc
apparatus)soughttorcva|datcthcarchitcctura|formsofcightccnth- and
nnctccnth- ccntury Bcr|in, and in partcu|ar to highlght thc architcc-
tura|traditionofSchinkc|,to thc cxclusion ofmuch c|sc. T|s m|ghtbc
sccn as a simp|cmattcrofclitst acsthctcprcfcrcncc, but tsfrcightcd
withawholcrangcofmcanngsthathavctodowithcollcctivcmcmorics,
monumcnta||ty, thcpowcrofhistory, andpo||t|ca|idcnt|tyinthcc|ty. It
isa|soassociatcdwith thatc|imatcofopnion[artcu|atcd|navar|ctyof
discourscs)whichdchncswhoisorisnotacr|ncr,andwhohasarght
to thc ctyn narrow|y dchncd tcrms ofpcdgrcc or adhcrcncc to par-
t|cu|arva|ucsandbc| | cfs. Itcxcavatcsa|oca|h|storyand anarchitcctura|
hcrtagc that is chargcd wth nationa|st and romantcst connotations.
Ina contcxtwhcrcthc||- trcatmcntofandv|o|cnccagainstmmigrants
is wdcsprcad, t may cvcn ohcr t act |cgtimation to such actons. Tc
Turkish popu|at|on, many of whom arc now cr||n- born, havc suf-
fcrcd many indgnitcs, andhavc |argc|ybccn forccd out from thc city
ccntcr.Tcircontribut|onto cr||nasac|ty|s|gnorcd. Furthcrmorc,thc
romant|cist/nat|ona||starch|tcctura|sty|c htsw|tha trad|t|ona|approach
tomonumcnta|tythatbroad|yrcp|catcsincontcmporaryp|ans[though
wthoutspccihcrcfcrcncc, and maybc cvcn unknowing|y) A|bcrtSpccr's
p|ans,drawn upforH|t|cr|n thc I 9JOs, foramonumcnta|forcgroundto
thcRc|chstag.
Ts s not, fortunatc|y, a|l that is gong on | n thc scarch for co||cc-
t|vc symbo||c capita| I n Bcr||n. Norman Fostcr's rcconstruct|on of
thc Rcchstag, for cxamplc, or thc co||cct|on ofintcrnationa| modcrn-
st archtcctsbroughtin by thcmu|tnatona|s [|argclyn oppos|t|on to
|oca|architccts) to domnatcthc PotsdamcrPlatz,arc hard|yconsstcnt
w|th|t. Andthc|oca|romant|c|strcsponscto thcthrcatofmu|t|nat|ona|
KCCCL l Jl Co
dominat| oncould, ofcoursc,mcrc|ycndupbclnganlnnoccntc|cmcntof
lntcrcst|na comp|cx achlcvcmcntofdivcrscmarksofdistinctionforthc
city[Sch|nkcl,ahcrall, hascons|dcrab|carchitcctura|mcr|t, andarcbuilt
c|ghtccnth- ccnturycast|ccou|dcas|y|cnd |tsc|fto D|sncyhcat|on).
utthcpotcntia|downsidcofthcstoryisofintcrcstbccauscithigh-
| ights how thc contradictlons ofmonopo|y rcnt can a|| too cas||yp|ay
out. Wcrc thcscnarrowcrp| ans andcxc|us|onaryacsthct| cs andd|scur-
sive practices to bccomcdommant, thcn the co|lectivc symbo|iccaplta|
crcatcd wou| d bc hard to tradc frcc|y upon, bccausc its vcry spccla|
qua|it|cs wou|d position | t |argc|y outs|dc g|oba|lzation and |nsidc an
cxclus|onary po|itlca| cu|turc that rcjccts much of what g|oba| |zat|on
ls about, turn|ng|nwardtowardsa paroch|a|nationa||sm at bcstand a
v|ru|cnt rcjccton offorc|gncrs and imm|grants atworst. Tc co||cct|vc
monopo|ypowcrsthaturbangovcrnancccancommandcanbc d|rcctcd
towardsoppost|on to thcbanalcosmopo||tan|sm ofmu|t|natona| g|o-
ba|ization,butthcrcbyground|oca|lzcdnationalism.Tccu| turaltcrms
ln whlch aid to thc Crccks to dca| wlth thc|r |ndcbtcdncss was wdc|y
rcj cctcd|n thc courtofCcrmanpub|lcop|n|onsuggcsts thatthcfostcr-
ing ofsuch |oca||st nationa|ism can havc scrious g|oba| conscqucnccs.
Tcsucccssfu|brand|ngofa cltymayrcqu|rcthccxpu|slon orcrad|ca-
t|onofcvcryoncorcvcryth|ngc|scthatdocsnotht thcbrand.
Tc d| | cmma-bctwccn vccr|ng so c|osc to purc commcrc|a| |zat|on
asto |oscthcmarksofdlstlnct|onthatundcr|icmonopo|yrcnts,orcon-
structlng marks ofd|stnction that arc so spcc|a| as to bcvcryhard to
trade upon-is pcrpctua||ypresent. But, as in thc w|nc trade, thcrc arc
alwaysstrongdiscurs|vcgambitsinvo|vcd|ndchningwhatisoris notso
spcc|a|about a product, a p|acc,a cu|tura|form, a tradlt|on,anarchitcc-
tura|hcr|tagc.D|scurslvcbatt|csbccomcpartofthcgamc,andadvocatcs
[inthc mcdiaand acadcmia, forcxamplc) gain thclr audicncc aswc|las
thcir hnancia|support in rc|at|on to thcscproccsscs. Tcrc is much to
achicvc, for cxamp|c,byappcals tofashion[ |ntcrcst|ngly, bcinga ccntcr
of fash|on s onc way for ct|cs to accumu|atc cons|dcrablc co||cct|vc
symbolic capita| ) . Cap|ta| lsts arc wc|l awarc of this, and must thcrcforc
wadc into thc culturcwars, as wc|| as into thc thickcts ofmu|ticu|tura|-
|sm, fashion, and acsthct|cs,bccausc |t|sprccisc|ythroughsuch mcans
thatmonopo|yrcntsstand to bcgaincd, uonly for a whl|c. And if, as I
JMC PKJ L KC|J 1V
c|am, monopo|y rcnt i s a|ways an objcct ofcapital|st dcsrc, thcn thc
mcansofgainingitthroughintcrvcntionsin thchc|dofcu|turc,history,
hcr|tagc,acsthctics,andmcaningsmustncccssari|ybc ofgrcatimportfor
capta|istsofanysort. Tc qucstion thcn ariscs as to how thcsc cultura|
intcrventionscanthcmsc|vcsbccomc apotentwcaponofclassstrugg|c.
NL|L|LLT KL|J P|L b|PLLb L| mL|L
ynowcriticswi|| comp|aina t thcsccming cconomicrcductionism of
thc argumcnt. I makc it sccm, thcy w|| say, as ifcapta|sm produccs
|oca| cu|turcs, shapcs acsthctic mcanings, and so dominatcs |oca| ini-
tiativcs as to prcc|udc thc dcvc|opmcntofany kind ofdhcrcncc thatis
notdircct|ysubsumcdwith|n thccirculationofcapita|. cannotprcvcnt
such a rcading,butths wouldbca pcrvcrson ofmymcssagc. Forwhat
I hopcto havcshown byinvokingthcconccptofmonopo|yrcntwithin
thc |ogic ofcapta| accumu|ation is that capta| has ways to appropri-
atcandcxtractsurp|uscsfrom|oca|dihcrcnccs,|ocalcultura|variatons,
andacsthcticmcanings ofno mattcrwhatorigin. Europcantouristscan
now cnjoy commcrcia|izcd tours ofNcw York's Har|cm [w|th a gospc|
choir throwni n), justas"povcrtytourism"toutstripstozoncsofintcnsc
povcrty in thc shanty- towns ofSouth Africa, Dharavi in Mumbai, and
thcfavc|asofRio.TcmusicndustryinthcUnitcdStatcssuccccdsbri|-
|iantlynappropriatingthcincrcdib|cgrassrootsand|oca|izcdcrcativity
ofmusiciansofa||stripcs[almostinvar|ab|ytothcbcnchtofthcindustry
rathcrthan thcmus|c|ans) . Evcn po|it|ca||ycxp|icitmusicwhichspcaks
tothc|onghistoryofopprcssion[ inc|udingsomcformsofrap, }amaican
rcggac, and Kngston Dancc Ha|| music) bccomcs commodihcd. Tc
commodihcationandcommcrcia|izationofcvcrythingis,ahcra||,oncof
thcha||marksofourtimcs.
Butmonopo|yrcntsacontrad|ctoryform. Tcscarchforit|cadsg|oba|
capta| to va|uc d|stnctvc |oca| nt|at|vcs-| ndccd, |n ccrta|n rcspccts,
thcmorcdistinctivcand, inthcsctimcs,thcmorctransgrcssivcthcinita-
tivc,thcbcttcr. Ita|so|cadsto thcva|uationofuniqucncss, authcntcity,
particularity, origina|ity,andal|manncrofothcrdimcnsionsto socia||ifc
that arc inconsistcntwth thc homogcncityprcsupposcdbycommodity
l lO RLHLc C| T| LS
productIon. And I| capIta Is not to totay dcstroy thc unIgucncss that Is
thc basIs |or thc approprIatIon o| monopoy rcnts and thcrc arc many
cIrcumstanccs whcrc It has donc just that and bccn roundy condcmncd
|or so doIng), thcn It must support a |orm o| dIHcrcntIatIon and aow
o| dIvcrgcnt and to somc dcgrcc uncontroabc oca cutum dcvcop-
mcnts that can bc antagonIstIc to Its own smooth |unctIonIng. lt can
cvcn support though cautIousy and ohcn ncrvousy) transgrcssIvc cu-
tura practIccs prccIscy bccausc thIs Is onc way In whIch to bc orIgIna,
crcatIvc, and authcntIc, as wc as unIguc.
lt Is wIthIn such spaccs that opposItIona movcmcnts can |orm, cvcn
prcsupposIng, as Is ohcn thc casc, that opposItIona movcmcnts arc not
arcady hrmy cntrcnchcd thcrc. 1hc probcm |or capIta Is to hnd ways
to co-opt, subsumc, commodI|y, and monctIzc such cutura dIHcrcnccs
and cutura commons just cnough to bc abc to approprIatc monopoy
rcnts |rom thcm. ln so doIng, capIta ohcn produccs wIdcsprcad aIcna-
tIon and rcscntmcnt among thc cutura produccrs who cxpcrIcncc
hrst-hand thc approprIatIon and cxpoItatIon o| thcIr crcatIvIty and thcIr
poItIca commItmcnts |or thc cconomIc bcncht o| othcrs, In much thc
samc way that whoc popuatIons can rcscnt havIng thcIr hIstorIcs and
cuturcs cxpoItcd through commodIhcatIon. 11c probcm |or opposI-
tIona movcmcnts Is to spcak to thIs wIdcsprcad approprIatIon o| thcIr
cutura commons and to usc thc vaIdatIon o| partIcuarIty, unIgucncss,
authcntIcIty, cuturc, and acsthctIc mcanIngs In ways that opcn up ncw
possIbIItIcs and atcrnatIvcs.
At thc vcry mInImum, thIs mcans rcsIstancc to thc Idca that authcn-
tIcIty, crcatIvIty, and orIgInaIty arc an cxcusIvc product o| bourgcoIs
rathcr than workIng-cass, pcasant, or othcr non-capItaIstIc hIstorIca
gcographIcs. lt aso cntaIs tryIng to pcrsuadc contcmporary cutura
produccrs to rcdIrcct thcIr angcr towards commodIhcatIon, markct
domInatIon, and thc capItaIstIc systcm morc gcncray. lt Is, |or cxampc,
onc thIng to bc transgrcssIvc about scxuaIty, rcIgIon, socIa morcs, and
artIstIc and archItcctura convcntIons, but guItc anothcr to bc transgrcs-
sIvc In rcatIon to thc InstItutIons and practIccs o| capItaIst domInatIon
that actuay pcnctratc dccpy Into cutura InstItutIons. 1c wIdcsprcad
though usuay |ragmcntcd struggcs that cxIst bctwccn capItaIstIc
approprIatIon and past and prcscnt cutura crcatIvIty can cad a scgmcnt
THL ART | RLNT l
o| thc communIty conccrncd wIth cutura mattcrs to sIdc wIth a poItIcs
opposcd to mutInatIona capItaIsm and In |avor o| somc morc compc-
Ing atcrnatIvc bascd on dIHcrcnt kInds o| socIa and ccoogIca rcatIons.
HIs docs not mcan that attachmcnt to purc vaucs o| authcntIc-
Ity, orIgInaIty, and an acsthctIc o| partIcuarIty o| cuturc Is an adcguatc
|oundatIon |or a progrcssIvc opposItIona poItIcs. lt can a too casIy
vccr Into oca, rcgIona, or natIonaIst IdcntIty poItIcs o| thc nco|ascIst
sort, o| whIch thcrc arc arcady |ar too many troubIng sIgns throughout
much o| Europc, as wc as cscwhcrc. 1Is Is a ccntra contradIctIon wIth
whIch thc ch must wrcstc. Jhc spaccs |or trans|ormatIona poItIcs arc
thcrc bccausc capIta can ncvcr aHord to cosc thcm down. 1hcy provIdc
opportunItIcs |or socIaIst opposItIon. 1hcy can bc thc ocus o| cxpo-
ratIon o| atcrnatIvc I|cstycs, or cvcn o| socIa phIosophIcs much as
CurItIba In BrazI has pIonccrcd Idcas o| urban ccoogIca sustaInabIIty
to thc poInt o| rcapIng consIdcrabc |amc |rom Its InItIatIvcs). 1hcy can,
Ikc thc FarIs Communc o| l 87l or thc numcrous urban-bascd poItIca
movcmcnts around thc word In I 58, bc a ccntra ccmcnt In that rcvo-
utIonary |crmcnt that LcnIn ong ago cacd thc |cstIva o| thc pcopc.`
11c |ragmcntcd opposItIona movcmcnts to ncoIbcra gobaIzatIon, as
manI|cst In Scattc, Fraguc, Mcbournc, Bangkok, and MIcc, and thcn
morc constructIvcy as thc 2001 Word SocIa Forum In Forto Acgrc,
IndIcatc such an atcrnatIvc poItIcs. lt Is not whoy antagonIstIc to go-
baIzatIon, but wants It on vcry dIHcrcnt tcrms. 1hc strIvIng |or a ccrtaIn
kInd o| cutura autonomy and support |or cutura crcatIvIty and dIHcr-
cntIatIon Is a powcr|u constItutIvc ccmcnt In thcsc poItIca movcmcnts.
lt Is no accIdcnt, o| coursc, that It Is Forto Acgrc rathcr than Barccona,
BcrIn, San FrancIsco, or MIan, that has opcncd Itsc| to such opposI-
tIona InItIatIvcs. ' " For In that cIty thc |orccs o| cuturc and o| hIstory arc
bcIng mobIIzcd by a poItIca movcmcnt cd by thc BrazIIan Workcrs`
Far) In a guItc dIHcrcnt way, scckIng a dIHcrcnt kInd o| cocctIvc sym-
boIc capIta to that |auntcd In thc GuggcnhcIm Muscum In BIbao or
thc cxtcnsIon to thc 1atc Gacry In London. 1c marks o| dIstInctIon
bcIng accumuatcd In Forto Acgrc dcrIvc |rom Its struggc to |ashIon an
atcrnatIvc to gobaIzatIon that docs not tradc on monopoy rcnts In par-
tIcuar or cavc In to mutInatIona capItaIsm In gcncra. ln |ocusIng on
popuar mobIIzatIon, It Is actIvcy constructIng ncw cutura |orms and
Z KCCCL l Jl Co
ncwdchntonsofauthcntlc|ty, or|gna|lty, and tradton. Tat |s a hard
path to fo||ow,aswasshownbyprcv|ouscxamp|cs,such asthcrcmark-
ab|c cxpcr|mcnts |n RcdBo|ogna |n thc I 9 6Os and I 97Os. Soca| |sm n
onc citysnota vab|c conccpt,butitisn thc citcs that thc condtons
for boththcproducton and approprat|onofmonopoly rcnts arc most
hgh|yconccntratcd, lntcrmsofboth phys|ca||nvcstmcnts and cu|tura|
movcmcnts. No a|tcrnat|vc to thc contcmporaryform ofg|oba|zat|on
w||lbcdc| |vercd to us from on h|gh. Itw|lI havc to come from wth|n
mu|t |plc |oca| spaccsurban spaccs | n part|cu|arconj on|ng |nto a
broadcrmovcmcnt. It shcrc thatthccontrad|ctonsfaccdbycap|ta|sts
asthcyscarchformonopo|yrcntassumcaccrta|nstructuralsgnihcancc.
y sccking to tradc onvalucs ofauthcntcty, |ocal|ty, history, cu|turc,
co||cct |vcmcmorcs,andtrad|t|onthcyopcnaspaccforpo| |t| ca|thought
and acton w| th|n wh|ch soca||st a|tcrnat|vcs can bcboth dcv|scd and
pursucd. Tc spacc ofthat commons dcscrvcs ntcnsc cxp|oraton and
cu|tvatonbyoppostona|movcmcnts thatcmbraccculturalproduccrs
andcu|tura|productonasakcyc|cmcntnthcrpo|tica|stratcgy.Tcrc
arc abundant h|storca| prcccdcnts for mob| ||z|ng thc forccs of h|gh
cu|turc|nth|sway[thcro|cofconstruct|v|sm| nthccrcat|vcycarsofthc
RussanRcvolut|onfrom l 9 I 8 toI 926|sj ustoncofmany|nstructvchs-
torcalcxamp|cs). Butpopu|arcu|turcasproduccdthrough thccommon
rc|at|onshps ofda|y |fc | sa|so crucal. Hcrc |cs oncofthckcyspaccs
ofhopcfor thcconstruct|onofana|tcrnatvc kindofg|oba||zatonand
a v|brant ant|-commodhcat|on po| |tcs. onc |n wh|ch thc progrcss|vc
forccs ofcu|turalproduct|on and transformat|on can seekto appropr-
atcandundcrm|ncthcforccsofcap|ta|rathcrthanthcothcrwayround.
bCCI| O| ' | .
KCCC| L| I| C8
LMP|JCK || VC
KCC| | U| |_ IOC L| Iy !O|
/|!| -LQ| !| | 8! b!|u__| C
|
furbanzatonssocruca|nthchstoryofcapta|accumu|aton,andf
thcforccsofcapta|anditsinnumcrab|cal|ics mustrc|cntlcsslymobilizc
topcrodca|lyrcvo|utonzcurban |fc, thcn c|assstrugg|csofsomcsort,
nomattcrwhcthcr thcyarc cxplcit|yrccognzcdassuch, arc ncvtab|y
involvcd. Tis s so fon|ybccausc thcforccs ofcapta|havc to strugg|c
mght|y to imposc thcr w|| on an urban proccss and who|c popula-
tonsthatcanncvcr,cvcnundcrthcmostfavorab|cofcrcumstanccs,bc
undcrthc| rtota| contro|. An mportantstratcgcpolitica|qucston thcn
fo||ows: To whatdcgrccshou|d anti- capt a|ist strugg|cs cxp|ct|y focus
andorganizconthcbroadtcrranofthccltyandthcurban And lfthcy
shou|d doso,thcnhowandcxact|ywhy
Tc hstory ofurban-bascd c|ass strugg|cs ls stunnng. Tc succcs-
svc rcvo|utonary movcmcnts in Pars from l 789 through l 8JO and
l 848 to thc Communc ofl 87l consttutc thcmostobvousnnctccnth-
ccnturycxamp|c.Latcrcvcntsnc|udcdthcPctrogradSovct,thcShangha
Communcs of l 927 and I 967, thc Scatt|c Ccncra| Strkc of I 9 l 9, thc
ro|c ofarcc|ona in thcSpanish Clvl| War, thc uprising in Crdoba in
l 969, andthc morc gcncral urban uprsngs n thc Untcd Statcs n thc
l 96Os,thcurban-bascdmovcmcntsofl 968[ Pars,Chicago,McxicoCty,
angkok, and othcrs ncludng thc so- cal|cd "Praguc Sprng,' and thc
rscofncghborhoodassocatonsnMadrldthatfrontcdthcant-Franco
movcmcnt n Span around thcsamc tmc) . And |n morc rcccnt tmcs
KCCCL l Jl Co
wc havc witncsscd cchocs ofthcsc oldcr strugg|cs in thc Scatt|c antl-
globa| |zat|on protcsts of I 999 [ fol|owcd by s|mi|ar protcsts | n Qucbcc
C|ty, Ccnoa, and many othcr c|t|csas part ofa w|dcsprcad altcrnat|vc
g|oba||zat|on movcmcnt) . Most rcccnt|y wc havc sccn mass protcsts |n
Tahrir Square |n Ca|ro, in Mad|son, Wiscons|n, ln thcPlazas dc| So| |n
MadridandCata|unyalnarcc|ona, andlnSyntagmaSquarcinAthcns,
aswc|lasrcvo|ut|onarymovcmcntsandrcbc|||ons|nOaxaca|nMcx|co,
in Cochabamba[ 2OOOand2OO7)andE|A|to[2OOJand2OO5) m o| |via,
along with vcry d|hcrcnt but cqua||y |mportant po| |t|cal crupt|ons in
ucnosA|rcsm2OOI -O2, and| nSant|ago|nChi|c[2OO6and2OI I ) .
And|ti snot, th|s historydcmonstratcs, onlysingu|arurban ccntcrs
that arc |nvolvcd. On scvcra| occasions thc spirlt ofprotcst and rcvolt
has sprcad contagious|y through urban ncworks in rcmarkab|c ways.
Tc rcvolut|onarymovcmcnt ofI 848mayhavcstartcd | nPar|s,but t hc
spir|t of rcvo|t sprcad to V|cnna, cr|in, M| |an, Budapcst, Frankfurt,
and many othcr Europcan c|t|cs. Tc o|shcv|k Rcvo|ut|on | n Russ|a
wasaccompan|cdbythcformat|onofworkcr's counci|sand"sovicts" in
Bcr||n,V|cnna, Warsaw, R|ga, Mun|ch and Turin, just as |n I 968 |twas
Par|s,Bcr|in,London, Mcx|coC| ty,Bangkok,Ch|cago, and |nnumcrab|c
othcrc|t|csthatcxpcr|cnccd"daysofragc,'andinsomc|nstanccsv|o|cnt
rcprcss|ons. Thc unfo|d|ng urbancris|softhc l 96Os|n thcUn|tcdStatcs
ahcctcd many c|t|cs s|multancous|y. And in an aston|sh|ng but much-
undcrcstlmatcdmomcntinwor|dh|story, onFcbruaryI 5, 2OOJ ,scvcra|
m||||on pcop|c simu|tancous|y appcarcd on thc strccts ofRomc [w|th
around J m|l | |on, cons|dcrcd the |argest ant|-war ra||y evcr m human
h|story) ,Madr|d,London, Barcclona,Bcrlln,andAthcns,wlth |csscrbut
st||lsubstant|a|numbcrs [though |mposs|b|cto countbccausc ofpo||cc
rcprcss|on) | nNcwYorkandMc| bournc, andthousandsmorcin ncar|y
2OO citlcsln Asla [cxccptChlna), Afrlca, andLatin Amcrlca |n a wor|d-
widc dcmonstration against thc thrcat ofwar wlth Iraq. Dcscrlbcd at
thctimcaspcrhapsoncofthchrstcxprcss|onsofg|oba|pub||cop|n|on,
thc movcmcntqu|ck|yfadcd, but|cavcsbch|ndthcscnscthatthcg|oba|
urbannctworkisrcp|ctcw|thpol|t|ca|possibi||t|csthatrcma|nuntappcd
by progrcss|vc movcmcnts. Tc currcntwavc ofyouth-|cd movcmcnts
throughoutthcwor|d,fromCa|rotoMadr|dtoSant |ago-tosaynoth|ng
of a strcct rcvo|t |n London, fol|owcd by an "Occupy Wa|| Strcct"
KCLP| l lL !MC l !' |LK PPJ| -P|| !PLl o! o1KOLLLC I l7
movcmcntthatbcgann NcwYorkCltybcforcsprcad|ngtolnnumcrab|c
c|t|csnthcUSandnowaround thcwor|d-suggcststhcrcssomcthng
po|tca|nthcctyarstrugg|ngtobccxprcsscd.
'
Two qucstonsdcrvc fromth|sbrcfaccountofurban-bascdpo||tca|
movcmcnts. Is thc city [or a systcm ofctcs) mcrc|y a passvc sltc [or
prc-cxlst|ngnctwork) -thcp|accofappcarancc-whcrcdccpcrcurrcnts
ofpo|tca|strugg|c arc cxprcsscd On thc surfacc |t mghtsccm so.Yct
|ts a|so clcar thatccrta|nurban cnv|ronmcnta|charactcr|st|csarcmorc
conducvc to rcbc|lous protcsts than othcrssuch as thc ccntra|ty of
squarcs | | kc Tahrr, Tananmcn, and Syntagma, thc morc cas|y barr-
cadcdstrccts ofPars comparcdto London or LosAngc|cs, or E| A|to's
pos|toncommandngthcmalnsupp|yroutcslntoLaPaz.
Po|tca|powcrthcrcforc ohcn sccks to rcorgan|zc urban nfrastruc-
turcsandurban|fcwthancyctothccontro|ofrcstvcpopu|atons.Ts
wasmostfamous|ythccascwthHaussmann's bou|cvardsm Par|s,whch
wcrcvcwcd cvcnatthc tmcasamcansofm| |tarycontro|ofrcbc||ous
ctzcns. Ts casc s not un|quc. Tc rc- cngnccrng ofnncr ctcs n
thc Untcd Statcs n thc wakc ofthc urban uprsngs ofthc I 96Osj ust
happcncdtocrcatcmajorphysca|hghwaybarrcrs-moats,| nchcct-
bctwccnthcctadclsofhgh-va|ucdowntownpropcrtyandmpovcrshcd
nncr- cty nc|ghborhoods. Tc v|o|cnt strugg|cs that occurrcd n thc
drvc tosubducoppostonalmovcmcntsnRamal|ahon thcWcstBank
[pursucd by thc lsrac|l lDF) and Fa||ujah |n lraq [pursucd by thc US
m||tary) havc p|aycd a cruca| ro|c n forc|ng a rc- th| nk of m| tary
stratcg|csto pacfy, po|cc,andcontro|urbanpopu|at|ons. Oppostona|
movcmcnts||kc Hczbo||ahandHamas, |nthc|rturn,|ncrcas|ng|ypursuc
urbanzcd stratcgcs ofrcvolt. M|tarzaton s not, ofcoursc, thc on|y
so|uton [and, as Fa||ujah dcmonstratcd, t may bc far from thc bcst).
Tcp|anncdpaclhcatlon programs ln Rlo's favc|as cntal|an urbanzcd
approach tosoca| and classwarfarc through thc app|cat|on ofa rangc
ofdhcrcnt pub|c po|ccs to troub|cd ncghborhoods. For thcr part,
Hczbo||ahandHamasboth comb|ncm||taryopcratonsfromwth|nthc
dcnscnctworksofurbancnvronmcntswththcconstructonofa|tcrna-
tvcurbangovcrnanccstructurcs,incorporatngcvcrythngfromgarbagc
rcmova|tosoca|supportpaymcntsandncghborhoodadmnstratons.
Tc urbanobvouslyfunct|ons, thcn,asan |mportantstc ofpo| t|ca|
KCCCL l Jl Co
actionand rcvo|t. Tcactualstccharactcristcs arc important, and thc
physcal and soca| rc-cngnccrng and tcrrtora| organzat|on ofthcsc
stcs s a wcapon n po| tca| strugglcs. In thc samc way that, n m|-
taryopcratons,thc choccandshapingofthctcrrainolactonp|ays an
mportant ro|c n dctcrmnng who wins, so t s wth popu|arprotcsts
and po|tca|movcmcntsn urbanscttngs.
Tc sccond major pont s that po|tcal protcsts frcqucnt|y gaugc
thcr chectvcncss n terms ofther ab|||ty to dsrupt urban economies.
In thc sprng of2OO6, for cxamp|c, wdcsprcad agtaton dcvclopcd n
thc Untcd Statcs w|thn mmgrantpopu|atons ovcr a proposa|bcforc
Congrcsstocrmina|zcundocumcntcdimmigrants [somcofwhomhad
bccn|nthccountryfordccadcs) .Tcmassivcprotcstsamountcdtowhat
was n chcct an mmgrantworkcrs' strikc thatchcctvc|yc|oscddown
cconomc actvtyn LosAngclcsandChcago, and hadscrousmpacts
onothcrciticsaswc|l.Tisimprcssvcdcmonstraton ofthcpo|tica|and
cconomcpowcr ofunorganzcd mmgrants [bothlcgaland ||cga|) to
dsrupt thc ||ows ofproducton as wc|| as thc hows ofgoods and scr-
vccs n major urban ccntcrs p| aycd an mportant ro|c n stoppng thc
proposcd|cgs|aton.
Tc | mm|grants' rghts movcmcnt arosc out of nowhcrc, and was
markcdbya gooddcalolspontanc|ty. utitthcn lcl|ohrapd|y, |cavng
bchnd two mnor but pcrhaps signhcant ach| cvcmcnts, in add|ton
to b| ockng thc proposcd |cg|slaton: thc formaton of a pcrmancnt
mmgrant workcrs' a||ancc and a ncw traditon n thc Un|tcd Statcs
ofcelebrat|ngMay Day asa dayto march m support ofthc aspratons
o|labor. Wh|c ths |ast ach| cvcmcnt appcars purc|y symbo|c, |t ncv-
crthc|css rcmnds thc unorganzcd aswc|l as thc organzcdworkcrs n
thc Un|tcdStatcs ofthcir co||cct|vc potcntalty. Onc ofthc main barri-
crs to thc rcal|zaton ofthspotcntia|ity also bccamc c|car |n thc rapd
dcc||nc ofthc movcmcnt. LargclyHispanc-bascd, it fa|cd to ncgotatc
chcctvc|ywththclcadcrshpofthcAfrcan-Amcrcanpopu|aton.Ts
opcncdthcwayforan |ntcnscbarragcofpropagandaorchcstratcdbythc
rght-wngmcda, whchsuddcn|yshcdcrocodlctcarsforhowAfrcan-
Amcrcanjobswcrcbcngtakcnawaybyi||cgalHispanc mm|grants. '
Tcrapdtyandvo|atItywthwhchmassvcprotcstmovcmcntshavc
rscnandfa||cnovcrthclastfcw dccadcsca||sforsomccommcntary. In
KCLP| l lL !MC l !' |LK PPJ| -P|| !PLl o! o1KOLLLC I l9
addition to thcgloba|anti-wardcmonstrat|on of2OOJ and thc r|sc and
faU ofthc imm|grantworkcrs' r|ghtsmovcmcnt |n thcUnitcdStatcs|n
2OO6, thcrc arc innumcrablc cxamplcs ofthc crratic track and uncvcn
gcograph|ca| cxprcss|on of oppos|t|ona| movcmcnts, thcy |nc|udc thc
rapid|ty with wh|ch thc rcvolts in thc Frcnch suburbs |n 2OO5 and thc
rcvolut |onary bursts |n much of Latin Amcrica, from Argcnt|na |n
2OO I -O2 to Bol |v|a in 2OOO-O5, wcrc contro||cd and rcabsorbcd |nto
dom|nantcap|ta||stpract|ces. W|l|thcpopu| |stprotestsofthe|nd|gnados
throughoutsouthcrnEuropc|n2OI l , and thc morcrcccntOccupyWa||
Strcct movcmcnt, havc staying powcr Undcrstand|ng thc po|itics and
rcvolut |onary potcntial ofsuch movcmcnts |s a scr|ous cha||cngc. Tc
Huctuating hstoryand fortuncs oft hcant- ora|tcrnatvc globa||zation
movcmcnt sincc thc |atc l 99Os a|sosuggcststhatwc arc in a vcrypar-
t|cu|ar and pcrhaps rad|ca|ly d|hcrcnt phasc ofanti-cap|ta||ststrugglc.
Forma| |zcd through thc Wor|dSocalForum anditsrcgionalohshoots,
and|ncrcas|nglyr|tualizcdaspcr|odicdcmonstrat|onsaga|nstthcWorld
Bank, thc I MF, thc C7 [now thc C2O), or at a|most any |ntcrnationa|
mcctingonanyissuc[ fromclimatcchangctorac|smandgcndcrcqua|-
ity) , th|s movcmcnt |s hard to p|n down bccausc it |s "a movcmcnt of
movcmcnts"rathcrthanasing|c-m| ndcdorgan|zat|on.'It|snotthattra-
ditiona|formsof|chorganiz|ng [lchpol|t|ca|part|cs andmi|itantsccts,
|abor unions andm||itant cnv|ronmcntal or soc|a| movcmcnts such as
thc Maoists in Ind|a or thc |and|css pcasants movcmcntinrazi|) havc
d|sappcarcd. Butthcynow a|l sccm to sw|m with|n an occan of morc
d|husc oppos|t|onalmovcmcntsthat|ackovcra||pol|t|calcohcrcncc.
LmP|L| |L LL|J |LKb|LLJ| VLb L| P|J| -
LP|| JPL| bJ bJKOLLLLb
Tcb|ggcr qucst|on w|sh to addrcss hcrc |sthi s. Arcthc urban man|-
fcstations of a|l thcsc divcrsc movcmcnts anyth|ng othcr than mcrc
sidc-chcctsofg|oba|,cosmopo||tan,orcvcnun|vcrsa| humanasp|rat|ons
thathavc nothngspccihca||ytodow|ththcparticu|ariticsofurban||fc
Or|sthcrcsomcth|ngabout t hcurbanproccssandthcurbancxpcr|cncc
thcqual|ticsofda|lyurbanlifcundcrcapita||smthat,|n ||seq hasthc
l2O RLHLc C| T| LS
potcntIa to ground antI-capItaIst struggcs: I| so, thcn what constItutcs
thIs groundIng and how can It bc mobIIzcd and put to usc to chacngc
thc domInant poItIca and cconomIc powcrs o| capIta, aong wIth Its
hcgcmonIc IdcoogIca practIccs and Its powcr|u grasp upon poItIca
subjcctIvItIcs thIs ast poInt Is, In my vIcw, crItIca): In othcr words,
shoud struggcs wIthIn and ovcr thc cIty, and ovcr thc guaItIcs and pros-
pccts o| urban IvIng, bc sccn 8 |undamcnta to antI-capItaIst poItIcs:
I do not caIm hcrc that thc answcr to thIs gucstIon Is obvIousy ycs` I
do caIm, howcvcr, that thIs gucstIon Is Inhcrcnty worth askIng.
or many on thc tradItIona ch by whIch I maIny mcan socIaIst
and communIst poItIca partIcs and most tradc unIons), thc Intcrprcta-
tIon o| thc hIstorIca gcography o| urban-bascd poItIca movcmcnts has
bccn doggcd by poItIca and tactIca a prIorI assumptIons that havc cd
to thc undcrcstImatIon and mIsundcrstandIng o| thc potcncy o| urban-
bascd movcmcnts |or sparkng not ony radIca but aso rcvoutIonary
changc. Lrban socIa movcmcnts arc a too ohcn vIcwcd as by dchnI-
tIon scparatc |rom or ancIary to thosc cass and antI-capItaIst struggcs
that havc thcIr roots In thc cxpoItatIon and aIcnatIon o| IvIng abor
In productIon. I| urban socIa movcmcnts arc consIdcrcd at a, thcy arc
pIcay construcd as cIthcr mcrc oHshoots or dIspaccmcnts o| thcsc
morc |undamcnta struggcs. WIthIn thc MarxIst tradItIon, |or cxampc,
urban struggcs tcnd to bc cIthcr Ignorcd or dIsmIsscd as dcvoId o| rcvo-
utIonary potcntIa or sIgnIhcancc. Such struggcs arc construcd 8 bcIng
cIthcr about Issucs o| rcproductIon rathcr than productIon, or about
rIghts, sovcrcIgnty, and cItIzcnshIp, and thcrc|orc not about cass. 1c
ImmIgrant workcrs` movcmcnt o| unorganIzcd abor In 2005, thc argu-
mcnt gocs, was basIcay about caImIng rIghts and not about rcvoutIon.
Whcn a cIty-wIdc struggc docs acguIrc an IconIc rcvoutIonary status,
as In thc casc o| thc FarIs Communc o| I 87I , It Is caImcd hrst by Marx,
and cvcn morc cmphatIcay by LcnIn) as a proctarIan uprIsIng rathcr
than as a much morc compIcatcd rcvoutIonary movcmcnt-anImatcd
as much by thc dcsIrc to rccaIm thc cIty Itsc| |rom Its bourgcoIs appro-
prIatIon as by thc dcsIrcd IbcratIon o| workcrs |rom thc travaIs o| cass
opprcssIon In thc workpacc. I takc It 8 symboIc that thc hrst two acts o|
thc FarIs Communc wcrc to aboIsh nIght-work In thc bakcrIcs a abor
gucstIon) and to Imposc a moratorIum on rcnts an urban gucstIon).
RLC|A| M| NG THL C| T |R ANT| -CAP| TAc| ST STROGGcL I 2 I
1radItIona ch groups can thcrc|orc on occasIon takc up urban-bascd
struggcs, and whcn thcy do thcy can ohcn bc succcss|u cvcn as thcy
scck to Intcrprct thcIr struggc |rom wIthIn thcIr tradItIona workcrIst
pcrspcctIvc. 11c BrItIsh SocIaIst Workcrs` Farty, |or cxampc, cd thc suc-
ccss|u struggc agaInst 1hatchcr`s po tax In thc I80s a rc|orm o| oca
govcrnmcnt hnancc that hIt thc css aucnt vcry hard). hatchcr`s dc|cat
on thc po tax amost ccrtaIny paycd a sIgnIhcant roc In hcr down|a.
AntI-capItaIst struggc, In thc |orma MarxIst scnsc, Is |undamcntay
and guItc propcry construcd to bc about thc aboItIon o| that cass rca-
tIon bctwccn capIta and abor In productIon that pcrmIts thc productIon
and approprIatIon o| surpus vauc by capIta. 1hc utImatc aIm o| antI-
capItaIst struggc Is thc aboItIon o| that cass rcatIon and a that gocs
wIth It, no mattcr whcrc It occurs. n thc sur|acc, thIs rcvoutIonary aIm
sccms to havc nothIng to do wIth urbanIzatIon pcr sc. Evcn whcn thIs
struggc has to bc sccn, as It InvarIaby docs, through thc prIsms o| racc,
cthnIcIty, scxuaIty, and gcndcr, and cvcn whcn It un|ods through urban-
bascd Intcr-cthnIc, racIaIzcd, and gcndcrcd con|Icts wIthIn thc IvIng
spaccs o| thc cIty, thc |undamcnta conccptIon Is that an antI-capItaIst
struggc must utImatcy rcach dccp Inlo lhc vcry guts o| what a capItaIst
systcm Is about and wrcnch out thc canccrous tumor o| cass rcatIons In
productIon.
lt woud bc a truth|u carIcaturc to say that workIng-cass movcmcnts
In gcncra havc ong prIvIIcgcd thc IndustrIa workcrs o| thc word as thc
vanguard agcnt In thIs mIssIon. ln MarxIst rcvoutIonary vcrsIons, thIs
vanguard cads thc cass struggc through thc dIctatorshIp o| thc proc-
tarIat to a promIscd word whcrc statc and cass wIthcr away. lt Is aso a
truth|u carIcaturc to say that thIngs havc ncvcr workcd out thIs way.
Marx argucd that thc cass rcatIon o| domInatIon In productIon had
to bc dIspaccd by thc assocIatcd workcrs controIng thcIr own pro-
ductIon proccsscs and protocos. 1Is vIcw paracs a ong hIstory o|
poItIca pursuIt o| workcr contro, 0ul0g5ll0n usuay transatcd as sc|-
managcmcnt), workcr coopcratIvcs, and thc Ikc. 1hcsc struggcs dId not
ncccssarIy arIsc out o| any conscIous attcmpt to |oow Marx`s thcorctIca
prcscrIptIons Indccd, thc attcr amost ccrtaIny rc|cctcd thc |ormcr),
nor wcrc thcy ncccssarIy construcd In practIcc as somc way-statIon on
thc journcy to a root-and-branch rcvoutIonary rcconstructIon o| thc
I 22 RLHLc C| T| LS
socIa ordcr. 1cy morc usuay arosc out o| thc basIc IntuItIon, arrIvcd at
In many dIHcrcnt paccs and tImcs by workcrs thcmscvcs, that It woud
bc much |aIrcr, css rcprcssIvc, and morc In accord wIth thcIr own scnsc
o| sc|-worth and pcrsona dIgnIty to rcguatc thcIr own socIa rcatIons
and productIon actIvItIcs, rathcr than to submIt to thc opprcssIvc dIc-
tatcs o| an ohcn dcspotIc boss dcmandIng that thcy gIvc unstIntIngy o|
thcIr capacIty |or aIcnatcd abor. But attcmpts to changc thc word by
workcr contro and anaogous movcmcnts-such as communIty-owncd
projccts, so-cacd mora or soIdarIty cconomIcs, oca cconomIc
tradIng systcms and bartcr, thc crcatIon o| autonomous spaccs thc most
|amous o| whIch today woud bc that o| thc ZapatIstas)-havc not so |ar
provcd vIabc as tcmpatcs |or morc goba antI-capItaIst soutIons, In
spItc o| thc nobc cHorts and sacrIhccs that havc ohcn kcpt thcsc cHorts
goIng In thc |acc o| hcrcc hostIItIcs and actIvc rcprcssIons.
1c maIn rcason |or thc ong-run |aIurc o| such InItIatIvcs to aggrcgatc
Into somc goba atcrnatIvc to capItaIsm Is sImpc cnough. A cntcr-
prIscs opcratIng In a capItaIst cconomy arc subjcct to thc cocrcIvc aws
o| compctItIon that undcrgIrd thc capItaIst aws o| vauc productIon
and rcaIzatIon. I| somcbody makcs a sImIar product to mc at a owcr
cost, thcn I cIthcr go out o| busIncss, or adapt my productIon practIccs to
Incrcasc my productIvIty, or owcr my costs o| abor, IntcrmcdIatc goods
and raw matcrIas. WhIc sma and ocaIzcd cntcrprIscs can work undcr
thc radar and bcyond thc rcach o| thc aws o| compctItIon acguIrIng
thc status o| oca monopoIcs, |or cxampc), most cannot. So workcr-
controcd or coopcratIvc cntcrprIscs tcnd at somc poInt to mImIc thcIr
capItaIstIc compctItors, and thc morc thcy do so thc css dIstInctIvc thcIr
practIccs bccomc. Indccd, It can a too casIy happcn that workcrs cnd
up In a condItIon o| cocctIvc sc|-cxpoItatIon that Is cvcry bIt as rcprcs-
sIvc as that whIch capIta Imposcs.
Furthcrmorc, as Marx aso shows In thc sccond voumc o| L0[ll0/, thc
cIrcuatIon o| capIta comprIscs thrcc dIstInctIvc cIrcuatory proccsscs,
thosc o| moncy, productIvc, and commodIty capItas." Mo onc cIrcuatory
proccss can survIvc or cvcn cxIst wIthout thc othcrs. thcy IntcrmIngc
and co-dctcrmInc cach othcr. Workcrs` contro or communIty cocc-
tIvcs In rcatIvcy Isoatcd productIon unIts can rarcy survIvc-In spItc
o| a thc hopc|u 0uI0n0ml5l0, 0ul0gcll0n and anarchIst rhctorIc-In thc
KCLP| l lL !MC l !' |LK PPJ| -P|| !PLl o! o1KOLLLC 1 J
faccofa host||chnanc|a|cnv|ronmcntand crcd|tsystcm andthcprcda-
torypract|ccs ofmcrchant cap|ta|. Tc powcr ofhnancc captal and of
mcrchant cap|ta| [thc Wa| -Mart phcnomcnon) has bccn particu|ar|y
rcsurgcnt|nrcccntycars[th|sisamuch-ncg|cctcdtopicncontcmporary
|ch thcor|z|ng) . Whattodoaboutthcscothcrc|rcu|at|onproccsscsand
thcc|assforccsthatcrysta|l|zcaroundthcmthusbccomcsa |argcpartof
thcprob|cm. Tcscarc,ahcra||, thcpr|ma|forccsthroughwhichthc|ron
|awofcap|ta||stva|ucdctcrmnatonopcratcs.
Tcthcorct|calconc|us|onthatfo|lows|sg|arng|yobvious.Tcabo|i-
tionofthcclassrc|ationinproduct|on|scont|ngcntuponthcabo||tionof
thcpowcrsofthccap|ta|ist|awofva|ucto dictatccondit|onsofproduc-
t|onthroughfrcctradconthcwor|dmarkct. Ant|-capita||ststrugglcmust
noton|ybcaboutorgan|z|ngandrc- organizingwithinthc|aborproccss,
fundamcnta|thoughthatis.!tmustalsobcabouthnd|nga po||t|ca|and
soc|a| a|tcrnat|vc to thc opcrat|on of thc cap|ta|ist |aw ofva|uc across
thcwor|dmarkct. Wh||cworkcr contro|orcommun|tarianmovcmcnts
canariscoutofthcconcrctc|ntu|t|onsofpcop|cco||cct|vc|ycngagingin
production and consumpt|on, contcst|ng thc opcrations ofthc cap|ta|-
|st|awofva|uc on thcwor|d stagc rcqu|rcs a thcorct|ca| undcrstand|ng
ofmacrocconom|c |ntcrrc|at|ons a|ongwith a d|dcrcnt form oftcchn|-
ca| and organ|zat|ona| soph|stication. 1|s poscs thc d|mcu|t problcm
of dcvc|op|ng a politica| and organ|zationa| abil|ty both to mobilizc
and to contro| thc organization of|ntcrnational dvs|ons oflabor and
ofcxchangc practiccs and rclations on thc world markct. Dc-coup||ng
from thcscrc|at|ons, as somc now proposc, |s closc to mposs|b|c for a
varctyofrcasons.Frst|y, dc- coup||ngmcrcascsthcvu|ncrabi||tyto|oca|
fam|ncsandsoc|a|andso-ca||cdnaturalcatastrophcs. Sccond|y, cdcct|vc
managcmcnt and surv|va| almosta|ways dcpcnds upon thc avai|abi||ty
ofsoph|st|catcdmcansofproduct|on. Forcxamp|c,thc ab|| |tytocoord|-
natc howsthroughouta commod tycha|ntoaworkcrs'co|lcct |vc [ from
rawmatcr|a|stohnishcdproducts)dcpcndsonthc avai|ab|||tyofpowcr
sourccsand tcchno|ogcs,suchasclcctric|ty,ccl|phoncs,computcrs,and
thc |ntcrnct, thatarcprocurcd from that world |nwh| ch thc cap|ta||st
|awsofvaluccrcationandcircu|at|onprcdominatc.
lnthcfaccofthcscobviousd|mcu|tics, manyforccsonthctrad|tiona|
|ch turncd h|stor|ca||y to thc conqucst of statc powcr as thcir pr|mc
l24 RLHLc C| T| LS
objcctIvc. 1osc powcrs coud thcn bc uscd to rcguatc and contro capIta
and moncy |ows, to InstItutc non-markct and non-commodIhcd)
systcms o| cxchangc through ratIona pannIng, and to sct In pacc an
atcrnatIvc to thc capItaIst aws o| vauc dctcrmInatIon through organIzcd
and conscIousy panncd rcconstructIons o| thc IntcrnatIona dIvIsIon o|
abor. Lnabc to makc thIs systcm work gobay, communIst countrIcs
|rom thc RussIan RcvoutIon onwards chosc to Isoatc thcmscvcs |rom
thc capItaIst word markct as much as possIbc. 1c cnd o| thc Cod
War, thc coapsc o| thc SovIct EmpIrc, and thc trans|ormatIon o| ChIna
Into an cconomy that |uy and vIctorIousy cmbraccd thc capItaIst aw
o| vauc has rcsutcd In an across-thc-board dIsmIssa o| thIs partIcuar
antI-capItaIst stratcgy as a |casIbc path towards buIdIng socIaIsm. 1hc
ccntray panncd and cvcn socIa dcmocratIc Idca that thc statc coud
cvcn protcct agaInst thc |orccs o| thc word markct through protcctIon-
Ism, Import substItutIon as In LatIn AmcrIca In thc I 50s, |or cxampc),
hsca poIcIcs, and socIa wc|arc arrangcmcnts, was abandoncd stcp by
stcp as thc ncoIbcra countcr-rcvoutIonary movcmcnts gathcrcd stcam
to domInatc statc apparatuscs |rom thc mId I70s onwards.'
1c rathcr dIsma hIstorIca cxpcrIcncc o| ccntray panncd StaInIsm
and communIsm as It was actuay practIccd, and thc utImatc |aIurc o|
socIa-dcmocratIc rc|ormIsm and protcctIonIsm to rcsIst thc growIng
powcr o| capIta to contro thc statc and to dIctatc Its poIcIcs, has cd
much o| thc contcmporary ch to concudc cIthcr that thc smashIng
o| thc statc Is a ncccssary prccursor to rcvoutIonary trans|ormatIon
or that organIzIng productIon autonomousy |rom wIthIn thc statc Is
thc ony vIabc path towards rcvoutIonary changc. 1hc burdcn o| poI-
tIcs thus shIhs back to somc |orm o| workcr, communIty, or ocaIzcd
contro. 1hc assumptIon Is that thc opprcssIvc powcr o| thc statc can bc
wIthcrcd away as opposItIona movcmcnts o| varIous sorts-|actory
occupatIons, soIdarIty cconomIcs, cocctIvc autonomous movcmcnts,
agrarIan coopcratIvcs, and thc Ikc-gathcr momcntum wIthIn cIvI
socIcty. 1Is amounts to what onc mIght ca a tcrmItc thcory o| rcvo-
utIonary changc. catIng away at thc InstItutIona and matcrIa supports
o| capIta untI thcy coapsc. 1hIs Is not a dIsmIssIvc tcrm. 1crmItcs can
InhIct tcrrIbc damagc, ohcn hIddcn |rom casy dctcctIon. 1c probcm
Is not ack o| potcntIa cHcctIvcncss, It Is that, as soon as thc damagc
RLC|A| M| NG THL C| T |R ANT| -CAP| TAc| ST STROGGcL I 25
wrought bccomcs too obvIous and thrcatcnIng, thcn capIta Is both abc
and a too wIIng to ca In thc cxtcrmInators statc powcrs) to dca wIth
It. 1c ony hopc thcn Is that thc cxtcrmInators wI cIthcr turn upon
thcIr mastcrs as thcy havc somctImcs donc In thc past) or bc dc|catcd-a
rathcr unIkcy outcomc cxccpt In partIcuar cIrcumstanccs such as thosc
In A|ghanIstan-In thc coursc o| a mIItarIzcd struggc. 11crc Is, aas,
no guarantcc that thc |orm o| socIcty that wI thcn cmcrgc wI bc css
barbarIc than that whIch It rcpaccs.
pInIons across thc broad spcctrum o| thc ch on what wI work and
how arc hcrccy hcd, and cguay hcrccy dc|cndcd ohcntImcs rIgIdy
and dogmatIcay). 1o chacngc any onc partIcuar way o| thInkIng
and actIng ohcn provokcs vItupcratIvc rcsponscs. 1c ch as a whoc Is
bcdcvIcd by an a-consumIng |ctIshIsm o| organIzatIona |orm` 1c tra-
dItIona ch communIst and socIaIst In orIcntatIon) typIcay cspouscd
and dc|cndcd somc vcrsIon o| dcmocratIc ccntraIsm In poItIca partIcs,
tradc unIons, and thc Ikc). Mow, howcvcr, prIncIpcs arc |rcgucnty
advanccd-such as horIzontaIty and non-hIcrarchy-or vIsIons o|
radIca dcmocracy and thc govcrnancc o| thc commons, that can work
|or sma groups but arc ImpossIbc to opcratIonaIzc at thc scac o| a mct
ropoItan rcgIon, ct aonc |or thc 7 bIIon pcopc who now InhabIt panct
carth. FrogrammatIc prIorItIcs arc dogmatIcay artIcuatcd, such as thc
aboItIon o| thc statc, as I| no atcrnatIvc |orm o| tcrrItorIa govcrnancc
woud cvcr bc ncccssary or vauabc. Evcn thc vcncrabc socIa anarchIst
and antI-statIst Murray BookchIn, wIth hIs thcory o| con|cdcraIsm,
vIgorousy advocatcs thc nccd |or somc tcrrItorIa govcrnancc, wIthout
whIch thc ZapatIstas, just to takc onc rcccnt cxampc, woud aso ccr-
taIny havc mct wIth dcath and dc|cat. though ohcn |ascy rcprcscntcd as
bcIng totay non-hIcrachIca and horIzontaIst In thcIr organIzatIona
structurc, thc ZapatIstas do makc dccIsIons through dcmocratIcay
sccctcd dccgatcs and omccrs. '" thcr groups |ocus thcIr cHorts on thc
rccupcratIon o| ancIcnt and IndIgcnous notIons o| thc rIghts o| naturc,
or InsIst that Issucs o| gcndcr, racIsm, antI-coonIaIsm, or IndIgcncIty
must bc prIorItIzcd abovc, I| not prccudc, thc pursuIt o| an antI-capItaIst
poItIcs. A o| thIs conlIcts wIth thc domInant sc|- pcrccptIon wIthIn
thcsc socIa movcmcnts, whIch tcnds to bcIcvc that thcrc Is no guIdIng
or ovcrarchIng organIzatIona thcory, but sImpy a sct o| IntuItIvc and
I 25 RLHLc C| T| LS
hcxblc practccs that arsc naturally out o| gvcn stuatons. In ths, as
wc shall scc, thcy arc not cntrcly wrong.
1o top t all, thcrc s a conspcuous abscncc o| broadly agrccd concrctc
proposals as to how to rcorganzc dvsons o| labor and monctzcd)
cconomc transactons throughout thc world to sustan a rcasonablc
standard o| l vng |or all. Indccd, ths problcm s all too oHcn cavalcrly
cvadcd. As a lcadng anarchst thnkcr, Oavd Gracbcr, puts t, cchong
thc rcscrvatons o| Nurray 8ookchn sct out abovc.
1cmporary bubbIcs o| au|onomy mus| graduaUy |urn | n|o pcrmancn|,
|rcc commun|||cs. Howcvcr, |n ordcr |o do so, |hosc commun|||cs canno|
cx|s| |n |o|aI |soIa||on, nc||hcr can |hcy havc a purcIy con|ron|a||onaI rcIa-
||on w||h cvcryonc around |hcm. Jhcy havc |o havc somc way |o cngagc
w||h Iargcr cconom|c, soc|aI or poI| ||cal sys|cms |ha| surround |hcm. h|s
|s |hc |r|ckcs| qucs||on bccausc || has provcd cx|rcmcly d|mcuI| |or |hosc
organ|zcd on rad|caIIy dcmocra||c l| ncs |o so |n|cgra|c |hcmscIvcs | n any
mcan|ng|uI way |n Iargcr s|ruc|urcs w||hou| hav|ng |o makc cndIcss com-
prom|scs |n |hc|r |ound|ng pr|nc|plcs. ' '
At ths pont n hstory, thc chaotc proccsscs o| captalst crcat vc dcstruc-
ton havc cvdcntly rcduccd thc collcctvc lcH to a statc o| cncrgctc but
|ragmcntcd ncohcrcncc, cvcn as pcrodc cruptons o| mass movcmcnts
o| protcst and thc gnawng thrcat o| tcrmtc pol tcs suggcst that thc
obj cctvc condtons |or a morc radcal brcak wth thc captalst law o|
valuc arc morc than rpc |or thc takng.
At thc hcart o| all ths, howcvcr, l cs a smplc structural dlcmma. How
can thc lcH |usc thc nccd to actvcly cngagc wth, but also crcatc an altcr-
natvc to, thc captalst laws o| valuc dctcrmnaton on thc world markct,
whlc |acl tatng thc assocatcd laborcrs` ablty dcmocratcally and col
lcctvcly to managc and dcc dc on what thcy wll producc and how 1s
s thc ccntral dalcctcal tcnson that has hthcrto cscapcd thc ambtous
grasp o| ant -captalst altcmatvc movcmcnts. ' '
RLC|A| M| NG THL C| T |R ANT| -CAP| TAc| ST STROGGcL I 27
/L1CK`/1| VCb
l| a vablc ant-captalst movcmcnt s to cmcrgc, thcn past and currcnt
ant-captalst stratcgcs havc to bc rc- cvaluatcd. Mot only s t vtal to stcp
back and thnk about what can and must bc donc, and who s gong to do
t whcrc. lt s also vtal to match prc|crrcd organ t.atonal prncplcs and
practccs wth thc naturc o| thc pol tcal, socal, and tcchncal battlcs that
havc to bc |ought and won. Whatcvcr solutons, |ormulatons, organza
tonal |orms, and poltcal agcndas arc proposcd must provdc answcrs to
thrcc compcllng gucstons.
l) 1c hrst s that o| crushng matcral mpovcrshmcnt |or much o| thc
world`s populaton, along wth thc concomtant |rustraton o| thc potcn-
tal |or thc |ull dcvclopmcnt o| human capactcs and crcatvc powcrs.
Narx was abovc all a prc-cmncnt phlosophcr o| human hourshng,
but hc rccognzcd that ths was possblc only n that rcal m o| |rccdom
whch bcgns whcn thc rcalm o| ncccssty s lcH bchnd 1c problcms
o| thc global accumulaton o| povcrty cannot bc con|rontcd, t should bc
obvous, wthout con|rontng thc obsccnc global accumulaton o| wcalth.
Ant-povcrty organzatons nccd to commt to an ant-wcalth pol-
tcs and to thc constructon o| altcrnatvc socal rclatons to thosc that
domnatc wthn captalsm.
2) 1c sccond gucston dcrvcs |rom thc clcar and mmncnt dangcrs
o| out-o|-control cnvronmcntal dcgradatons and ccologcal trans|or-
matons. 1s, too, s not only a matcral but also a sprtual and moral
gucston o| changng thc human scnsc o| naturc, as wcll as thc matcral
rclaton to t. 1hcrc s no purcly tcchnologcal hx to ths gucston. 1hcrc
havc to bc sgnhcant l|cstylc changcs such as rollng back thc pol tcal,
cconomc, and cnvronmcntal mpacts o| thc last scvcnty ycars o| subur
banzaton) as wcll as major shHs n consumcrsm, productvsm, and
nsttutonal arrangcmcnts.
J) 1hc thrd sct o| gucstons, whch undcrpns thc hrst two, dcrvcs |rom
a hstorcal and thcorctcal undcrstandng o| thc ncvtablc traj cctory o|
captalst growth. For a varcty o| rcasons, compoundng growth s an
KCCCL l Jl Co
abso|utc cond|t|on for thc cont|nuous accumu|at|on and rcproduct|on
ofcap|ta|. Th|s is thc socia||y constructcd and histor|ca||y spcc|hc |aw
ofcndlcss capita| accumu|ation that has to bc challcngcd and cvcntu-
al|y abo||shcd. Compound growth [say, at a m|n|mum of J pcrccnt
forcvcr) is a shccrimpossibi|ity. Cap|ta|hasnowarrivcd atanin||cction
point[wh|chisdidcrcntfrom anmpassc) inits|onghistory,whcrc th|s
immancnt imposs|b|ity is bcg|nningtobc rca|izcd. Anyant|- cap|ta||st
altcrnativchasto abo||shthcpowcrofthc cap|ta|ist|awofvaluctorcgu-
|atc thcwor|dmarkct.Tisrcquircsthc abo|itionofthcdominantc|ass
rc|atonthatundcrpinsandmandatcsthcpcrpctua|cxpansionofsurp|us
valuc product|on and rcal|zaton. And |t |s th|s c|ass rc|at|on that pro-
duccsthcincrcas| ngly|ops|dcddlstr|butlonsofwcalthandpowcr,a|ong
w|ththcpcrpctua|growthsyndromcthatcxcrtssuchcnormousdcstruc-
tivcprcssurcong|obalsoca|rclationsandccosystcms.
How,thcn, can progrcss|vcforccsorgan|zctoso|vc thcscproblcms,and
how can thc hithcrto cvasvc dialcctic bctwccn thc dual |mpcrat|vcs of
|ocalizcdworkcrcontro|andg|oba|coord|natonsbc managcd It |s n
th|s contcxt that I want to rcturn to thc foundat|ona| qucst|on ofths
inquiry. Can urban-bascd social movcmcnts play a constructivc ro|c
and makc thcir mark n thc ant|-cap|ta|ist strugg|c across thcsc thrcc
d|mcnsions Tc answcr dcpcnds n part upon somc foundat|ona|
rcconccptualizat|onsofthcnaturc ofclass,andonthcrcdchn|tionofthc
tcrrainofc|assstrugglcs.
Tc conccpt|on ofworkcr contro| that has h|thcrto dominatcd altcr-
nativc |ch po||t|ca| thinking is problcmat|c. Thc focus ofstrugglc has
bccnonthcworkshopandthcfactoryasa priv|cgcdsi tcofproducton
ofsurp|usva|uc. Tcndustra|work|ngc|asshastradit|onal|ybccnpr|v-
l|cgcd as thc vanguard ofthc prolctarlat, |ts main rcvolutlonaryagcnt.
But|twasnotfactoryworkcrswhoproduccdthcPar|sCommunc. Thcrc
is,forthisrcason, a d|ssidcntandint|ucntia|vicw ofthc Communcthat
says it was not a pro|ctar|an uprising or a class-bascd movcmcntatal|,
butanurbansocialmovcmcntthatwasrcclaim|ngcitizcnshprghtsand
thcr|ghttothcc|ty. Itwasnot,thcrcforc,anti- cap|ta|ist.'
I sccno rcasonwhytshou|dnotbc construcdasbothac|assstrugg|c
and a strugg|c for c|tizcnship rights in thc p|acc whcrc workingpcop|c
KCLP| l lL !MC l !' |LK PPJ| -P|| !PLl o! o1KOLLLC 1 V
||vcd.Tobcg|nwith,thcdynam| csofclasscxploltationarcnotconhncdto
thcworkp|acc. Wholccconom|csofdisposscss|onandofprcdatoryprac-
t|ccs,ofthcsortdcscr|bcdnChaptcr2w|thrcspccttohousingmarkcts,
arca casc in po|nt. Tcsc sccondaryformsofcxp|o|tation arc pr|mari|y
organ|zcd bymcrchants, |andlords, and thc hnancicrs, and thc|r chccts
arc primar|ly fc|t |n thc |iving spacc, not |n thc factory. Tcsc forms
ofcxp|otationarc and a|wayshavcbccn vita| to thc ovcra|| dynamicsof
capita|accumu|at|onand thcpcrpetuat|onofc|asspowcr.Wageconces-
sons to workcrs can, forcxamplc, bc sto|cn back and rccupcratcd for
thccap|talistc|ass as awholcbymcrchantcapita||sts and|andlordsand,
|ncontcmporarycondt|ons,cvcnmorcvicious|ybythccrcd|t-mongcrs,
thc bankcrs, and thc hnanc|crs. Pract|ccsofaccumu|ationbyd|sposscs-
son,rcnta|approprations,bymoncy- andproht-gougng,|icatthchcart
ofmany ofthc dscontcnts that attach to thc qual|t|cs ofda||y ||fc for
thcmass of thcpopu|at|on. Urbansoc|a|movcmcnts typca||y mob| l|zc
around such qucst|ons, and thcydcr|vc from thcwaynwh|ch thcpcr-
pctuation ofc|ass powcr is organizcd around |vng as wc|| as around
work|ng.Urbansoc|a|movcmcntsthcrcforc a|wayshavc a classcontcnt
cvcnwhcn thcyarcpr|mar||yart|culatcd |n termsofr|ghts,c|t|zcnsh|p,
andthctrava||sofsoc|a|rcproduction.
Tcfactthatthcscdiscontcntsrclatcto thccommod|tyandmonctary
rathcrthan thcproduct|oncrcuitofcap|ta|mattcrsnotoncwit.ndccd,
|tisa big thcorctica|advantagctorcconccptua|izcmattcrsthus,bccausc
|t focuscs attcntion on thosc aspccts ofcapital crcu|aton that so frc-
qucnt|yp| ay thc nemcss to attcmpts atworkcr contro| |n production.
S|ncc |tscapta|c|rcu|at|on asa wholcthatmattcrs (rathcr than mcrc|y
whathappcnsin thcproduct|vc crcu|t) ,whatdocs|tmattcrto thccap-
t a|ist c|ass as a who|c whcthcr va|uc |s cxtractcdfrom thc commodty
andmoncyc|rcuitsrathcr thanfromthcproduct|vcc|rcu|tdircctlyTc
gapbctwccnwhcrcsurp|usva|uc |sproduccdandwhcrc |t|srca||zcd|s
as cruc|a| thcorctca||y as it |s pract|ca||y. Va|uc crcatcd in product|on
maybcrccapturcdfor thccapta||stc|assfrom thcworkcrsby |and|ords
charg|nghighrcntsonhousing.
Sccond|y, urbanzation |s tsc|fproduccd. Tousands ofworkcrs arc
cngagcd in its producton, and thcr works productvc ofvalucandof
surplusva|uc. Whynotfocus,thcrcforc,onthcc|tyrathcrthanthefactory
J KCCCL l Jl Co
as thcprimcstcofsurp|usva|ucproduction TcParisCommunccan
thcnbcrcconccptua|izcdasastrugg|cofthatpro|ctariatwhichproduccd
thccitytoc|aim backthcrighttohavcandcontro|thatwhich thcyhad
produccd. Tis is [and n thcPars Communccascwas) avcrydihcrcnt
knd ofpro|ctariat to thatwhichmuch ofthc|ch has typica||y castin a
vanguard ro|c. It is charactcrizcd byinsccurity, by cpisodic, tcmporary,
andspatia||y dhusc cmp|oymcnt, and svcrydmcu|tto organizc on a
workp|accbasis. Butatthispontinthchistoryofthoscpartsofthcwor|d
charactcrzcdasadvanccdcapita|ism,thcconvcntionalfactorypro|ctar-
iat hasbccnradica||ydiminishcd. Sowcnowhavc a choicc: mourn thc
passngofthcpossibi|ityofrcvo|utionbccauscthatpro|ctariathasdsap-
pcarcd, orchangcourconccptionofthcpro|ctariattoinc|udcthchordcs
ofunorganizcdurbanizationproduccrs[ofthcsortthatmobi|zcdinthc
immgrantrightsmarchcs) , and cxplorc thcr dstinctivc rcvo|utionary
capact|csandpowcrs.
Sowhoarc thcscworkcrswhoproduccthccityTccitybui|dcrs,thc
constructionworkcrsinpartcu|ar, arcthcmostobvouscandidatccvcn
asthcyarcnotthconlynorthc|argcst| aborforccinvo|vcd. Asapo|itica|
forcc,thcconstructionworkcrshavc nrcccnttimcsin thcUnitcdStatcs
[andpossib|yc|scwhcrc) a||too ohcnbccnsupportivc ofthc|argc-sca|c
andc|ass-biascddcvc|opmcnta|ism thatkccpsthcm cmp|oycd. Tcydo
not havc to bc so. Tc masons and bui|dcrs that Haussmann brought
to Paris p|aycd an mportant ro|c in thc Communc. Tc "Crccn an"
construction union movcmcnt in Ncw South Wa|cs n thc car|y I 97Os
bannedworkingonprojcctstheydccmedcnvironmcnta||yunsound, and
wcrcsucccssfu|inmuchofwhatthcydid. Tcywcrcu|timatc|ydcstroycd
byacombnationofconccrtcdstatcpowcrandthcirownMaoistnationa|
|cadcrship, who considcrcd cnvironmcnta| issucs a manfcstation of
||abbybourgcoisscntmcnta|ty. '
But thcrc s a scam|css conncction bctwccn thosc who minc thc
iron orc that gocs nto thc stcc| that gocs into thc construction ofthc
bridgcs across which thc trucks carryng commodit ics travcl to thcir
hnal dcstnations offactorics and homcs for consumption. A|| ofthcsc
actvtics [ inc|uding spatia| movcmcnt) arc productivc ofva|uc and of
surp|usva|uc. Ifcapita|ismohcnrccovcrs from criscs,aswcsawcar|icr,
by"bu|dinghouscsandh| | ingthcmwiththings,'thcn dcar|ycvcryonc
KCLP| l lL !MC l !' |LK PPJ| -P|| !PLl o! o1KOLLLC 1 J 1
cngagcdnthaturbanzngactivityhasa ccntra|ro|ct o p|ay|n thcmac-
rocconomic dynamcs of capita| accumu|ation. And if maintcnancc,
rcpairs, and rcp|accmcnts[ohcndmcu|t to distngush |n practicc) arc
a|| part ofthc va|uc-producing strcam [as Marx avcrs), thcn thc vast
armyofworkersi nvo|vcdinthcscactivities|nourc|t|csisa|socontr|but-
ngtova|ucandsurp|usva|ucproduction. I nNcwYorkCty thousands
ofworkcrsarccngagcdincrcctingscaho| d|ngandt aking|tdownagain.
Tcyarcproducingva|ue.lf,furthcrmore,thchowofcommoditiesfrom
p|acc oforig|n to hna| dcstination is productivc ofva|uc, as Marx a|so
insists,thcnsoarcthcworkcrswhoarccmp|oycdonthcfoodchainthat
|inks rura|produccrs to urbanconsumcrs.Tousandsofdc|ivcrytrucks
c|og thc strccts of Ncw York City cvcryday. Organ|zcd, thosc workcrs
wou|dhavc thc powcr to strang|cthcmctabo||sm ofthc city. Strikcs of
transportworkcrs [ as,forcxamp|c, |n Francc ovcr thc|asttwcntyycars,
and now in Shanghai) arc cxtrcmc|y chcct|vc po||tica| wcapons [uscd
ncgativc|y n Chi|c |n thc coupycarofI 9 7J) . TcusR|dcrs Union in
LosAngc|cs,andthcorgan|zationoftaxidr|vcrsinNcwYorkandLA,arc
cxamp|cs oforgan|z|ng across thcsc dmcnsions. ' ` Whcn thc rcbc|||ous
popu|ation ofE|A| to cutthc main supp|y|incsinto LaPaz, forcingthc
bourgcois|cto ||vc onscraps, thcysoon ga|ncd thcirpo|itica|obj cctivc.
It isinfact inthcc|ticsthatthcwca|thyc|asscsarcmostvu|ncrab|c,not
ncccssar||yaspcrsonsbutintcrmsofthcva|ucofthcassctsthcycontro|.
lt is forthis rcason that thc cap|ta|ist statc s gcar|ng up for m|| itarizcd
urban strugg|csasthcfront||ncofc|assstrugg|c|nycarsto comc.
Considcr thc hows noton|y offood andothcrconsumcrgoods, but
a|so o|cncrgy, watcr, and othcr ncccssit|cs, and thcir vu|ncrabi|t|cs to
dsruption too. Tc product|on and rcproduction of urban |ifc, whi|c
somcofit canbc"dismisscd" [an unfortunatc word) as"unproductivc"
inthcMarxistcanon, is ncvcrthc|csssoc|a||yncccssary,partofthc"faux
frais"ofthcrcproductonofthc c|assrc|ationsbctwccncapita|and |abor.
Much ofthis |abor has a|ways bccn tcmporary, |nsccurc, itincrant, and
prccar|ous,anditvcryohcn|udgcsthcsupposcdboundarybctwccnpro-
duction andrcproduction [asinthccascofstrcctvcndors). Ncwforms
oforgan|z|ng arc abso|utc|y csscnt|a| for this |abor forcc thatproduccs
and,justas|mportant|y, rcproduccsthccity. Tsiswhcrcncw|yHcdgcd
organizations comc in, such as thc Exc|udcdWorkcrs Congrcss in thc
J KCCCL l Jl Co
Un|tcdSatcs,which|sana||ianccofworkcrscharactcrizcdbytcmporary
and|nsccurcconditionsofcmp|oymcnt,ohcn,aswithdomcst|cworkcrs,
spatia||yscattcrcdthroughoutamctropo|itanrcg|on.
l 6
Tc h|story of convcnt|ona| |abor strugg|cs-and th|s | s my th|rd
major point-a|so nccds somc rcwriting. Most strugg|cs wagcd by
factory- bascd workcrs turn out, on |nspcct|on, to havc had a much
broadcrbasc. MargarctKohncomp|ains,forcxamp|c,how|chh|storians
of|abor|aud thc Tur|n FactoryCounc||softhc car|y twcnticth ccntury
wh||c tota||y |gnoring thc "Houscs of thc Pcop|c" in thc community
whcrc muchofthc po| iticswasshapcd, andfromwhich strong currcnts
of|og|st|ca| support f| owcd.'' E. P. Tompson dcp|cts how thc mak|ng
ofthcEng|ishwork|ngc|assdcpcndcdas much uponwhathappcncdin
chapc|s and |n ncighborhoodsas|n thcworkp|acc. Tc |oca| citytradcs
counci|s havc p|aycd a much-undcrcstimatcd ro|c |n rit|sh po||tica|
organ|zat|on,andohcn anchorcd thcm|||tantbascofa nasccntLabour
Partyandothcr|chorgan|zatons|npart icu|artowns andcitics|nways
thatthcnat|ona|unionmovcmcntohcn|gnorcd. '"Howsucccssfu|wou|d
thcF||ntsit-downstr|kcofI 9J7havcbccninthcUn|tcdStatcshaditnot
bccnfor thcmasscsofthcuncmp|oycdandthcnc|ghborhoodorgan|za-
tionsoutsidcthcgatcsthatunfai|ing|ydc|ivcrcdthcirsupport,mora|and
matcria|
Organ|z|ngthcnc|ghborhoodshasbccnj ustas|mportantinprosccut-
|ng|aborstrugg|cs,ashasorganizingthcworkp|acc. Oncofthcstrcngths
ofthcfactoryoccupat|ons|nArgcntina thatfo||owcdon thc co||apsc of
2OOl |s thatthc coopcrat|vc|ymanagcdfactoricsa|so turncdthcmsc|vcs
|nto nc|ghborhood cu|tura| and cducat|ona|ccntcrs. Tcybu||tbr|dgcs
bctwccn thc community and thc workp|acc. Whcn past owncrs try to
cv|ctthcworkcrsorscizcbackthcmachincry, thcwho|c popu|acctyp|-
ca||y turns out |n so||dar|tyw|th thc workcrs to prcvcnt such action. ' '
Whcn UNITE HERE sought t o mobi||zc rank-and-h|c hotc| workcrs
around LAX airport in Los Angc|cs, thcy rc||cd hcav||y "on cxtcns|vc
outrcach to po|itica|, rc|igious and othcr community a||ics, bu||ding a
coa||t|on" that cou|d countcr thc cmploycrs' rcprcss|vc stratcg|cs.'" But
thcrcis, |nthis,a|soacaut ionarytalc. |nthcrit| shmincrs'str|kcsofthc
I 97OsandI 98Os,thcmincrswho| |vcdind|duscurban|zcdarcassuch as
Nott|nghamwcrcthchrstto cavc in,wh||cthosc|nNorthumbr|a,whcrc
KCLP| l lL !MC l !' |LK PPJ| -P|| !PLl o! o1KOLLLC 1 JJ
workp|accand|vng- p|accpo| itcsconvcrgcd,mantancdthcrsoldar-
ityto thccnd. ' ' Tcprob|cm poscdbycircumstanccsofthissortw||bc
takcnup|atcr.
To thc dcgcc that convcnt|ona| workp|accs arc dsappcaring n
many parts ofthc so-ca||ed advanccd capitalst wor|d (though not, of
coursc, n Chna or ang|adcsh), organzng around not only work
but a|so around condtons n thc |vng spacc, wh|c bu| dng brdgcs
between the two, bccomes evcn more crucal. ut t has ohen becn so
in thc past. Workcr- contro||cd consumcr coopcratvcs ohcrcd crtca|
support during thc Scatt|c gcncra| strkc of I 9 I 9, and whcn thc strc
co||apscdmi|tancyshhcdvcrymarkcd|ytowardsthcdcvc|opmcntofan
c|aboratcandntcrwovcnsystcmofmaln|yworkcr- contro||cdconsumcr
coopcratvcs. ''
Asthc|cnsswdcncdonthcsoca|m|cunwhchstrugg|cisoccur-
rng, thc scnscofwhothcpro|ctaratmghtbc andwhatthcraspratons
and organzatona| stratcgcs mght bc s transformcd. Tc gcndcr
composton of oppostona| po|itcs looks vcry dhcrcnt whcn rcla-
tonsoutsdcofthcconvcntona|factory( |n bothworkp|accsand| vng
spaccs) arc brought hrm|y nto thc p cturc. Tc soca| dynamcs ofthc
workp|acc arc not thc samc as thosc n thc |vng spacc. On thc |ahcr
tcrran, dstnctonsbascdongcndcr,racc,cthncty,rc|gon,andcu|turc
arcfrcqucnt|ymorc dccp|yctchcd into thc socia|fabr|c,wh|c |ssucsof
soca|rcproducton play a morcpromncnt, cvcn domnantro| ci nthc
shaping of poltca| subjcctvtcs and conscousncss. Convcrsc|y, thc
waycapta|dhcrcntatcsanddvdcspopu|atonscthnca||y, raca||y, and
acrossgcndcr|ncsproduccsmarkcddspartcsnthccconomcdynam-
icsofdsposscsson n thc|vngspacc (thanks to thc crcuits ofmoncy
andcommodty captal) . Whi| cthcmcdan|ossofhouscho|dwca|th n
thcUntcd Statcsfor cvcryoncwas28pcrccntovcrthcpcriod2OO5-O9,
thatofHspancswas66pcrccnt,andthatofb|acks5Jpcrccnt,wh|cfor
whtcs it was I 6 pcrccnt. Tc c|ass charactcr of cthnic dscrmnatons
n accumu|aton by dsposscsson, and thc way thcsc dscrmnatons
d|hcrcnt|a||yahcctncghborhood| |fc,cou|d notbcp| ancr,particu|ar|y
snccmostofthc|osscswcrcductofa| | inghousngva|ucs.''uttsa|so
in ncighborhoodspaccs that profound cu|tura|ticsbascd, for cxamp|c,
incthncity, rc|igon, andcu|tura|hstorcsandco||cctvc mcmorcscan
J+ KCCCL l Jl Co
justasohcnbndasdvdc, tocrcatcthcpossb|ltyofsoca| andpo| tca|
so|dartcs n a comp|ctc|ydhcrcnt dmcnson to that whch qp ca||y
arscswithinthcworkp|acc.
Tcrcisawondcrfu|h|mthatwasproduccdbyb|ack|istcdHo||yood
writcrs and dircctors [thcso-ca||cd Ho||ywoodTcn) nI 954ca||cd8a||
o] |he Ear|h. Bascd on actua| cvcnts in l 95 l , t dcpcts thc strugg|c of
hgh|y cxp|oitcd Mcxcan- Amcrican workcrs and thcir fam|ics in a
znc mmcin Ncw Mcxco. TcMcxcanworkcrsdcmand cqua|tywth
whtcworkcrs, safcr workcondtions, and to bc trcatcdwithdgniq [a
rccurringthcmcn many antl-capta| ststrugg|cs) . Tc womcn arc dis-
trcsscd by thc rcpcatcd fa|urc ofthc ma|c-domnatcd union to prcs
homc ssucs |kc santatlon and runnngwatcrin thc tlcdaccommoda-
tionsthcyinhabit. Whcn thcworkcrs strikc for thcir dcmands and arc
thcn banncdfrom pickct ing undcr thc Tah-Hart|cyAct provisions, thc
womcn takc ovcr thc pckct|i nc [ovcrcomng a |ot olma|c opposton
n thc proccss) . Tc mcn havc to |ook ahcr thc chl|drcn, on|y to |carn
thc hardwayhowmportantrunningwatcrand santatonarcto a rca-
sonab|c dai|y |ifc at homc. Ccndcr cqua| ity and fcminist consciousncss
cmcrgcas cruca|wcaponsnthcc|assstrugg|c.Whcnthcshcrhs comc
to cvctthcfami|cs, popu|arsupportfrom othcrfami|cs[c|car|ybascd
ncu|tura|so|daritcs) noton|ysustansthcstrikingfam|icswthfood,
buta| soputsthcmbacki ntothcirt cdhousing.Tccompanyinthccnd
has to cavc n. Tc awcsomc powcr of unlty bctwccn gcndcr, cthnc-
ty, working, and | vng is notcasyto construct, andthctcnsion n thc
h|m bctwccn mcn and womcn, bctwccn Ang|o and Mcxcan workcrs,
andbctwccnwork- bascdandda|y||c pcrspcctvcs, sjustassgnhcant
as thatbctwccn |aborand capta|. On|ywhcn unity andparty arc con-
structcd among a|| thc forccs of|abor, thch|msays,wi||you bcab|c to
wln. Tcdangcrthsmcssagcrcprcscntcdfor capita|lsmcasurcdbythc
factthat thssthcon|yh|mcvcrtobcsystcmatica||ybanncdfor po| it-
ca| rcasons from bcing shown in any US commcrca| vcnuc formany
ycars. Most o|thc actors wcrc not profcssona|,manywcrc drawn |rom
thc mncr`s union. Butthcbri||iant|cadngprofcssiona|actrcss,Rosaura
Rcvc|tas,wasdcportcdto Mcxico. '
I narcccntbook,F|ctchcrandCapasinargucthatthc|abormovcmcnt
shou| dpaymorc attcntontogcographca|rathcrthanscctora|formsof
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Dom `Kcd olQn8 n lDc V8 S 8 C88c n goDl. 1ctc h88 tD l8Cl
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Wholc gh888 olt8dC8l m8n tclotm, SuCD 88 lD8l WtCh oCCuttcd u
Kcd YtcnD8 ot lhtough lDc loC8l t8dC8l muntCg8l CouDCtl8 tD tl8tD
n lDc VZ8, WtCh nccd lobc tcCugct8lcd 88Ccnlt8l lo lDc ht8lotybolh
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OllhoScCutou8 toDc8olht8loty lh8llDcltcnChLommuDt8ll8tlyd8-
UDgu8hcd l8clll8t motc n munCgM 8dmnt8lt8lon [tD g8tl Du8c
l h8d no do@8UC lDcoty ot nSUuCltonS Dom %oSoW lo gudc l)
l35 RLHLc C| T| LS
than t dd n othcr arcnas o| pol tcal l|c, |rom thc 50s cvcn up to thc
prcscnt day. 1c rtsh tradc unon councls lkcwsc playcd a crucal
rolc n urban pol tcs, and rootcd thc mltant powcr o| local lcH partcs.
!s tradton contnucd n thc strugglc by thc muncpal tcs n 8rtan
aga nst 1atchcrsm n thc carly 80s. 1hcsc wcrc not only rcarguard
actons but, as n thc casc o| thc Grcatcr London Councl undcr Kcn
Lv ngstonc n thc carly I80s, potcntally nnovatvc, untl Nargarct
1hatchcr, rccognzng thc thrcat ths urban-bascd opposton poscd,
abolshcd that wholc laycr o| govcrnancc. Evcn n thc Lntcd Statcs,
N lwaukcc |or many ycars had a socalst adm nstraton, and t s worth
rcmarkng that thc only socalst cvcr clcctcd to thc LS Scnatc bcgan hs
carccr and carncd thc pcoplc`s trust as mayor o| 8urlngton, Vcrmont.
1mC K| \m1 1L 1mC L| 1 /b / |LL| 1| L/L
LL/bb- C/bCL LCN/`L
I| thc partcpants n thc Pars Communc wcrc rcclamng thcr rght to
thc cty thcy had collcctvcly hclpcd producc, thcn why cannot "thc rght
to thc cty bccomc a kcy moblzng slogan |or ant-captalst strugglc
1hc rght to thc cty s, as was notcd at thc outsct, an cmpty sgnhcr |ull
o| mmancnt but not transccndcnt possbltcs. 1hs docs not mcan t
s rrclcvant or pol tcally mpotcnt, cvcrythng dcpcnds on who gcts to
hll thc sgnhcr wth rcvol utonary as opposcd to rc|ormst mmancnt
mcan ng.
It s not always casy to dstngush bctwccn rc|ormst and rcvol uton-
ary ntatvcs n urban scttngs. Partcpatory budgctng n Porto Alcgrc,
ccologcally scnstvc programs n Curtba, or l vng-wagc campagns
n many US ctcs appcar rc|ormst and rathcr margnal at that). 1hc
Chongg ng ntatvc, dcscrbcd n Chaptcr 2,sounds on thc sui1acc morc
lkc an authortaran vcrson o| Mordc patcrnalstc socalsm rathcr than
a rcvol utonary movcmcnt. 8ut as thcr nll ucncc sprcads, so ntatvcs o|
ths sort rcvcal dccpcr laycrs o| possblty |or morc radcal conccptons
and actons at thc mctropoltan scalc. A sprcadng, rcvtal zcd rhcto-
rc org natng n 8razl n thc 0s, but thcn movng |rom Zagrcb to
Hamburg to Los Angclcs) ovcr thc rght to thc cty, |or cxamplc, sccms
RLC|A| M| NG THL C| T |R ANT| -CAP| TAc| ST STROGGcL I J7
to suggcst somcthng morc rcvolutonary mght bc n prospcct.' 1c
mcasurc o| that possblty appcars n thc dcspcratc attcmpts o| cxstng
poltcal powcrs |or cxamplc, thc MGs and ntcrnatonal nsttutons,
ncludng thc World 8ank, asscmblcd at thc Ro World Urban Forum n
20 0) to co-opt that languagc to thc r own purposcs.'' In thc samc way
that Narx dcpctcd rcstrctons on thc lcngth o| thc workng day as a hrst
stcp down a rcvolutonary path, so cla mng back thc rght |or cvcryonc
to l vc n a dcccnt housc n a dcccnt lvng cnvronmcnt can bc sccn as
thc hrst stcp towards a morc comprchcnsvc rcvolutonary movcmcnt.
1hcrc s no pont n complanng at thc attcmpt to co-opt. 1hc lcH
should takc t as a compl mcnt and battlc to sustan ts own dstnctvc
mmancnt mcanng. all thosc whosc labors arc cngagcd n producng and
rcproducng thc cty havc a collcctvc rght not only to that whch thcy
producc, but also to dccdc what knd o| urbansm s to bc produccd
whcrc, and how. Altcrnatvc dcmocratc vchclcs othcr than thc cxst-
ng dcmocracy o| moncy powcr) such as popular asscmbl cs nccd to bc
constructcd | urban l|c s to bc rcvtal zcd and rcconstructcd outsdc o|
domnant class rclatons.
1hc rght to thc cty s not an cxclusvc ndvdual rght, but a |ocuscd
collcctvc rght. It s nclusvc not only o| constructon workcrs but also
o| all thosc who |acltatc thc rcproducton o| daly l|c. thc carcgvcrs
and tcachcrs, thc scwcr and subway rcpar mcn, thc plumbcrs and clcc-
trcans, thc scahold crcctors and cranc opcrators, thc hosptal workcrs
and thc truck, bus, and tax drvcrs, thc rcstaurant workcrs and thc cntcr-
tancrs, thc bank clcrks and thc cty admnstrators. lt sccks a unty |rom
wth n an ncrcdblc dvcrsty o| |ragmcntcd socal spaccs and locatons
wth n nnumcrablc dvsons o| labor. And thcrc arc many putatvc
|orms o| organzaton-|rom workcrs` ccntcrs and rcgonal workcrs`
asscmbl cs such as that o| 1oronto) to alanccs such as thc Rght to
thc Cty all anccs and thc xcl udcd Workcrs Congrcss and othcr |orms
o| organzaton o| prccarous labor) that havc ths obj cctvc upon thcr
poltcal radar.
8ut, |or obvous rcasons, t s a complcatcd rght partly by v rtuc
o| thc contcmporary condtons o| captalst urbanzaton, as wcll as
bccausc o| thc naturc o| thc populatons that mght actvcly pursuc such
a rght. Nurray 8ookch n, |or cxamplc, took thc plausblc vcw also
J KCCCL l Jl Co
attributab|ctoLcwisMumfordandmanyothcrslnHucnccdbythcsocla|
anarchisttradition ofthlnking) thatcapita|istproccsscs ofurbanizatlon
havc dcstroycd thccltyasa functioningbodypo|iticuponwhich a civi-
||zcdant|- cap|ta||sta|tcrnat|vc m|ghtbcbu||t.'"Inaway,Lcfcbvrcagrccs,
though |nhiscascfarmorccmphasisisp|accd onthcrationa|lzatlonsof
urban spacc bystatc burcaucratsandtcchnocrats to faci|itatc thc rcpro-
duction of capital accumu|ation and of dominant class rc|ations. 1c
righttothccontcmporarysuburbishard|yaviab|canti- capita|ists|ogan.
Itisforthisrcasonthatthcrighttothccityhastobcconstrucdnotas
a righttothatwhicha|rcadycxists,butasarighttorcbui|dandrc- crcatc
thcc|ty as a soc|al|stbody po|it|c |n a comp|ctc|y d|hcrcnt |magc-onc
that cradicatcs povcrty and socla| incqua|ity, and onc that hca|s thc
wounds ofdisastrous cnvironmcnta| dcgradation. For th|s to happcn,
thc productlon ofthc dcstructivc forms ofurbanizatlon that fac|litatc
pcrpctua|cap|ta|accumu|aton hastobcstoppcd.
TiswasthcsortofthingthatMurrayookchinargucdforinpushing
to crcatc what hc cal|cd a "mun|cipa| libcrtarian|sm" cmbcddcd in a
blorcgiona| conccpt|on of associatcd municipa| asscmblics ratlonal|y
rcgu|ating thc|r intcrchangcswith cach othcr, aswc|| aswith naturc. It
is at this point that thc wor|d of practica| politics fruitfu|ly intcrsccts
w|ththc|ongh|storyof|argc|yanarch|st- |nsp|rcd utopian th|nk|ngand
writ|ngaboutthcc|ty. ' '
JLVPKLb O KOPl KLVLLUJ| Ll
Trccthcscscmcrgcfromthis history.First,work- bascdstrugglcs,from
strikcstofactorytakcovcrs,arc far morc likc|y tosuccccdwhcn thcrcis
strong and vibrant support from popular forccs asscmb|cd at thc sur-
rounding ncighborhood or communlty |cvc| [lnc|udlng support from
|n||ucntia||oca||cadcrsandthcirpo| it|ca|organ|zat|ons) . 1isprcsumcs
thatstrong|lnksbctwccnworkcrsand| oca| popu|ationsalrcadycxistor
can bc qu|ck|y constructcd. Such ||nks can ar|sc "natura||y" out ofthc
simp|c fact that thc workcrs' faml|ics constltutc thc community [as in
thccascofmanym|n|ngcommun|ticsofthcsortportraycdin8a|| o] |he
Ear|h). ut |n morc didusc urban sctt|ngs, thcrc has to bc a conscious
KCLP| l lL !MC l !' |LK PPJ| -P|| !PLl o! o1KOLLLC 1 JV
po||tica| attcmpt t o construct, ma|ntain and strcngthcn such |inks.
Whcrc thoscl|nks do notcx|st, as happcncdw|th thcNott|nghamsh|rc
coalmincrs|nthcstr|kcsofthcI 98OsinBritain,thcyhavctobccrcatcd.
Othcrwscsuchmovcmcntsarcfarmorc||kc|ytofa||.
Second|y, thc conccpt ofwork hasto shih from a narrow dchnit|on
attachng to |ndustr|a| forms of|abor to thc far broadcr tcrrain ofthc
work cntai|cd |n thc production and rcproduction ofan |ncrcasing|y
urban|zeddai|y |i|c. Dist|nct|onsbctwccnwork-based and community-
bascdstrugglcsstarttofadcaway,asindccddocs thc idca thatclassand
work arc dchncd |n a p|acc ofproduction in iso|aton from thc s|tc of
soc|a| rcproduct|on |n thchouscho|d. Toscwhobringrunningwatcr
toourhomcs arcjustas importantin thcstrugglcfora bcttcrqua|tyof
||fc as thosc who makc thc pipcs and thc fauccts in thc factory. Tosc
who dc|ivcr thc food to thc city [ inc|uding thc strcctvcndors) arcjust
ass|gn|hcantasthoscwhogrowit. Toscwhocookthcfoodbcforct|s
catcn [thc roastcd-cornorhot-dogvcndors onthcstrccts,orthoscwho
s|avc awayovcr thcstovcs |nthchouscholdk|tchcnsorovcropcnhrcs)
|ikcw|scaddva|uc to thatfoodbcforc |t|s digcstcd. Tcco||cctivc | abor
|nvo|vcd |n thc product|on and rcproduct|on ofurban ||fc must thcrc-
forcbccomcmorct|ght|yfoldcd|nto|chthink|ngandorgan|z|ng.Ear||cr
dist|nctionsthatmadcscnscbctwccn thcurbanandthcrura|, thc c|ty
and thc country-havc |n rcccntt |mcsa|so bccomcmoot. Tccha|n of
supp|yboth |ntoandoutofthcct|cscnta||sacont|nuousmovcmcnt,and
docsnotcntai|abrcak.Abovca| | , thcconccptsofworkandofc|asshavc
to bc fundamcnta||y rcformu|atcd. Tc strugg|c for co||cct|vc citizcns'
r|ghts [suchasthosco|imm|grantworkcrs)has tobc sccn as intcgra| to
anti- capita|istc|assstrugg|c.
T|s rcv|ta|izcd conccption ofthc pro|ctar|atcmbraccs and | ncludcs
thcnowmassivc nforma| scctorscharactcrizcdbytcmporary, insccurc,
and unorgan|zcd labor. Croups in thc popu|at|on ofth|s sort, |t turns
out, havc h|storica||yp|aycd an important rolc in urban rcbcl|ions and
rcvolts. Tc|r act|on has not a|ways bccn ofa lch charactcr [but thcn
ncithcr can crah un|ons a|ways claim that). Tcyhavc ohcn bccn sus-
ccptiblc to thc b|and|shmcnts ofunstab|c or author|tar|an char|smat|c
|cadcrship,sccu|arorrcl|gious.Forthisrcasonthcpo|iticsofsuchd|sor-
ganizcd groups havc ohcnwrong|y bccn dismisscd by thc convcnt|ona|
+ KCCCL l Jl Co
|chasthoscofthc"urbanmob" [or,cvcnmorcunfortunatc|y, inMarxist
|orc as a "|umpcnpro|ctarat"), as much to bc fcarcd as cmbraccd. lt is
impcrativc thatthcscpopulationsnowbccmbraccdascrucial to, rathcr
thancxc|udcdfrom, anti- capita|istpo|itics.
Fina||y, whi|c thc cxp|otation of| ving labor in production [in the
broadcr scnsc a|rcadydchncd) must rcmain ccntra| to thc conccption
ofanyanti- capita|istmovcmcnt,strugg|csagainstthc rccupcration and
rea|zatonofsurp|usva|uefromworkersm thcr|vngspaceshavctobc
gvcn cqua|statustostrugg|csatthcvariouspointsofproductionofthc
city. Asinthccascoftcmporaryand insccurcworkcrs,thccxtcnsionof
c|ass acton i nthis dircction poscsorganizationa| prob|cms. But, aswc
sha|lscc, italsoho|dsoutinnumcrab|cpossibi|itics.
MLV, J|Ll, LLLb L|L LKLP|l L P L| J
Tc honcst answcr to F|ctchcr and Capasin`s qucstion is. wc simply do
notknow,part|ybccauscnotcnoughhardthoughthasbccngivcntothc
qucstion, andpart|ybccauscthcrci snosystcmatic historca| rccord of
cvolvingpoliticalpracticcs onwhch to basc anygcncra|izations. Tcrc
havc, of coursc, bccn bricf pcriods of cxpcrimcntation with "gas and
watcr"socalistadministration,ormorcadvcnturousurbanutopianism,
as nthcSovictUnion nthc l 9 2Os. ''utmuchofthis casi|yfadcdinto
rcformistsocia|istrca|ism orpatcrna|isticsocialist/communistmodcrn-
ism (ofwhichwcsccmanytouchingrc|icsinEastcrnEuropc) . Mostof
whatwc nowknowabouturban organzaton comcs |rom convcntonal
thcorics and studics of urban govcrnancc and administration wt hin
the contcxt of burcaucratic capita|ist govcrnmcnta|ity [against whch
Lcfcbvrcquitc rght|ycnd|css|yrailcd), a||ofwhich is a far cryfrom thc
organization ofan ant-capita|st po|tcs. Tc bcstwc havc s a thcory
ofthccityas a corporatc form, with a|lthatths implicsin tcrms ofthc
possibi|itics ofcorporatist dccision- making [which can, on occasion,
whcn takcnovcrbyprogrcssivc forccs,contcst thcmorcrabidforms of
capta|ist dcvc|opmcnt and bcgin to addrcss thc qucstions ofcrpp|ng
and g|aring socia| incgua|ity and cnvironmcnta| dcgradations, at |cast
atthc loca| |cvc|, as happcncd n Porto A|cgrc andas was attcmptcd n
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!0i_C!] _HUiCU jCVCH WHCH HC QiUVUC8 0 D!UW-D]-D!UW 0CCUHHI UI IHC
ZUU iCDC!!UH H \UCH0D0HD0) H I0VUi UI 0H 0CCUHHI UI IHC C!088 0HU
QUQH!8I IUiCC8
44 LLL L| J| Lb
tn moUOn WtlDtn ol V8 tn gcnct8l, 8_8n8l lhc b8CKgtound ol cXlct-
n8l tmgctt8lt8l gtc8utc8. l 8 lhctclOtc tnlctcSUnglOlutnlo lhc 8ludtc8
ollDc 8nlhtogologl8l8 Lcltc Lm 8nd bt8n L8Dt, DlD OlWhom gtOVdc
tn-dcglh goHt8y8l8 ol CondUOn8, 8oC8l tcl8lon8, Md gul8lV otg8n-
Dlon8llotm8 gtcV8lngnLlPllO8ldRctcnlh8lotlC8lmomcnl8. Ltl8
Sludy, !cc/cringM /hc Kim, gult8hcd tn Z, dcl8tlcd CondlOn8 gtc-
V8ng n lhc V8, Whlc L8ZMS 8ludy, L/ A//o, Kcbc/ Li/y, gubl8hcd
tn Z, W8S b88cd on Dcld Wotk n Ll Pllo bolh DlOtc 8nd 8Rct lhc
tcbclltOn olZJ." Pclhct Lll not L8ZM 8nUCtg8lcd lhc goS8btltly ol
tcbclltOnbclOtctlh8ggcncdYhtlcLlltcCotdcdglcnlolgoltlC8oCut-
tngonlhcgtound nlhcVMS,lhcmoVcmcnl8wYtc8OD8gmcnlcd8nd
COnDcd [g8tlCulMlygtVcn lhcncg8ltVctolc ollDc PLL8 lh8l h8d dt8-
gl8Ccd lhc8l8lc 88 lhc m8n gtoVdct8 olSoCM 8cttCc8) 8S lo SccmlO
gtcCludc My COhctcnl m88S moVcmcnl, cVcn lhou_h lm ShOllc8Ch-
cn8ltKc lh8loCCuttcd dutnghct Dcld-WoNW8S DctCclOu_hl ouln
cbCllyCl88S-Con8Ctou8 lctm8. LZ8tW88 8lSo l8Kcn by Smgt8cbylhc
tcbclltOn olLClobctZJ, 8ndtclutncdlO LlPlo8RctloCuttcd lo lty
lOtcCon8ltuCl lhcCtCumSl8nCc8lh8lh8dgVcntt8clotl.
m Pllo t8 8 SgcCt8l ktnd ol gl8Cc, 8nd l t8 mgotl8nl lo l8y oul lhc
g8tlCul8ttlc8." l S8 tcl8UV ncWCly [ only nCotgot8lcd tn Vdd) ol
tmmgt8nl8 on lDc tnhoSgl8blcPllgl8nO,h_h ug 8boV L8, l8tgcly
gogul8lcdbytut8lgc8Ml8dtVcnolhclMdbylhcgt8dualCommct-
C8l28UOn ol 8_ttCulUM gtOuCUOn by d8gl8Ccd ndu8lt8l WotKt8
[g8tUCulMlylDO8cDOm lhc Unmnc8 lh8lh8dbccn t8Uon8ltZcd, gttV8l-
t2cd, 8nd tn Somc n8l8lcClo8d doW ltom lhc mtd dS onW8td8)
8nd by loW-nComc tclugcc ltOm L8 l82, Whctc ht_h l8nd 8Dd houng
CO8l8 h8d lot Somc yc8t8 Dn gu8hng gootct gcoglc lo look lOt lVng
Sg8Cc cl8Whctc. ctc W8S nol, lhctclotc, 8 SUonglycnltcnChcd Dm-
gco8tc tn tl Plo, 88 lDctc W88 m L8 8Dd b8nl8 Ltu2. l W8S, 88 Ltll
gul8 tl, 8 Cl`Wctc m8nyVCltDSOlolVl88 ongOtn_cctmcnlWllD
Dcc-m8tKcl tclotmlcclctOn lhccdgcolSutVtVM.1cSlc8dyWlDd8W8l
ol lhc 8l8lc, ltOm lhc md Vd8, ltom 8dmtntSlt8lOn 8nd 8ctVCc-
gtoVl8ton undct ncoltbct8l gtV8UZ8lton mcl lh8l loCl Sl8lc COnUol8
Wctc tcl8lVmy Wc8K. lOgul8lonS h8d lo hullc 8nd 8cll- otg8mZc lo
SutVtVc, Ot tcly on lhc dubou hclg ol PLL8 8ugglcmcnlcd by don8-
Uon8 8nd l8Vot8 cXU8Clcd Dom goltltC8 gMltc8 n tcDn lot 8uggtl8l
LLL| N| W JmL L| L PJ| -L|JPL| b bJOLL 4J
mcCllon lmc. ullDtcc ollhc lout m8n8uggly toulc nlO L 8Zg888
lDtough LlPlo, 8nd lDc gWct lo ChoKc UcmoRbcC8mc lmgotl8nl ln
lDc8ltug_lc8 lD8l oCmtcd. c utb8D-tut8l ConUnuuD [WllD lhctut8l
dOmln8lcd l8t_cly by lnd_cnouS gc888nl gogul8llon8 Wlh d8UnCUVc
Cmlut8l lt8dlOD8 8nd lOtm8 olSoCm otg8nDlon, lK lDc ay//us lD8l
YcDct mcnUOn8) W88 8n mgtl8nl lc8Utc lo Uc mcl8bollSm ol lhc
Clly. c Clly mcdl8lcd DlWmn lDc utD8nl olL8 8Z 8Dd lhc tut8llly
OllDc tglon, Dlh _cogt8ghClly8nd clDno-Culht8lly. tOW8Olgcglc
8Dd ol good8 lDtou_hOul lDc tc_lon CltCul8lcd 8tou1d 8nd lDtou_h tl
PllO, Whllc lDc d8ly Commulc ltom tl llo nlo L 8Z tcndctcd lhc
l8Uct ClydcgcDdcnlon Ll PllolotmuCh oll8lOW-W8_cl8Dt lotCc.
Lldct lotm8 OlCollcCUVc ot_8nlZ8llon oll8bot n ollVl8 h8d bccn
d8tuglc lD lDc dS WU lDc Clo8utc ollDc ln mlnc8, bul h8d c8tlct
ConSllulcd `oncollhcmo8lmlll8nlWOtKn_Cl888c8nLlnD1ctlC8."
c mlnct8 h8d gl8ycd 8 kcy tolc n lDc tcVoluUOn ol VbZ, WlCh lcd
lo lDc n8UoDZ8llon ol Uc ln mlDc8, 8Dd h8d KcW8 lcd lDc W8y
m btn_ng doW lDc tcgtc88lVc MugO 8nZct tc_mc ln Vd. %8ny
Ol lDc dl8gl8Ccd mnct8 cndc ug lD Ll llo 8Rct db 8Dd, by Lll8
8CComl, cctlcnCcd gtcl dlHCully ln 8dj u8Un_ lo lDclt ncW 8llu8llon.
ul ll Would l8lct bcComcClc8t lD8l lDclt gollC8l Cl8S8 Con8Clou8nc8,
8Dm8lc by tol8lSm 8nd 8n8tCDo-8ydC8llSm, dd nol cnltcly d8-
8ggc8t. lW88lobcComc8nlmgotl8nl tc8OutCc [lhou_h hoW lmgot!8nl
8 8 m8llct old8gulc) n 8ub8cgucnl 8ltu_glc8, bc_mnlDg WlD lDc VVb
lc8Chct8 8ltlkc lD8l Llll 8Udcd ln dcl8l. ul lhclt gollC8 8DRcd ln
mgotl8nl W8y8. YlD no ChoCc `bul lo g8tlCg8lc n lhc gootly g8d
8Dd D8cCutc WOtK lD8lcng8gcd lhc V88l m8jOtllyolLl PlO8 tc8dcnl8,
lDcmlnct8 Wcnl Dom 88U8lonlnWhlChlhcCl888cncmy8ndlDcltoWn
8olld8tl W Clc8t, lo onc lD WhlCh lDcy h8d lo 8D8Wt 8 dlRctcnl 8Dd
l8t motc dHCull 8lt8lgC guc8llon. ` M] oW C8n lDcy ConSUuCl 8 lOtm
Ol 8old8tlly n m Pllo Dom 8n cUnlC8lly dVct8c SoC8l Con8UlucnQ
Ch8t8ClctlZcd by Wdcly dm ctcnl lndlVldu8l hl8lotlc, 8 mo88lC olWotk
tcl8lonS, 8nd nlcD8clnlctn8lComgclUVcnc8
l8 lt8n8Uon, lotCcd ugon lDc ml nct8 lhtou_h ncolDt8lDlon, lS
no mc8D8 mlguc lo OhVl8 Ot tl PllO. l go8c lDc 88Dc dllcmD8
lD8lhllS d8gl8Ccd 8lml WotKct8 n bDcmcld, USbut_h, 8nd 8llmOtc.
n l8Cl ll l8 8 gtcl] unlVct88l dlcmm8 WhctcVct lhc V8Sl W8Vc Ol
40 LLL L|J| Lb
dcndu8U8Dlon Md gtV8ltZ8lton unlc88hcd 8nCc Uc mtd V8 ot
So h88 hl homc. MOWl W8S ConDonlcd tD oltV8 t8 lhctclOtc olmOtc
U8n g888D_ mlctc8L
`PcWKnd8Ollt8dc uHon 8ltulucS h8Vccmc@cd, Wtlc8 L8Zat,
6SQ6Cl8) B0S0 D B6 Q08S80S 800 D6 00fm8 SDI W0IKIS 0 B0
Cll6! . . . 6y 8f0 8!00 uQD0 C08ll00S D !m8D006fS, 0Y60 mlCID
C8Ql8lS!, WD 00 0DWDIK0I D06 D0SS0006Q8C0,WD6I60yC806
68Sl)Mg60 )D0M). 0lf0uS600mD00DQfD0uCD0 8DW!
DI ul0l) 0 8!!0Cl8l008 0, Du D8! 89 8DW0 60 0 0Im 8l-
80C6 800 0fg80lZ8lD0! 8!00 uQ00 0fIlDH8 0C8l00, 0 Sf66 WB0f0
U0) , D6 Y8g0 0I I@l00 WD0f0 D6) lV0 800 Mm, M0, WlD D6
800lD1 0D0 WtIh0Dfg80lZ8l008 S0uCuf6S 0B6Cl0S, B0lf Z000.
n lm, lDc 8oC8lton bclWcn gcoglc 8Dd gl8CcS bcComc8 cXltcmcly
tmgotl8nl8Slhc8outCcolCommonDnd8. YhtlclmScbond8 CDj ul88
oRcn D 8gOD8UC 8S h8tmonOu8, lhc l8Cc-lO-l8Cc Conl8ClS 8tc Dcgucnl
8ndUctclotc tDCtgtcnUy8Uon_.
f806u0lD1SM6 BDuflSl0g HD6mDD80000)DLP08H0Df0
8 CIuCl8 Q8D 0B6 SfuCuf0 DCVC DIg80lZ8l00 B8 S Q8f80 0 U0
S86 M0 D8 SD8Q! 0mll-0f0 ClZ00SlQ 0 6Cly 6)0D !0 0
8 CD06X W6I600DmlC CDmQllD0 6W660 l00ll0u8S S Q8l0u)
6X8gg0I800800WD6I6D00W0u06I60f06XQ6CQ0bC8O8DDf8D0
D D 0m Cu0D 00WlgB mQD!SlDl6.
Yhtlc lhc 8Ot8l moVcmcnl8 oRcn l8ll gtcy lo 8cctc l8Clton8lt8m 8nd
tDh_hltD_, Ucy`8tcDnDn_ lo buld 8 mOtc Cohctcnl tdcolo_Oul ol
lhcg8t!Cu8ttlyollhcdtcnl8cClOt8 dcmMdS.ctcdumCollcC-
lVc Cl88S Con8Cou8nc8S 8Dd Otg8ntZ8Uon8l cXgctcnCc olUc d8gl8Ccd
U mnct8 Uctcby DcCMc8 CtUC8l tc8OutCc. Yhcn Couglcd Wlh gt8C-
UCcS ol loCl dcmoCt8Cy tcSltn_ on ndgcnOu8 lt8dltonS ol loC8l 8nd
gogul8t dcCt8ton-m8kD_ 88Scmbltc8 [lhc ay||as), lhc 8ubjcCUVc Cond-
Uon8lot Ctc8Un_8llcD8ltVcgollC8l 8S8Ot8lon8Wctcg8tl8llytctZcd.
P8 8 tcul, `Uc WotkD_ Cl888 n oV8 8 tcCOn8ltluUn_ l8cll 8S 8
gollC8l8ubjcCl, aelt d0l d lS tradt|cna| ]orm''
M8tdl8ndP@t 88o l8kc ug lht8 gonltn lhctt DW 8ggtogt8ltonol
lhcOltV8n 8ltu_glc nSuggtlollhctUcotyolmulUludc.
LLL| N| W JmL L| L PJ|-L|JPL| b bJOLL 4
f68l00S D B@0000) 800 f0Qf0S608D0 W3Bm 00 WDfKmg C8SS
M6Du! Bf0W 00 gu6llD0. l ! 00 6V60 Qol0 0f D6 080lD08
u0l00SD f6Qf0S60800u86l)D6 CDmQ0X muQlCl)DC8SS SuD|6CS
M0 6XQ6fl60C6S. lS SBlH, DDW6V6f, Slg08S no 8f6W6 0 B0 W0fKl0g
C8SS Df6V608 00Cl060WDfK6f !0ugg0 Du D0f M HCf68Sl0g 0ul-
QlCl)0B6QfD0Ml8M08 00WQB)!l0g0Dm)0!fugg6!."
L8Dt g8Ht8lyCOnCut Wtlh lh8 lhcotcUC8l tclotmu8lon, Dul gtoVdc
muCh motc Dnc-_t8tncd dcl8l on hOW lDc WotKn_-Cl88 mOVcmcnl
Comc lo Dc COn8ltlulcd. P8 8hc 8cc8 tl, `lhc nclcd 8lt8lon ol8n 8lt -
8DCcol88oCt8lOD8,c8Ch oncWlhlO8l lotmol8CCouDl8blly, t oncol
lhc 8omCc Ol lhc SotM moVcmcnl8 8ltcn_lh n olV8. ccOt_8n-
Z8Uon8WctcoRcnhtct8tChCal,8nd OmcUmc 8ulhotl8tt8nt8lhctlh8n
dcmoCt8lC. ul`lWcVcWdcmoCt8Cy8 lhcWtll Ollhc gcglc, lhcCot-
got8l8lSdcOloltV8n golUC8m8Kc88nc8SoncOll8moltmgotl8nl
dcmoCt8lC [ 8lDctl nol ncCc8ttly @8ltl8tt8n) lt8dlOn8. c 8nlt-
C8gl8ltSlVClotc8 ollhc8otllD8l88WORm8jotCotgt8lc cncmtc uCh
88chlcl 8nd bucZ `wud nolh8VcDcngo8tDlcWtlhoul lhcmund8nc
cgcttcnCc8 ol CollcCUVc dcmoCt8Cy lh8l 8tc g8tl ol 8llcuO8 d8y-lo-
d8ylVc8.
LcmoCt8Cy Ot_m1tZcd tn tl Pllo, 8CCotdn_ lo L8Dt, 8lon_ lhtm
dUnCUVc lncS.1cnct_hDothOd888oC8lton8tcgl8Cc-Doundot_8nt -
Z8Uon8 lh8l cXl nol ODly lO gtoVdc CollcClV loC8 _Ood Dul 8lO lo
mcdt8lc lhc mMy ConHClS lh8l 8ttc DlWccn tcdcnl8. c oVct8tCh-
n_ P Ot8lOn olPc_hbothood 8oC8UOn8 l8t_cy cXSlS 8 8 lOtuD1
lot tcolVn_ COnHtCl8 DclWcn nct_hDthood8. tS t8 8 Cl888C `nclcd
hct8tChtC8l lotm,DulOnc nWtCh8llSotl8olmcCh8nmScXSl,WhtCh
L8DtcXmtnc8tndcl8tl,locnutc lh8llc8dct8clhcttol8lcotl8yl8lh-
hlolhctD88[ 8gttnCglcWhCh, unltl lhc1c8 8tlyC8mc8lOn_,Would
D8D8lhcm8 nLbgOltlC) .
c cCond gnon ComgttSc lhc cClot8l 88Sot8lonS ol VMtou8
_tougS nlhcggu8lon, 8uCh88SltcclVcndot8, lt8DgoHWotKct8,8nd
lhclK. Pnd 8_8n, muCh ollhcWotKollhc8c 8SOt8lon t8dcVOlcd lo
mcdt8Un_ConHtCl[ lotc8mglc,DlWccnndVdu8lSltcclVcndot8). ul
l t8 tn lht8 W8y lh8l gtcCattou WOtKct n lhc So-C8lcd tnlotm8l 8cClot
8tc Ot_8nZcd (8 lc8on lo Dc lcMncd Dylhc `tXCludcd YOtKct moVc-
mcnltnlhcLDlcd bl8lc8). tSloO Olot_8DZ8lton goscclcnl8Clc8
4 LLL L| J| Lb
tcChng l8t b8CKdOw1 lhcSuggly Ch8D ol, lot c8mglc, h8h 8nd lO-
Slu ltom lm 8uttomdng 8tc88. htou_h lhcc nkS l S C8g8blc ol
c8 8Dd n8lMl8Dculy mobthZ n_ lhc nSuttcCUon8ty C8g8Ctlc
olSuttouDdn_ g8S8nl 8nd tut8l gogul8lton8ot, COnVctScy, olotg8n-
tZDgmmcd8lctcgonScnlhcCllOtut8 m8S88CtcS8ndtcgtc8on8.
1cc gct8ghtC8l lc Wctc Sltong, 8nd oVctl8ggcd WlD lhO8c ol lhc
nctghDthood 88SoCt8UOnS lO WhCh m8ny gc8S8nl mgt8nl l8Dltc
bclongcd,Whlcm8nl8nnglnK8 b8CKlolhcttVl8gcolot_tn.
1tdy, lhctcWctc motc ConVcnUOn8l unonS, lDc moSltmgotl8Dlol
WhChW88lD8l ollDc ShOllc8Chct8 Who, cVct 8DCc lhc 8Ukc olVVb,
h8dDccnt nlhclOtcltOnl olmll8DCy [88W888l8olhcCc n L8XC8 n
NcXCo) . cU8dcuDonSh8d8 lO8l, tc_ton8l, 8nd n8Uon8l Otg8nZ8-
lon8lSUuClmclh8lCOnUnucdlOlunClonD nc_ol8UOn8WlD lhc8l8lc,
cVcn lDOu_h lDcy h8d Dccn muCh Wc8Kcncd by lhc Dcolbct8l 8888ull
ugontc_u8tcmgloycnl 8Dd lt8dUon8l lotm8 ollt8dc unon ot_8n-
DlonOVctlhcgtcCcdnglhulyyct8.
ul lhctc S 8omclhng cl8c 8l WOtK n tl Pllo lh8l L8Dt 8 8l _tc8l
g8n8 loml@t8lcnlOhct 8CCOunl. Lndctlyn_V8luc8 8Dd tdc8l8 8tc g8t-
lCulMly 8lton_, 8nd 8tc ORcn ughcld 8Dd 8tUCu8lcd lhtough gogul8t
CullUt8l cVcnl8 8Dd 8CltVtlc8hc8l88, tcl_ou8 lc8lVmS, dMCc cVcnl8
88 Wcll 88 lDtough mOtc dtcCl lotmS olCoclVc g8tlCg8lton, SuCh 88
lhcgogul8t888mblc8 [ n lhcnct_hbothood88nd Wlhtnlhc lotm8l8nd
notm8l lt8dc unODS) . 1cCulut8 SoldMlc8 8DdCoc!Vc mcmo-
tccn8blcmOnS looVctComc lcnSonS`8Dd gtomOlc 8 CollcClVc 8cn8
olSml, WCh n UO cn8blc8 lhcm lo bc ccCUVc gltlCal 8ubjcCl8.
1c _tc8lcSl ol lhc lcnSonS S lD8l bcWccn lc8dct8hg 8nd lDc b88c.
olh gl8Cc-bcd 8nd 8cClot8l lotmS ol ot_8nZ8UOn cXhtbtl 8ml8t
Ch8t8Clct8lC8, n WhCh ggu8t b88c8 `8llcmgl lo 888ctl CollclVc
V8luc8 n lhc l8Cc ollc8dct8 gctCcVcd tndVtdu8l8m. c mcCh8n8m8
8tcComglcX, bul m L8Z8t8 8CCOunl lhctc 8ccm lo D mulUglctnlotm8l
mc8n8 byWhCh suc olCollcClV8m m1d nmVdu8l8m, 8Old8ttly8nd
l8Clon8l8m, 8tc Wotkcd oul. luHhctmOtc, lhc ``lt8dc uHon Md lhc
`CommuHl8tt8D lotm8 olOtg8nZ8Uon 8tc nol d8lnCl U8dUoD8, bul
DcgucnllymCulut8llylDtou_hlhc`8yCtclC 8ggtOgtt8lOn olgoll-
Cl U8dlon8, dt8Wng On lt8dc unom8m8, gogu8m, 8nd nd_cnou
dcmoCt8lCV8luc88ndgt8ClCc.ltSlhcCtc8lVcmXngollhc8cdttcnl
KCLP| l lL !MC l !' |LK PPJ| -P|| !PLl o! o1KOLLLC 1 V
thrcads that has cnab|cd El A|to to ovcrcomc ts pol|t|ca| marg|naliza-
t|on at thc nat|ona| |cvcl and takc ccntcr stagc'''' Tcscwcrc thc sorts
ofbonds "thatcoa|cscc at part |cularmomcnts,such as Cochabamba in
2OOO,thcpcasantblockadcsofthca|t|p|anoofApr|landScptcmbcr2OOO,
FcbruaryandOctobcrof 2OOJnE| A|toandLaPazand}anuary-March
2OO5 |nE|A|to''
E| A|to has bccomc such an important focus for th| s ncw po|itcs,
Lazarma|ntains,|argclybccauscofthcways|nwh|chthcscnscofc|t|zcn-
shiphasbccnconsttutcd|nthcc|ty.Tis| sanimportantissucbccausct
prcsagcsthcpossibi|ityofc|ass and indigcnousrcbcUionbc|ngorganizcd
throughso|dariticsbascd|ncommonc|tizcnship. H|stor|cal|y,ofcoursc,
th|s has a|ways bccna ccntra|fcaturcofthcFrcnch rcvo|ut|onarytrad| -
ton. l nElA|tot hsscnscofbc|ongingandso|dar|ty|s
constituted as a mediated re|ationship between citizen and state that is
shaped by the structure o| co||ective civ|c organization paraI|e| to the state
at zone, citywide and nationaI IeveIs. In VVV, the poIitica| party . . . |ost
its hoId over these organizations and over the city in genera|, cnab||ng
a more oppositionaI stance to emerge, this coincided with the mct that
a|tcos have been radcaIizcd by increasing economic hardship. 1e pro-
|ests ol Scptember and Oc|ober ZJ and subscgucnt ycars dcrivc thcir
strength lrom the domination ol thesc particu|ar po|itica| circumstances
with much more |ong- standing processes of identihcation with the
countqside and the construction ol a co|Iective sense ol seI|.
Lazargocsontoconcludcthat
citizenship in the indigenous ciq o| E| AIto invoIves a mix o| urban and
rura|, coIIectivism and individua|ism, ega|itarianism and hicrarchy. Tc
a|tcrnative visions ol dcmocracy tha| arc bcing produccd havc rcinvig-
orated nationa| and regiona| indigenous movements by the ways that
they combine cIass-based and nationa|ist concerns with identity po|i-
|ics, through the contestation over the ownershp ol the means ol socia|
reproduction and the nature o| the state.
Tc two commun|tics that wcrc mostsa||cnt for hcr m a|l ofth|s "arc
bascd onrcsidcnccatzona|andcitylcvc|s,andonoccupat|onatthccity
|cvc|''`" lt |s through thc |dca ofc|t|zcnsh|p that agonist|c rc|ations |n
b KCCCL l Jl Co
both thc workp|acc and thc | |v|ngspaccarc convcrtcd ntoa powcrfu|
formofsocalsolidarity.
Tcscdvcrscsoc|a|proccsscs[wh|chLazar|satpainsnot toromanti-
c|zcinwaysthatsomuchofthcacadcm| clchdocs) hadas|ngularchcct
on howthe c|ty itsclfcamc to be rcgardcd. "It |s pcrt|ncnt to ask,' she
wr|tcs,
what is it that makes E| A||o a city rather than a sIum, a suburb, a market-
p|ace, or a tmnsport hub. My answer is that diherent actors, i n both |he
statc systcm and i n nonstatc pIaccs, arc in thc proccss ol makng a dis-
tnctive and scparatc idcntiq lor AIto. 1a| idcnt|ty is ol course not
singu|ar, but is becoming increasing|y bound up with poIiticaI radica|ism
and indigcncity+
Anditwas"thcconvcrsionofthat|dcnt|tyand |ts cmcrgcntpo| |tcalcon-
sc|ousncss|ntopo||t|calact|on" |n2OOJ and2OO5thatbroughtE|A|toto
noton|ynationa| butintcrnat |ona|attcnt|onas a"rcbc|city"` '
Tc|cssontobc|carncdfrom Lazar's account| sthati tisindccdpos-
sib|ctobu|| da po||tcalc|tyoutofthcdcb|||tatingproccsscsofnco||bcra|
urbanization, and thcrcby rcclaim thc c| ty for anti -capita|ist strugglc.
Wh||cthccvcntsofOctobcr2OOJ shou|dbcundcrstoodas"ah|ghlycon-
tingcntcomngtogcthcrofdhcrcntscctora|intcrcststhatcxplodcdnto
somcthingmuchmorcwhcnthcgovcrnmcntordcrcdthcarmytok|l|thc
dcmonstrators,' thc preceding years oforganizing those sectora| mtcr-
cstsandthc buildingofa scnscofthccityas"accntcrofradicalism and
ind|gcnc|ty" cannot bc|gnorcd. Tcorganization of|nformal|aborcrs
along tradit|ona| union |incs, thc pu|lmg togcthcr ofthc Fcdcrat|on of
nc|ghborhood associ at|ons, thc po|itic|zation of urban- rura| rc|ations,
thc crcation ofncstcd hicrarchics and oflcadcrsh|p structurcs along-
sidccga|itarianasscmblics,thcmobi| |zat|onofthcforccsofcu|turcand
of co||cctvc mcmorics-al| providc modc|s for thinking about what
might consc|ous|y bc donc to rcclaim cit|csforanti- cap|talist strugglc.
Tc forms oforganization that camc togcthcr |n E| A|to |n fact bcar a
strongrcscmb|ancctosomcofthcformsthatcamctogcthcr|nthcParis
Communc [thc arrondisscmcnts, thcunions, thc po|itica| factions, and
thcstrongscnscofcitizcnship n and|oya|tyto thccity) .
KCLP| l lL !MC l !' |LK PPJ| -P|| !PLl o! o1KOLLLC 1 J 1
|UJOKL NLVLb
Wh||c,| nthccascofE| A|to,a||of th|scanbcsccnas anoutcomcof con-
t|ngcntc|rcumstanccsthatjusthappcncdto comctogcthcr,whycannot
wc |mag|nc consc|ous|y bu||d|ng a c|ty-w|dc ant|- capta||st movcmcnt
a|ongsuch l|ncsImag|nc |nNcw YorkCty, for cxamp|c,thc rcvva|of
thcnow largclysomno|cnt commun|tyboardsasnc|ghborhood asscm-
b||cs wth budgct-a||ocat|on powcrs, a| ong w|th a mcrgcd R|ght to thc
C|q A|||ancc and Excludcd Workcrs Congrcss ag|tat|ng for grcater
cqua||ty |n |ncomcsandacccssto hca|th carcand hous|ngprov|s|on, a||
coup|cd w|th a rcv|ta||zcd |ocal LaborCounc|| to tryto rcbu|ldthcc|ty
and thc scnsc ofc|t|zcnsh|p and soca| and cnv|ronmcnta|j ust|cc out
ofthc wrcckagc bc|ng wrought by nco||bcra| corporat|st urban|zat|on.
WhatthcstoryofE|Altosuggcsts|sthatsuch a coa||tionw|l|workon|y
|fthcforccsofcu|turcandofa po||t|cal|yrad|ca|trad|t|on [wh|ch most
ccrta|nlycx|sts |n Ncw York, as |t a| so docs|n Ch|cago, San Franc|sco,
andLosAngc|cs) canbcmobi||zcd |nsuch awayasto anmatcc|t|zcn-
subjects [howcvcr fract|ous, as indecd |s always thc casc |n Ncw York)
bch|ndarad|ca|lyd|hcrcntprojcctofurban|zat|ontothatdom|natcdby
thc c|ass |ntcrcsts ofdcvc|opcrsand hnanc|crsdctcrm|ncdto "bu|ld||kc
RobcrtMoscsw|th }anc] acobs|nm|nd''
But thcrc |s onc hugc|y |mportant j cstcr |n th|s othcrw|sc rosy-
|ookingsccnar|oforthcdcvc|opmcntofant|- cap|ta||ststrugg|c.Forwhat
thcBo| |v|an casc a|so dcmonstratcs,| fWcbbcr |son|yha|fr |ght, |s that
any ant|-cap|ta||st dr|vc mob|||zcd through succcss|vc urban rcbcl||ons
hastobcconso||datcdatsomcpo|ntatafarh|ghcrsca|cofgcncral|ty,|cst
|t al| |apsc back at thc statc |cvc|| nto par| |amcntaryand const|tut|ona|
rcform|smthatcandolitt|cmorcthanrcconst|tutcnco|ibcra||smw|th|n
thc ntcrst|ccs of contnu|ng |mpcra| dom|nat|on. T|s poscs morc
gcncra| qucst|ons not on|y of thc statc and statc |nsttut|ona| arrangc-
mcntsoflaw,po| | c|ng,andadm|nistrat|on,butofthcstatcsystcmw|th|n
wh|ch a| | statcs arc cmbcddcd. Much ofthc contcmporarylch, unfor-
tunatcly, |s rc|uctant to posc thcsc qucst|ons cvcn as |t strugg|cs lrom
t|mc to t |mc to comc up w|th somc form ofmacro-organ|zaton, such
asMurrayBookch|n's rad|ca|"confedera||sm" orE||norOstrom's m||d|y
rcform|st"po|yccntr|cgovcrnancc,wh|ch|ookssusp|c|ous|y| |kca statc
JZ KCCCL l Jl Co
systcm,soundsl kc astatcsystcm,andw|| almostsurc|yact||kc a statc
systcm no mattcrwhatthcntcntof|tsproponcntsm|ghtbc. It |sc|thcr
that, or|apscntothck|ndof|ncohcrcncc thathasHardtandNcgr|n
Commonuea|th smash thcstatconpagcJ 6I on|ytorcsurrccttonpagc
J8O as theguarantorofa un|vcrsa|m|n|mumstandard of| |vng,aswel|
asofun|vcrsa|hcalthcarc andcducat|on. `'
But t |s prccscly hcrc that thc qucst|on of how onc organzcs a
who|cc|tybccomcsso cruc|a|. lt ||beratcsprogress|vc forcesfrom be|ng
organzat|ona||y |ockcd |nto thc m| cro-|cvc| ofstruggl|ng workcr co|-
|cct|vcs and so||dar|ty cconomcs [|mportant thosc thcsc may bc), and
forccs upon us a complctcly dhcrcntwayofboth thcorz|ng and prac-
t|c|ngan ant|- cap|ta||stpo| t|cs. From a cr|tca|pcrspcctvc |t |sposs|b|c
to scc prcc|sc|y whyOstrom's prcfcrcnccfor "po|yccntrc govcrnmcnt"
mustfa|,alongwth ookch|n's "confcdcra|" mun|cpa|||bcrtar|an|sm.
"l fthcwho|c socctywcrctobcorgan|zcdas a confcdcrat|on ofautono-
mousmun|c|palt|cs,` wr|tcs lr| sYoung, "thcnwhatwou| dprcvcnt thc
dcvc|opmcnt of| argc- sca|c ncqual|ty and nj ustcc among commun|-
t|cs [ofthc sort dcscr|bcd n ChaptcrJj and thcrcby thc opprcss|on of
|nd|v|dua|s who do not ||vc | n thc morc pr|v||cgcd and morc powcr-
fu| commun|t|cs "`` Tc on|y way to avod such outcomcs s forsomc
hghcrauthor|tyboth to mandatc and cnforcc thosc cross-mun|cpal|ty
transfcrsthatwou|drough|ycqua|zcat| castopportun|tcs,andpcrhaps
outcomcsaswcl|. Ts |s whatMurray ookchn's confcdcra|systcm of
autonomousmun|c|pa||t|cswou|da|mostccrtan|ybcunab|ctoach|cvc,
to thc dcgrcc thatth|s|cvc|ofgovcrnancc sbarrcdfrommakngpo|cy
and hrm|y rcstr|ctcd to thc adm|nstrat|on and govcrnancc ofth|ngs,
andchcct|vc|ybarrcdfromthcgovcrnanccofpcop|c. Tcon|ywaythat
gcncra|ru|csof,say,rcdstrbut|onofwcalthbctwccnmuncpa|t|cscan
bccstab||shcds c|thcrbydcmocrat|cconscnsus[wh|ch, wcknowfrom
hstorcalcxpcr|cncc,|sunl kc|ytobcvo|untar||yand |nforma||yarr|vcd
at)orbyct|zcnsasdcmocratcsubjcctsw|thpowcrsofdcc|s|onatd|dcr-
cnt lcvclsw| thn astructurcofh|crarch|ca|govcrnancc.To bcsurc,thcrc
s no rcasonwhy a|l powcrshou|dUowdownwards |n sucha h|crarchy,
andmcchan|smscansurc|ybc dcv|scdto prcvcntd|ctatorsh|p or author-
|tar|an|sm. But thc p|an fact |s that ccrta|n problcms of, for cxamp|c,
thc common wca|th, only bccomc v|s|blc at part|cu|ar sca|cs, and
KCLP| l lL !MC l !' |LK PPJ| -P|| !PLl o! o1KOLLLC 1 JJ
t| son|yappropr|atcthatdcmocratcdccs|onsbcmadcatthoscsca|cs.
From th|s standpomt thc movcmcnt |n Bo||v|a m|ght want to |ook
southwards for nspraton, athowthcmovcmcntnta|lyconccntratcd
n Santago n Ch|c has morphcd from studcnts dcmandng from thc
statcfrcc and cgaltaran cducatona| provson nto an ant- nco|bcra|
a|lancc of movcmcnts dcmandng of thc statc consttut|ona| rcform,
mprovcdpcnsonprovson, ncw|abor|aws,anda progrcssvcpcrsona|
andcorporatc tax systcm to bcg|n to rcvcrsc thcs||dc nto cvcrgrcatcr
soc|a| ncqua|tyn Ch|can cv|soccty. Tc qucston ofthc statc, and
npartcularwhatkndofstatc [ornon-capta|stcquva|cnt),cannotbc
avo|dcdcvcnnthcm|dstofmmcnsccontcmporaryskcptcsm,onboth
thc|ch and thc rght ofthc polt|ca| spcctrum, ofthcvab|ty ordcs|r-
ab|tyofsuch aformofnsttutona|zaton.
Tc wor|d ofc|tzcnshp and rghts, wthn somc body-po|tc of a
hghcr ordcr, s not ncccssar|y opposcd to that of c|ass and strugg|c.
Ctzcnandcomradccanmarchtogcthcrnant-capta|ststrugglc,a|bct
ohcnworkngatdhcrcntscalcs.Butthscanoccuron|yfwcbccomc,as
Parklongagourgcd, morc"conscousofthcnaturcofourtask,`whch s
co||cct|vc|ytobu||dthc soc|a||stc|tyonthcrunsofdcstructvc cap|ta||st
urbanzaton.Tatsthcctyarthatcanmakcpcop|ctru|yfrcc.Butths
cnta|sa rcvo|utonnant- cap|ta|stthnkngandpract|ccs. Progrcssvc
ant- capta|stforccscanmorccas|ymoblzctolcapforwardntog|oba|
coordnatons va urban nctworks that may bc h|crarchca| but not
monoccntrc, corporatst but ncvcrthc|css dcmocratc, cga|taran and
horzontal,systcm| ca||yncstcdandfcdcratcd[| mag|nca| cagucofsoc|a|-
stc|t|csmuch as thc HanscatcLcaguc olo|dbccamc thcnctworkthat
nour|shcdthcpowcrsofmcrchantcapta|sm) , |ntcrna|lyd|scordantand
contcstcd,butso|darousaganstcapta|stclasspowcr-and,abovc al|,
dccp|ycngagcd |n thcstrugg|cto undcrm|ncandcvcntuallyovcrthrow
thcpowcrofthc captalst| aws ofva|uc on thcworld markct to dctatc
thc socal rclatons undcr whch wc work and |vc. Such a movcmcnt
must opcn thc way for unvcrsa| human Hourshng bcyond thc con-
stra|nts ofc|ass domnaton and commodhcd markct dctcrmnatons.
Tc wor|d of truc frccdom bcgns, as Marx nsstcd, on|y whcn such
matcra|constrantsarc|chbchnd. Rcc|am|ngandorganzngct|csfor
ant- cap|ta||ststrugg|cssagrcatp|accto bcg|n.
LMPrJCKb| A
LCDOCD Z1 1 . C| |
LQ| I | | 8U m | I8 !OC b!|CC!8
ff
`
h||st|c and fcra| tccnagcrs," thc Da||y Ma|| cal|cd thcm. thc
crazyyouthsfrom a| | wa|ks oflfc whoraccdaroundthcstrccts
ofLondondcspcratclyand ohcn mndlcsslyhur||ngbr|cks, stoncs, and
bott|csat thccops,wh||c|ootnghcrcandsctt|ngbonhrcs thcrc,|cad|ng
thc author|tcs ona mcrry chasc ofcatch-as- catch- can as thcy twcctcd
thcrwayfrom oncstratcgctargcttoanothcr.
Tcword"fcra|"pu||cdmc upshort. Itrcmndcdmc ofhow thccom-
munards|nPars n I 87l wcrcdcpctcdasw|danma|s, ashycnas, that
dcscrvcd tobc [ andohcnwcrc)summar||ycxccutcd|nthcnamcofthc
sanctty ofpr|vate property, mora|ty, rcl|g|on, and thc fam||y. ut thc
word conjurcd up anothcr assocat|on. Tony B|ar attackng thc "fcra|
mcda,' havngforso|ongbccn comfortab|y|odgcdn thc|chpockctof
Rupcrt Murdoch, on|y |atcr to bc substtutcd as Murdoch rcachcd nto
h|srghtpockcttop|uckoutDavdCamcron.
Tcrc w|| of coursc bc thc usua| hystcr|ca| dcbatc bctwccn thosc
pronc tovcwthc r|ots as a mattcr ofpurc, unbrd|cd,and |ncxcusab|c
crm|na||q, and thosc anxious to contcxtua||zc cvcnts aga|nst a back-
ground ofbad po|| c|ng, contnung racsm and unj usthcd pcrsccut|on
olyouthsandmnortcs,massuncmp|oymcntofthcyoung,burgconng
soca|dcpr|vaton, and a m|nd|css po| |t|csofaustcrty that has noth|ng
to do wth cconom|cs and cvcryt h|ng to dow|th thc pcrpctuaton and
conso||dat|onofpcrsona|wca|thandpowcr. Somc maycvcngctaround
J KCCCL l Jl Co
to condcmnngthcmcanng|cssandalcnatngqua||ticsofsomanyjobs
andsomuchofda|y||fc nthcmdstofmmcnscbutuncvcn|yd|strb-
utcdpotcntia||tyforhumanuourishing.
Ifwc arc | ucky, wc w|||havc comm|ss|onsandrcports to say a|| ovcr
againwhatwassaidofrxton and Toxtcth nthcTatchcrycars. I say
"|ucky" bccausc thcfcra| nstinctsofthccurrcntritshprmcmnistcr
sccmmorcattuncdtoturningonwatcrcannons,toca||ing|nthctcargas
brigade, and usngrubberbu||ets,wh| |c pont|hcatngunctuous|yabout
thc|ossofmora|compass, thcdcc|incofcivi|ty, andthcsaddctcriora-
tionoffami|yva|ucsanddscip|ncamongcrrantyouths.
Butthcprob|cmisthatwc|ivc ina socictywhcrccapita|ismitsc|fhas
bccomc rampant|y fcra|. Fcra| po| |tcanschcaton thcir cxpcnscs, fcra|
bankcrs p|undcr thc pub|c pursc for a| | |t's worth, CEOs, hcdgc fund
opcrators, and privatc cquity gcniuscs |oot thc wor|d ofwca|th, tc|c-
phoncandcrcd|tcardcompan|cs|oadmystcr|ouschargcsoncvcryonc's
bI|s,corporatonsandthcwca|thydon`tpaytaxcswhi|cthcyfccd at thc
troughofpub||chnancc, shopkccpcrspricc-gougc,and, at thcdrop ofa
hatsw|nd|crs andscamart|stsgct topracticcthrcc- cardmontcrightup
ntothch|ghcstcchc|onsofthccorporatc andpo| t|ca|wor|d.
A po|itca| cconomy of mass disposscsson, of prcdatory practiccs
to thc pointofday|ight robbcry-particu|ar|y ofthc poor and thcvu|-
ncrab|c, thc unsophisticatcd and thc |cga||y unprotcctcd-has bccomc
thcordcrofthcday. Docsanyoncbclcvc tspossb|ctohndanhoncst
capita|st,an honcstbankcr,anhoncstpo| itic|an,an honcstshopkccpcr,
or anhoncstpo||cccomm|ssoneranymoreYes, theydoex|st.Buton|y
as a mnor|tythat cvcryonc c|sc rcgards as stupd. Cct smart. Cct casy
prohts.Dcfraudandstca|| Tcoddsofgcttingcaughtarc|ow.Andnany
casc thcrc arcp|cntyofwaystoshic| dpcrsona|wca|thfromthc costsof
corporatcma|fcasancc.
What l say may sound shockng. Mostofus don't scc |tbccausc wc
don'twantto.Ccrtan|ynopo|iticandarcsayit,andthcprcsswou|don|y
pr|nt |t to hcap scorn upon thc saycr. Butmygucss |s that cvcrystrcct
rotcr kows cxact|ywhat I mcan. Tcy arc on|y doingwhat cvcryonc
clscis dong, thoughin a dihcrcntway-morc b|atant |y andvsib|y, in
thcstrccts.1cymimiconthcstrccts ofLondonwhatcorporatc capita|
s dong to p|anct carth. Thatchcr|sm unchaincd thc nhcrcnt|y fcra|
|CKPL P|| !PLl oN M| 1o !MC o1KCC1o 1 J1
nstincts ofcap|ta|ism [ t hc"an|ma| spir|ts" oft hccntrcprcncur, apo|o-
g|stscoy|ynamcdthcm) , andnothnghastransp|rcdtocurbthcms|ncc.
Rcck|css s|ash- and-burn |s now opcnly thc motto ofthc ru| |ng classcs
prcttymuchcvcrywhcrc.
Tis sthcncwnorma| inwhchwc||ve. Tis iswhatthencxtgrand
commss|on ofinquiry shou|d addrcss. Evcryonc, not just thc riotcrs,
shou|d bc hcld to account. Fcra| capita|sm shou|d bc put on tra| for
cr|mcsaga|nsthuman| ty, aswc||as |orcrmcsaganstnaturc.
Sad|y, ths s what thc mnd|css rotcrs cannot scc or dcmand.
Evcrythng consp|rcsto prcvcnt usfrom sccng and dcmandingta|so.
Tisiswhypo| t|ca|powcrsohast||ydonsthcrobcsofsupcrormora|ty
and unctuousrcason,so that no onc m|ghtscc | tas so nakcd|ycorrupt
andstupid|y|rratonal.
Butthcrcarcvariousg|mmcrsofhopcand|ightaroundthcwor|d.Tc
|nd|gnados movcmcnts nSpan andCrcccc,thcrcvo|utionaryimpu|scs
nLatn Amcrca, thcpcasant movcmcnts in Asa, arc a||bcgnnng to
sccthroughthcvastscamthataprcdatoryandfcra|g|oba| capitalismhas
unlcashcduponthcwor|d. Whatw|| |t takc for thcrcst ofus to scc and
actupon|tHowcanwcbcg|na| | ovcraga|nWhatd|rcct|onshou|dwc
takcTcanswcrsarcnotcasy. Butoncth|ngwcdoknowforccrtain. wc
canon|ygcttothcrghtanswcrsbyask|ngthc rghtqucst|ons.
LMPrJLK bLVLl
9LVb. 1OC r C! V| |
b!|CC! NCC\8 | !8 "CUC8| 8
J
hc Party ofWa|| Strcct has ru|cd uncha||cngcd |n thc Un|tcd Statcs
|or far too |ong. lt has totally dom|natcd thc po|lc|cs ofprcs|dcnts
ovcr at lcast four dccadcs, | fnot |ongcr, no mattcr whcthcr lndlvldua|
prcs|dcnts havc bccn |ts w||ng agcnts or not. lt has |cga||y corruptcd
Congrcss v|a thc cravcn dcpcndcncy of po|lt|c|ans |n both po||tlca|
part|cs upon |ts rawmoncypowcr and upon acccssto thc ma|nstrcam
mcdla that|tcontro|s. Tanks to thc appo|ntmcntsmadcandapprovcd
byprcs|dcnts and Congrcss,thcParty ofWa|l Strcctdom|natcsmuchof
t hcstatc apparatus as wc|| as t hcjudc|ary-n part|cu|ar t hcSuprcmc
Court, whosc part|san j udgmcnts |ncrcaslng|y favor vcna| moncy
lntcrcsts, ln sphcrcs as d|vcrsc as c|cctora|, labor, cnvlronmcnta|, and
contract|aw.
TcPartyofWa|| Strccthasoncunlvcrsa|pr|nc|p|cofru|c. thatthcrc
sha|| bc no scr|ous cha|lcngc to thc abso|utc powcr ofmoncy to ru|c
abso|utc|y. Tatpowcrmustbccxcrcscdw|th oncobj cct|vc. thoscpos-
scsscdofmoncypowcrsha||noton|ybcprlvl|cgcdtoaccumu|atcwcalth
cnd|css|yatw||,butthcyshal|havcthcr|ghttonhcr|tthccarth, noton|y
tak|ngc|thcrdlrcctor|nd|rcctdom|nlonofthc|andanda||thcrcsourccs
andproduct|vc capac|t|csthatrcs|dcthcrc|n,buta|soassum|ngabso|utc
command, dlrcct|yorlndlrcct|y, ovcrthc |aborandcrcat|vc potcnt|a|l-
t|cs of a|| thosc othcrs |t nccds. Tc rcst of humanlty sha|| bc dccmcd
d|sposab|c.
I 5O RLHLc C| T| LS
1csc prncplcs and practccs do not arsc out o| ndvdual grccd,
short-sghtcdncss, or mcrc mal|casancc although all o| thcsc arc plcnt -
|ully to bc |ound). 1hcsc prncplcs havc bccn carvcd nto thc body poltc
o| our world through thc collcctvc wll o| a captalst class anmatcd by
thc cocrcvc laws o| compctton. I| my lobby ng group spcnds lcss than
yours, thcn I wll gct lcss n thc way o| |avors. I| a j ursdcton spcnds on
pcoplc`s nccds, t shall bc dccmcd uncompcttvc.
Nany dcccnt pcoplc arc l ockcd nto thc cmbracc o| a systcm that s
rottcn to thc corc. I| thcy arc to carn cvcn a rcasonablc lvng thcy havc
no othcr job opton cxccpt to gvc thc dcvl hs duc. thcy arc only |ol-
lowng ordcrs, as Echmann |amously cla mcd, dong what thc systcm
dcmands, as othcrs now put t, n acccdng to thc barbarous and mmoral
prncplcs and practccs o| thc Party o| Wall Strcct. 1!c cocrcvc laws o|
compctton |orcc us all, to somc dcgrcc, to obcy thc rulcs o| ths ruthlcss
and uncarng systcm. 1c problcm s systcmc, not ndvdual.
1c party`s |avorcd slogans o| |rccdom and l bcrty to bc guarantccd
by prvatc propcrty rghts, |rcc markcts, and |rcc tradc actually translatc
nto thc |rccdom to cxplot thc labor o| othcrs, to dsposscss thc asscts o|
thc common pcoplc at wll, and to pllagc thc cnvronmcnt |or ndvdual
or class bcncht.
ncc n control o| thc statc apparatus, thc Party o| Wall Strcct typ -
cally prvatzcs al l thc jucy morscls at lcss than markct valuc to opcn
ncw tcrra ns |or thcr captal accumul aton. 1hcy arrangc subcontractng
thc m l tary- ndustral complcx bcng a prmc cxamplc) and taxaton
practccs subsdcs to agr-busncss and low captal gans taxcs) that
pcrmt thcm |rccly to ransack thc publc cohcrs. 1hcy dcl bcratcly |ostcr
such compl catcd rcgulatory systcms and such astonshng admnstra-
tvc ncompctcncc wthn thc rcst o| thc statc apparatus rcmcmbcr thc
EPA undcr Rcagan, and FENA and hcck-o|-a-j ob 8rown undcr 8ush)
as to convncc an nhcrcntly skcptcal publc that thc statc can ncvcr play
a constructvc or supportvc rolc n mprovng thc daly l|c or thc |uturc
prospccts o| anyonc. And, hnally, thcy usc thc monopoly o| volcncc that
all sovcrcgn statcs clam to cxcl udc thc publc |rom much o| what passcs
|or publc spacc and to harass, put undcr survcllancc, and | ncccssary
crmnalzc and ncarccratc all thosc who do not broadly acccdc to thcr
dctatcs. 1!cy cxccl n practccs o| rcprcssvc tolcrancc that pcrpctuatc
THL PARTY | WAcc STRLLT MLLTS |TS NLMLS| S I 5I
thc lluson o| |rccdom o| cxprcsson, as long as that cxprcsson docs
not ruthlcssly cxposc thc truc naturc o| thcr proj cct and thc rcprcssvc
apparatus upon whch t rcsts.
Hc Party o| Wall Strcct ccasclcssly wagcs class war. | coursc thcrc
s class war, says Warrcn 8uhctt, and t s my class, thc rch, who arc
makng t and wc arc wnnng Nuch o| ths war s wagcd n sccrct,
bchnd a scrcs o| masks and ob|uscatons through whch thc ams and
obj cctvcs o| thc Party o| Wall Strcct arc dsguscd.
1c Party o| Wall Strcct knows all too wcll that, whcn pro|ound polt-
cal and cconomc gucstons arc trans|ormcd nto cultural ssucs, thcy
bccomc unanswcrablc. It rcgularly calls up a hugc rangc o| captvc cxpcrt
opnon, |or thc most part cmpl oycd n thc thnk tanks and unvcrstcs
thcy |und and splattcrcd throughout thc mcda thcy control, to crcatc
controvcrscs out o| all manncr o| issucs that s mply do not mattcr, and
to proposc solutons to gucstons that do not cxst. nc mnutc thcy talk
o| nothng othcr than thc austcrty ncccssary |or cvcryonc clsc to curc thc
dchct, and thc ncxt thcy arc proposng to rcducc thcr own taxaton no
mattcr what mpact ths may havc on thc dchct. 1c onc thng that can
ncvcr bc opcnly dcbatcd and dscusscd s thc truc naturc o| thc class war
thcy havc bccn so ccasclcssly and ruthlcssly wagng. 1o dcpct somcthng
as class war s, n thc currcnt poltcal clmatc and n thcr cxpcrt j udg-
mcnt, to placc t bcyond thc palc o| scrous consdcraton-cvcn to bc
brandcd a |ool, | not scdtous.
8ut now, |or thc hrst tmc, thcrc s an cxplct movcmcnt to con|ront
thc Party o| Wall Strcct and ts unalloycd moncy powcr. 1c strcct
n Wall Strcct s bcng occupcd-oh horror upon horrors-by othcrs|
Sprcad ng |rom cty to cty, thc tactcs o| ccupy Wall Strcct arc to takc a
ccntral publc spacc, a park or a sguarc, closc to whcrc many o| thc lcvcrs
o| powcr arc ccntcrcd, and, by puttng human bodcs n that placc, to
convcrt public spacc nto a poltcal commons-a placc |or opcn dscus-
son and dcbatc ovcr what that powcr s dong and how bcst to opposc
ts rcach. 1s tactc, most conspcuously rc-an matcd n thc noblc and
ongong strugglcs ccntcrcd on 1ahrr Sguarc n Caro, has sprcad across
thc world Pucrta dcl Sol n Nadrd, Syntagma Sguarc n Athcns, and
now thc stcps o| St Paul`s Cathcdral n London and Wall Strcct tscl|).
It shows us that thc collcctvc powcr o| bodcs n publc spacc s stll thc
Z KCCCL l Jl Co
mostchcctvc instrumcntofoppositionwhcna||othcrmcansofacccss
arc b|ockcd. What Tahrr Squarc showcd to thc world was an obvious
truth.thatitisbodics onthcstrcctandin thcsquarcs,notthcbabb|cof
scntmcntsonTttcrorFaccbook,thatrca||ymattcr.
Tc aim ofthismovcmcntin thc UnitcdStatcsssimp|c. ltsays. "Wc
thcpcop|c arc dctcrmncd to takc backourcountryfromthcmoncycd
powcrs thatcurrcnt|yrun it. Ouraim isto provc WarrcnBuhcttwrong.
His c|ass, the rch, sha|| no |ongcr ru|c uncha||engcd nor automaticaUy
nhcritthccarth.Norishsc|ass,thcrich,a|waysdcstncdtowin`Itsays.
"Wcarcthc 99 pcrccnt. Wchavc thcmajorityandthismajoritycan,must
andsha||prcva|. Sincc al| othcrchannc|s ofcxprcssonarcc|oscdto us
by moncypowcr, wc havc no othcroptioncxccptto occupy thc park,
squarcs and strccts ofour citcs unti| our opnions arc hcard and our
nccdsattcndcdto''
Tosuccccd, thc movcmcnthas to rcach out to thc 99 pcrccnt. Ts it
candoand is dong,stcpbystcp. First thcrc arca|| thosc bcingp|ungcd
nto mmiscraton by uncmp|oymcnt, anda| | thosc who havc bccnor
arc nowbcingdisposscsscdofthcirhouscsandthcirassctsbyt hcWa||
Strcctpha|anx. Tc movcmcntmustforgcbroadcoa|itonsbctwccnstu-
dcnts, mmigrants, thc undcrcmp|oycd, and a|| thoscthrcatcncdbythc
tota||yunncccssaryanddraconianaustcrtypo| ticsbcnginhctcdupon
thcnationandthcwor|datthcbchcstofthcPartyofWa||Strcct. ltmust
focus on thc astonishng|cvc|s ofcxp|oitation inworkp|accs-from thc
mmgrantdomcsticworkcrs who thcrichsoruth|css|ycxp|oitn thcir
homes to thc restaurant workcrs who s|avc for a|most nothing in thc
ktchcns ofthc cstab| shmcnts n whch thc rich so grand|ycat. Itmust
brngtogcthcrthccrcativcworkcrsandartistswhosctalcntsarc soohcn
turncdintocommcrcalproductsundcrthccontro|ofbig-moncypowcr.
Tc movcmcntmustabovc a|| rcach outto a|| thc a|cnatcd, thc dis-
satishcd, andthcdiscontcntcd-a|| thoscwhorccognizcandfcc| nthcir
gut thatthcrcssomcthingprofound|ywrong,thatthcsystcmthcParty
ofWa|| Strcct has dcvscd s not on|y barbarc, uncthica|, and mora||y
wrong,buta|sobrokcn.
A||thshastobcdcmocratica||yasscmb|cdintoacohcrcntoppostion,
whch musta|sofrcc|ycontcmp|atcthc futurc out|incsofan a|tcrnativc
cty, an a|tcrnativc po| tca| systcm, and, u|timatc|y, an a|tcrnatvc way
1MC |PKJ L| VPLL O1KCC1 CCJO l 1o PCCOl O 1J
oforganizingproducton, distrbut|on,andconsumptonfor thcbcncht
ofthcpcop|c. Othcrw|sc, a futurc for thcyoungthatpoints tospira||ng
privatcindcbtcdncssanddccpcn|ngpublcaustcrty, al|forthcbcnchtof
thc pcrccnt,isnofuturcata||.
I nrcsponsc to thc Occupy Wa||Strcct movcmcnt, thc statc, backcd
bycaptal |stc| asspowcr,makcsanastonish|ngc|a|m. thatthcyand on|y
thcyhavc thccxclusivcrghtto rcgu|atc and dsposcofpub|icspacc. Tc
pub|ichasnocommon rightt opub||c spaccl Bywhatrightdomayors,
po||cc ch|cfs,m|litaryomccrs, and statc omcia|s tc|| us, thc pcop|c, that
thcyhavc thcrightto dctcrm|ncwhatispub|ic about "our" pub|icspacc
andwho mayoccupythatspaccwhcnWhcn didthcyprcsumctocvict
us, thcpcoplc, from any spaccwc dccidc co|lcctvcly and pcaccfu||y to
occupyTcyclaimthcyarc takngactoninthcpub|cintcrcst[andcitc
|awstoprovc |t) , butitswcwho arcthcpublic| Whcrc |s"our|ntcrcst"
n a||ofths And, bythc way,|s |tnot "our"moncythat thc banks and
hnancicrssoblatantlyusctoaccumu|atc"thcir"bonuscs
lnthcfaccofthcorganizcdpowcrofthcPartyofWa||Strccttod|vidc
and rulc, thc movcmcnt that is cmcrging must a|so takc as onc ofits
found|ng prmcip|cs that |t wi|| bc ncithcr dividcd nor divcrtcd unti|
thc Party ofWa| | Strcct is brought cthcr to |ts scnscsto scc that thc
commongoodmustprcvai|ovcrnarrowvcna| intcrcsts-ortoitsknccs.
Corporatc privi|cgcs that confcr thc rights ofindividuals wthout thc
rcspons|b|it|cs oftruc ctizcns mustbc ro||cd back. Publ|c goodssuch
as cducationandhca|thcarcmustbc pub|iclyprovdcdand madcfrcc|y
ava|ablc. Tc monopo|y powcrs |n thc mcdia must bc brokcn. Thc
buy|ng ofc|cct|onsmust bc ru|cdunconsttut|ona|. Tcpr|vat|zat|on of
know|cdgc and cu|turc must bc prohibitcd. Tc frccdomto cxp|oitand
disposscssothcrsmustbcscvcrc|ycurbcd, andultimatclyoutlawcd.
Amcrcans bcl|cvc n cqualty. Po||ng data show thcy bc||cvc (no
mattcrwhat thc|rgcncra|po| |t|ca|a||cgianccsm|ghtbc) that thctop 2O
pcrccnt ofthc popu|ation mght bcj ustihcd in c|aimng JO pcrccnt of
thctotalwca|th,butthatthcynowcontro| 85 pcrccntof|t|sunacccpta-
b|c. Tatmostofthatwca|thiscontro|lcdbythctop I pcrccntistota||y
unacccptab|c.What thc OccupyWa||Strcctmovcmcntproposcs s that
wc, thc pcop|c ofthc Unitcd Statcs, commit to a rcvcrsa| ofthat lcvc|
ofincqua|ity-notonlyin tcrms ofwca|th and ncomc, but cvcn morc
+ KCCCL l Jl Co
importantly, |ntcrmsofthcpo||t|ca|powcrthatsucha d|spar|tyconfcrs
andrcproduccs. Tcpcop|cofthcUn|tcdStatcsarcr|ght|yproudofthc| r
dcmocracy, but |t has a|ways bccn cndangcrcd by cap|tal's corrupt|vc
powcr. Nowthat t is domnatcd by that powcr thc timc is surc|y nigh,
as }cdcrson |ong ago suggcstcd wou|d be ncccssary, to makc anothcr
Amcrlcanrcvo|utlon. oncbascdonsoclaljust|cc,cqual|ty, anda car|ng
andthoughtfu|approachtothcrc|atontonaturc.
Testrugg|cthathasbrokenout-thatofthePeop|eversustheParty
ofWal l Strcct|s cruca|to ourcollcctvc futurc. Tc strugg|c |s g|oba|
aswc|las|oca||nnaturc.Itbr|ngstogcthcrstudcntswhoarc| ockcd |na
|fc- and- dcathstrugglcw|th poltcalpowcrnChl|ctocrcatc a frccand
qua||tycducatlonsystcmforall,andsobcg|nthcd|smantl|ngofthcnco-
|bcra|modc|thatPinochctsobruta|lymposcd. Itcmbraccsthcag|tators
|nTahrrSquarc,whorccogn|zcthatthcfa||ofMubarak[|ikc thccndof
P|nochct's d|ctatorship) wasbutthchrststcp inan cmanc|patorystrug-
glctobrcakfrccfrommoncypowcr. It|ncludcsthc |nd|gnados |nSpa|n,
thc striking workcrs n Grcccc, thc m|itant oppositon cmcrgng al|
aroundthcwor|d,fromLondontoDurban,BucnosArcs,Shcnzhcn,and
Mumba| . Tcbruta|dom|n|onsofb|gcapta|andshccrmoncypowcrarc
cvcrywhcrconthc dcfcns|vc.
Whosc s|dc wi|| cach ofus, as ndividua|s, comc down on Which
strcctwl|wcoccupyOn|yt mcwil|tc||. Butwhatwcdokowisthatthc
t|mc |s now. Tcsystcm ls noton|ybrokcn and cxposcd,but |ncapab|c
ofanyrcsponscothcrthanrcprcss|on. Sowc,thc pcop|c,havcnoopton
buttostrugg|cforthcco||cct|vcrghtto dcc|dehow thatsystemshal|bc
rcconstructcd,and|nwhosc |magc.TcParty ofWa|lStrccthashadts
day, and hasfa|lcd m|scrably. Tcconstructonofan a|tcrnat|vc on |ts
ruinssboth an opportun|tyandanncscapab|cob|gationthatnonc of
uscanorwouldcvcrwanttoavo|d.
/C<OOv' CUQCOI8
|
would lkc to thank thc cdtors o| thc publcatons l stcd bclow |or
pcrmsson to usc matcral that appcarcd prcvously undcr thcr
auspccs.
Chaptcr s a sl ghtly modhcd vcrson o| an artclc publshcd n w
L] Kvlw 5J, Scptcmbcr-ctobcr 2008 cnttlcd 1c Rght to thc Cty
Chaptcr 2 s a slghtly cxpandcd vcrson o| thc hrst part o| an artclc
publshcd n 0tl0/l5I Kgl5Il Z1 1 cnttlcd 1c Urban Roots o| Fnancal
Crscs. Rcclamng thc Cty |or Ant-Captalst Strugglc
Chaptcr J s bascd on a pccc cnttlcd 1c Futurc o| thc Commons,
publshcd n K0dlt0/ l5I0ly Kvlw 0 20 ) . I thank Charlottc Hcss
|or pontng out somc scrous omssons n thc orgnal artclc wth
rcspcct to thc work o| Elnor strom, and thc partcpants n a scmnar
organzcd undcr thc auspccs o| 5 8cavcr n Mcw York Cty, whosc ds-
cussons on thc topc o| thc commons hclpcd grcatly n clar|ng my
own dcas.
Chaptcr 4 s a sl ghtly modhcd vcrson o| an artclc cnttlcd `!!c
Art o| Rcnt. Global zaton, Nonopoly and Cultural Producton, hrst
publshcd n 0tl0/l5I Kgl5Il ZZ.
Chaptcr 5 s an cxtcndcd vcrson o| thc last part o| an artclc hrst pub
l shcd n 0tl0/l5I Kgl5Il Z1 1 cnttl cd 1c Lrban Roots o| Fnancal
Crscs. Rcclamng thc Cty |or Ant-Captalst Strugglc
I 55 RLHLc C| T| LS
I would l kc to thank thc partcpants n thc Rght to thc Cty rcadng
group n Mcw York Cty Pctcr Narcusc n partcular) along wth thc
mcmbcrs o| thc scmnar n thc Ccntcr |or Placc, Culturc and Pol tcs n
thc Cty Unvcrsty o| Mcw York |or thc many stmulatng dscussons
ovcr thc last |cw ycars.
"C!C8
|KC|/LC. m C`K| LC|CCVKC` b V| b| L`
. Hcnr| Lc|cbvrc, 0 t0t/0m0/t0n Jc /0 L0mmunc, Far|s. GaI!|mard, ! 55,
Lc t0t/ d /0 Vt//c, Fars. An|hropos, l 58, ttuQ/t0n, Jc 0n/cttc 0u
0mmc/, Far| s. An|hropos, ! 58, 0 K?v0/u//0n Ut00tnc, Far| s. GaII|mard,
! 7O, Q0tcc/0/t//guc [ct0t/0 /0 \///c, ,Far|s. An|hropos, ! 73, 0
t0Jut/t0n Jc/Q0tc, Far|s. An|hropos, l 74.
2. Jamcs HoIs|on, nut_cn/ Lt/ tZcnhtQ, Fr|ncc|on. Fr|ncc|on Ln|vcrs| |y
Frcss, 2OO8.
3. Ana Sugranycs and Charlo||c Ma|hvc|, cds, Lt/tc [0t //: t0Q00/
0nJ XQcttcntc 10w0tJ /hc Kt_h/ /0 /hc Lt/), San|| ago, Ch|Ic. Hab||a|
n|crna||onaI CoaI|on, 2Ol O, McI rcnncr, Fc|cr Marcusc and Marg |
Maycr, cds, Lt/tc[0tc0Q/c, 0nJ0/[0t t0[t/: Ltt/tt0/ Ut00n 1hc0t) 0nJ
/hcKt_h//0/hcL//), Mcw ork. Rou|Icdgc, 2Ol ! .
Lm/|1CK L`C. 1mC K| \m1 1L 1m C L| 1
l . Robcr| Fark, Ln 0tt0/ L0n/t0/ 0nJ L0//ct/tvc bch0vt0t, Ch cago. Ch|cago
Ln|vcrs||y Frcss, ! 57. 3.
2. Fr|cdr|ch LngcIs, 1hc L0nJt/t0n 0[ /hc W0tktn_-L/0 tn n_/0nJ tn ! 44,
London. Fcngu| n CIass|cs, 2OO, Gcorg S|mmcI, "Jhc Mc|ropoI|s and
Mcn|aI L||c,` |n Dav|d Lcv|nc, cd., Ln nJtvtJu0/tm 0nJ 0tt0/ 0tm,
Ch| cago. Ch|cago Ln|vcrs||y Frcss, l 7l.
I 58 NTLS T PAGLS 4 T 20
3. M| kc Dav|s, /0nc/0[/um,London. Vcrso, 2OO5.
4. For a |uIIcr accoun| o| |hcsc |dcas scc Dav|d Harvcy, 1hcn/_m00[L0Q//0/,
0nd 1hc Lt/c0[L0Q//0//m, London. Frohc ooks, 2O! O.
5. Jh|s accoun| |s bascd on Dav|d Harvcy, 0t/, L0Q//0/ 0[0dctn//), Mcw
ork. Rou|Icdgc, 2OO3.
5. Robcr| Moscs, "Wha| Happcncd |o Haussmann,` tth//ct/ut0/0tum 77
[JuIy ! 42). 57-55, Robcr| Caro, 1hc0wctbt0kct: K00ct/0c 0nd/hc
0//0[cw 10tk,Mcw ork. Knop|, ! 74.
7. Hcnr| Lc|cbvrc, 1c Ut00n Kcv0/u//0n, M|nncapoI|s. Ln|vcrs||y o|
M| nncso|a Frcss, 2OO3.
8. W|II|am Jabb, 1hcL0n_c[0u//: cw 10tkL//)0nd/hcUt00n/t0/Lt/,
Mcw Cork. Mon|hIy Rcv|cw Frcss, ! 82, Dav|d Harvcy, bt/c[//0t)0[
c0//0ct0//m, x|ord. LF, 2OO5.
. Jhomas CampancIIa, 1hc L0nttc/ct0_0n: Lh/n03 Ut00n Kcv0/u/t0n0nd
Wh0///c0n[0t/hcW0t/d, Fr|ncc|on, MJ. Fr|ncc|on Arch||cc|uraI Frcss,
2OO8.
IO. R|chard ooks|abcr, cm0n 0] Lut Lwn c/_n: 0tkc/, cd_c
und, 0nJ /hc ct// 0[/n0nt/0/ nn0v0//0n, Mcw ork. W|Icy, 2OO7,
Frank Far|noy, n[ct//0u Ltccd: 0wctct/0nJK/kL0ttuQ/cdtn0ntt0/
0tkc/, Mcw ork. Hcnry HoI|, 2OO3.
I I . Harvcy, bttc[//0t)0[c0/t0cm//m,Jhomas LdsaII, 1hccw0/t//t
0[ncgu0///), Mcw ork. Mor|on, l 85.
! 2. J| m ardIcy and V|kas ajaj, "|II|ona|rcs` Asccn| HcIps nd|a, and V|cc
Vcrsa,` cw10tk 1/mc, JuIy 27, 2O I I .
I 3. MarccIIo aIbo, "Lrban FIann|ng and |hc Fragmcn|cd C||y o| DcvcIop|ng
Coun|r|cs,` 1h/td W0t/d/0nn/n_Kcv/cw ! 5. ! ( ! 3). 23-5.
I 4. Fr|cdr|ch LngcIs, 1hc 0utn_ Quc//0n, Mcw ork. n|crna||onaI
FubI|shcrs ( ! 35). 74-7.
I 5. MarshaII crman, // 1h0/ 0//d c// n/0 /t, London. Fcngu|n,
l 88.
! 5. Fr|cdr| ch LngcIs, 1hc 0u/n_Quc//0n. 23.
I 7. Lsha Ramana|han " IIcgaI|q and |hc Lrban Foor,` t0n0m/t 0nd
0////t0/ Wcck/), JuIy 22, 2OO5, Rakcsh Shuka, "R|gh|s o| |hc Foor. An
vcrv|cw o| Suprcmc Cour|,` t0n0m/t 0nd 0////t0/ Wcck/), Scp|cmbcr
2, 2OO5.
!8. Much o| |h|s |h|nkng |oIIows |hc work o| Hcrnando dc So|o, 1hc
)/ct) 0[ L0Q//0/: Wh) L0Q//0//m 1t/umQh /n /hc Wc/ 0nd 0//
vct)whctc /c, Mcw ork. as|c ooks, 2OOO, scc |hc cr|||caI cxam| na-
||on by J|mo|hy M||chcII, "Jhc Work o| Lconom|cs. How a D|sc|pI|nc
Makcs ||s WorId,` tth/vc ut0Q?cnnc Jc 0t/0/0_/c 45. 2 (2OO5) .
27-32O.
PLJCo JL |PLCo 2J JL J0 I 59
! 9. Jul|a EIyachar, 0tkc/ 0[ tQ0ct0n: L, t0n0mtt cvc/0Qmcn/,
0nJ /hc /0/c tn L0tt0, ChapcI H|I I, MC. Dukc Ln|vcrs||y Frcss, 2OO5.
2O. An any a Roy, 0vct/)L0Qt/0/:ttt0[tn0ntc0nJ/hc0ktn_0[cvc/0Qmcn/,
Mcw ork. Rou|Icdgc, 2O! O, C. K. FrahaIad, 1hc 0t/unc 0/ /hc b0//0m
0[ /hc )t0mtJ: t0Jtt0/tn_ 0vct/) 1ht0u_h t0[/, Mcw ork. Fcarson
Frcn||cc HaII, 2OO9.
2 ! . Sco|| Larson, "u|Id|ng L|kc Moscs w||h Janc Jacobs |n M| nd,` FhD d|s-
scr|a||on, Lar|h and Lnv|ronmcn|aI Sc|cnccs Frogram, C| |y Ln|vcrs| |y o|
Mcw ork, 2O! O.
Lm/|1CK 1VL. 1m C OKC/` KLL1b
L| L/|| 1/L| b1 LK| bCb
! . Robcr| Sh|IIcr, "Hous|ng ubbIcs arc Fcw and Far c|wccn,` cw 10tk
1tmc, Fcbruary 5, 2O! ! .
2 . "| |s |ndccd shockng,` wr||cs CharIcs Lcung, | n "Macrocconom|cs and
Hous|ng. A Rcv|cw o| |hc L||cra|urc,` J0utn0/ 0[ 0utn_ t0n0mtt ! 3
(2OO4). 249-57, "|ha| |hcrc has bccn so I|||Ic ovcrIap and | n|crac||on
bc|wccn |hc macrocconom|cs and |hc hous|ng I||cra|urc`
3. W0t/J cvc/0Qmcn/ KcQ0t/ 200. Kch0Qtn_ t0n0mtt c0_t0Qh),
Wash| ng|on, DC. WorId ank, 2OO9, Dav|d Harvcy, `sscssmcn|. Rcshap|ng
Econom|c Gcography. Jhc WorId DcvcIopmcn| Rcpor|,` cvc/0Qmcn/0nJ
Lh0n_c0tum200, 4O. 5 (2OO9). I ,259-78.
4. W0t/J cvc/0Qmcn/ KcQ0t/. 2O5. Jhrcc o| |hc au|hors o| |hc rcpor| sub-
scgucn|Iy rcspondcd |o cr|||c|sms |rom gcographcrs, bu| avo|dcd any
cons|dcra||on o| |hc |ounda||onal cr|||c|sms ra|scd [such as |ha| "Iand | s
no| a commod||y,` and |ha| |hcrc |s an uncxam|ncd rcIa||on bc|wccn macro-
cconom|c cr|scs and hous|ng and urban|||on poI|c|cs), on |hc as|on|sh|ng
grounds |ha| aII was rcaIIy cIa|m|ng was "|ha| |hc rcccn| sub-pr| mc mor|-
gagc cr|s|s | n |hc LSA |mpI|cs |ha| hous|ng ||nancc has no roIc |o pIay |n
addrcss|ng shcI|cr nccds o| |hc poor | n dcvclop|ng coun|r|cs,` and |ha| |h|s
was, |n |hc|r op|n|on, "ou|s|dc |hc rcaIm o| |hc rcpor|` Jhcy |hcrc|orc |o|aIIy
|gnorcd |hc ma|n |hrus| o| my cr|||c| sm. Scc Lwc Dc|chmann, ndcrm| |
G|II and Chor-Ch| ng Goh, "Jcx|urc and Jrac|ab| l | |y. Jhc Framcwork |or
Spa||al FoI|cy AnaIys|s |n |hc W0t/Jcvc/0Qmcn/ KcQ0t/ 200, L0m0ttJ_c
J0utn0/ 0[ Kc_t0n, t0n0m) 0nJ 0ttc/) 4. 2 (2O! I ) . I 53-74. Jhc onc
group o| cconom|s|s who havc long sccn |hc s|gn| hcancc o| how "rcaI
cs|a|c vaIucs and cons|ruc||on havc pcakcd shor|Iy bc|orc major dcprcs-
s|ons and "pIaycd a major roIc |n crca||ng |hc boom and |hc subscgucn|
I 7O NTLS T PAGLS J0 T J
bus| arc |oIIowcrs o| Hcnry Gcorgc, bu| un|or|una|cIy |hcy arc aIso
|o|aIly |gnorcd by ma| ns|rcam cconom|s|s. Scc Frcd FoIdvary, "RcaI
Ls|a|c and us|ncss CycIcs. Hcnry Gcorgc`s Jhcory o| |hc Jradc CycIc,`
papcr prcscn|cd a| |hc La|ayc||c CoIIcgc Hcnry Gcorgc Con|crcncc, Junc
l 3, l l .
5 . Graham Jurncr, 1hc LtcJt/ Ltunth: 0utn_ bu00/c, /000/t0/t0n
0nJ /hc W0t/JwtJc t0n0mtt Lttt, London. Flu|o, 2OO8, Dav|d
Harvcy, 1hc L0ndt/t0n 0[ 0/m0dctnt/), x|ord. as|I IackwcII, l 8.
l 45-6, l 6.
6. C|. Dav|d Harvcy, 1hc cw mQctt0/tm, x|ord. LF, 2OO3. l l 3, whcrc
po| n|cd ou| |ha| somc 2O pcrccn| o| GDF grow|h |n |hc Ln||cd S|a|cs |n
2OO2 was a||r|bu|abIc |o mor|gagc rc|manc| ng, and |ha| cvcn a| |ha| ||mc
|hc "po|cn|| al burs||ng o| |hc propcr|y bubbIc was |hcrc|orc "a ma||cr o|
scr|ous conccrn`
7. W|II|am Jabb, 1hc0n_c[0u//:cw10tk Lt/)0nJ/hc Ut00ntt0/Lttt,
Mcw ork. Mon|hIy Rcv|cw Frcss, I 82, Dav|d Harvcy, bttc[t/0t) 0[
c0/t0ct0/tm, xord. LF, 2OO5, Ashok ardhan and R| chard WaIkcr,
"CaI||orn|a, F|vo| o| |hc Grca| Rcccss|on,` LC crkcIcy, CA. ns|||u|c |or
Rcscarch on abor and Lmploymcn|, 2OI O.
8. W|II|am Goc|zmann and Frank Mcwman, "Sccur|||za||on |n |hc l 2Os,`
W0tkt n_ 0Qct, Ma||onaI urcau o| Lconom|c Rcscarch, 2Ol O, Lugcnc
Wh||c, "Lcssons |rom |hc Grca| Amcr|can Rcal Ls|a|c oom and us| o|
|hc l 2Os,` W0tktn_0Qct, Ma||onal urcau o| Lconom|c Rcscarch, 2Ol O,
Kcnnc|h Snowdcn, "Jhc Ana|omy o| a Rcs|dcn||aI Mor|gagc Cr|s|s. A
Look ack |o |hc l 3Os,` W0tktn_ 0Qct, Ma||onaI urcau o| Lconom|c
Rcscarch, 2Ol O. A ccn|raI concIus|on |hcy aIl draw | s |ha| grca|cr awarc-
ncss o| wha| |hcn happcncd would surcIy havc hclpcd poI|cy- makcrs
avo|d |hc chron|c m|s|akcs o| rcccn| ||mcs-an obscrva||on |ha| |hc
WorId ank cconom|s|s m|gh| wan| |o |akc |o hcar|. n a papcr pubI|shcd
| n I 4O-"Rcs|duaI, D| ||crcn||aI and Absolu|c Lrban Ground Rcn|s and
Jhc|r CycI|caI FIuc|ua||ons,` t0n0mc/ttt0 8 [ l 4O). 62-78-KarI Fr|bam
showcd how "cons|ruc||on | n Grca| r||a|n and Gcrmany an||c|pa|cd bus|-
ncss con|rac||on or cxpans|on by onc |o |hrcc ycars | n |hc pcr|od bc|orc
WorId War .
. Scc |hc mcasurcd cvaIua||ons and con|r|bu||ons o| rc|| Chr|s|ophcrs.
"n Voodoo Lconom|cs. Jhcor|s|ng Rcla||ons o| Fropcr|y, VaIuc and
Con|cmporary Cap||aI|sm,` 1t0n0t/t0n, n/t/u/c 0[ btt/th c0_-
t0Qhct, Mcw Scr|cs, 35 [2Ol O) . 4-l O8, "Rcv|s|||ng |hc Lrban|za||on
o| Cap||aI,` nn0/ 0[ /hc 0tt0/t0n 0[ Amcttt0n c0_t0Qhct l O l
[2O l l ) . l - l 8.
l O. KarI Marx, tunJttc, London. Fcngu|n, l 73. 88-l OO.
NTLS T PAGLS J7 T 50 I 7I
l l . For morc dc|a|Is, scc Dav|d Harvcy, "H|s|ory vcrsus Jhcory. A Commcn|ary
on Marx`s Mc|hod |n L0Qt/0/, |or|hcom|ng |n t/0ttt0/0/ctt0/tm.
l 2. KarI Marx, L0Qt/0/, VoIumc 2, London. Fcngu|n, l 78. 357. My cmphas|s.
l 3. Marx, LtunJttc. 8.
l4. Mar|o Jron||, "Jhc S|ra|cgy o| Rc|usaI,` Jur|n. L|naud|, l 66, LngI|sh
|ransIa||on a| L|bcom.org, An|on|o Mcgr|, 0tXbc)0nJ0tX: c0n 0n
/hcLtunJttc, London. Au|onomcd|a, l 8.
l 5. KarI Marx, L0Qt/0/, VoIumc 3, London. Fcngu| n, Chap|crs 24 and 25.
l 6. Dav| d Harvcy, 1hctmt/ /0 L0Qt/0/,x|ord. IackwcII, I 82, Chap|cr 8.
l 7. Marx, L0Qt/0/, VoIumc 3. 57, Gcohrcy Harcour|, 0mc L0m0ttJ_c
L0n/t0vcttctn/hc 1hc0t)0[L0Qt/0/,Cambr| dgc. CLF, I 72. My cmphas|s.
l 8. Marx, L0Qt/0/, VoIumc 3. 573. o|h lsaac and

m|Ic, | nc|dcn|aIIy, wcrc

par| o| |hc u|op|an Sa|n|-S|mon|an movcmcn| pr|or |o I 848.
I . Dav|d Harvcy, 1hc Ut00nt0/t0n 0[L0Qt/0/, x|ord. IackwcII, I 85, and
1hc nt_m0 0[ L0Qt/0/, nJ /hc Lttc 0[ L0Qt/0/tm, London. FrohIc
ooks, 2OI O, rc|| Chr|s |op hcrs, "Rcv|s|||ng |hc Lrban|za||on o| Cap||aI,`
nn0/ 0[/hc0tt0/t0n0[mcttt0n Lc0_t0Qhct I O I . 6 [2OI I ) . I - l l .
2O. r|nIcy Jhomas, t_t0/t0n0nJt0n0mttLt0w/h: /uJ)0[Ltc0/btt/0tn
0nJ/hc//0n/ttLt0n0m), Cambr|dgc. CLF, I 73.
2 l . Lco GrcbIcr, Dav|d Iank, and Lou|s W|nn|ck, L0Qt/0/ 0tm0/t0n tn
KctJcn/t0/Kc0//0/c, Fr|ncc|on, MJ. Fr|ncc|on Ln|vcrs| ty Frcss, l 56.
22. Jhc dcvas|a||ng and unsccmIy dc|a|Is o| aII |h|s arc spcIIcd ou| | n Grc|chcn
Morgcnson and Joshua Rosncr, Kctk/c nJ0n_ctmcn/: 0w Lu/tZcJ
m0t/t0n, LtccJ 0nJ L0ttuQ/t0n cJ /0 t0n0mtttm0_cJJ0n,Mcw ork.
J|mcs ooks, 2OI I .
23. Marx, L0Qt/0/, VoIumc 3, Chap|cr 25.
24. Marx, L0Qt/0/, VoIumc I, London. Fcngu|n, I 73. 73 s|m|IarIy no|cs
how cap||aI can man|puIa|c bo|h |hc dcmand |or and suppIy o| surpIus
Iabor |hrough, |or cxampIc, | nvcs|mcn| and |cchnoIog|caIIy | nduccd
uncmpIoymcn|.
25. M|chacI Lcw|s, 1hc bt_h0t/: ntJc /hc 00mJ0) 0thtnc, Mcw ork.
Mor|on, 2Ol O. 34.
26. Marx, L0Qt/0/, VoIumc 3. 57.
27. John Logan and Harvcy MoIo|ch, Ut00n 0t/unc: 1hc0/t/tt0/ t0n0m)
0[/0tc, crkcIcy, CA. Ln|vcrs|q o| CaI||orn|a Frcss, I 87.
28. Lcw|s, 1hc bt_h0t/. l 4l .
2. Lcw|s, 1hcbt_h0t/.3.
3O. Scc cn|ry "C|||cs |n |hc Grca| Dcprcss|on,` w|k|pcd|a. org.
3 l . Mar||n oddy, 1hcbut/Jtn_0ttc/tc, London. Macm|IIan, l 8O.
32. |nyam|n AppcIbaum, "A Rccovcry |ha| Rcpca|s |s Fa|n|uI Frcccdcn|s,`
cw 10tk 1tmcbut ncct/t0n, JuIy 28, 2Ol l .
l 72 NTLS T PAGLS 5J T 0
33. Jhc Kcrncr Comm|ss|on, KcQ0t/ 0[/hc 0/t0n0/Jvt0t) L0mmtt0n 0n
Ltvt/t0tJct, Wash|ng|on, DC. Govcrnmcn| Fr|n||ng mcc, l 68.
34. AppcIbaum, "A Rccovcry |ha| Rcpca|s |s Fa|n|uI Frcccdcn|s`
35. Jona|han Wc|sman, "Rcagan FoI|c|cs Gavc Grccn L|gh| |o Rcd nk,`
W0htn_/0n 0/, Junc , 2OO4. AI I , W|II|am Grc|dcr, "Jhc Educa||on o|
Dav|d S|ockman,` //0n/tt0n/h/), Dcccmbcr I 8 l .
36. Warrcn uhc||, |n|crv|cwcd by cn S|c| n, "n CIass War|arc, Gucss Wh|ch
CIass s W|nn|ng,` cw 10tk 11mc,Movcmbcr 26, 2OO6, Dav|d S|ockman,
"Jhc |par||san March |o F|scaI Madncss,` cw 10tk 1tmc,Apr| I 23, 2Ol l .
37. KarI Marx and Fr|cdr|ch EngcIs, 1hcL0mmunt/0ngc/0,London. FIu|o
Frcss, 2OO8. 4.
38. arbara Ehrcnrc|ch and Dcdr|ch Muhammad, "Jhc Rcccss|on`s Rac|aI
D|v|dc,` cw 10tk 1tmc,Scp|cmbcr l 2, 2OO.
3. Morgcnson and Rosncr, Kctk/cnJ0n_ctmcn/.
4O. Kcv| n Ch|u, " IIcgaI ForccIosurcs Chargcd |n nvcs||ga||on,` 0utn_
tcJtt/0t,Apr|I 24, 2Ol l .
4 l . Lynnc SagaIyn, "Mor|gagc Lcnd|ng |n Idcr Mc|ghborhoods,` nn0/ 0]
/hc mcttt0nt0Jcm) 0[0/t/tt0/ 0nJ0tt0/ ttcntc 465 [ January l 83).
8- l O8, ManucI AaIbcrs, cd. , u0 Qttmc Lt/tc: 1hc 0/t/tt0/ t0n0m) 0[
0t/_0_c 0tkc/, Mcw ork. John W|Icy, 2Ol l .
42. Annc||c crnhard|, Ru|h M|IKman, M|k Jhcodorc, DougIas Hccka|horn,
M|chacI Aucr, Jamcs DcF|II|pp|s, Ana GonzaIcz, V|c|or Marro, Jason
FcrcIsh|cyn, D|ana FoIson, and M| chacI Sp|lIcr, bt0kcn0w, UnQt0/ct/cJ
W0tkct: Vt0/0/t0n 0[ mQ/0)mcn/ 0nJ 000t 0w tn mcttt03 Lt/tc,
Mcw ork. Ma||onaI LmpIoymcn| Law Froj cc|, 2OO.
43. Kc||h radshcr, "Ch|na Announccs Mcw a|Iou| o| |g anks,` cw 10tk
1tmc,January 7, 2OO4.
44. For a gcncraI ovcrv|cw, scc Jhomas CampancIIa, 1hc L0nttc/c t0_0n:
Lhtn03 Ut00n Kcv0/u/t0n 0nJ Wh0/ t/ c0n[0t /hc W0t/J, Fr|ncc|on,
MJ. Fr| ncc|on Arch| |cc|uraI Frcss, 2OO8. I aIso |r|cd |o asscmbIc a
gcncral p|c|urc o| Ch|na`s urban|za||on |n Chap|cr 5 o| bttc[t/0t) 0[
c0/t0ct0/tm.
45. Dav|d arboza, "nha||on | n Ch|na Foscs |g Jhrca| |o GIobaI Jradc,` cw
10tk 1tmc, Apr|I l 7, 2Ol l , Jam|I AndcrI| n|, "Fa|c o| RcaI Es|a|c s GIobaI
Conccrn,` tn0ntt0/ 1tmc, Junc l, 2O l l , Robcr| Cookson, "Ch|na uIIs
Rc|ncd | n by Fcars on Economy,` tn0ntt0/ 1tmc, [unc l , 2Ol l .
46. Kc||h radshcr, "Ch|nas Economy | s S|ar||ng |o SIow, bu| Jhrca| o|
nha||on Looms,` cw 10tk 1tmc, us|ncss Scc||on, May 3 l , 2Ol l .
4 7. Wang X|ao||an, "LocaI Govcrnmcn|s a| R|sk o| Dc|auI||ng on Dcb|,` Lhtn0
0t/),Junc 28, 2Ol l , Dav|d arboza, "Ch| nas C|||cs F|I|ng Lp Dcb| |o FucI
oom,` cw 10tk 1tmc,JuIy 7, 2Ol l .
NTLS T PAGLS 0 T 70 I 73
48. Dav|d arboza, "A C||y orn o| Ch|na`s oom, St|II LnpcopIcd,` cw 10tk
1tmc, ctobcr 2O, 2Ol O.
4. Jam|I AndcrI|n|, "Fatc o| RcaI Lstatc |s GIobaI Conccrn,` tn0ntt0/ 1mc,
Junc , 2Ol l .
5O. ntcrnat|onaI Monctary Fundlntcrnat|onaI Labour rgan|zat|on,
1hc Lh0//cn_c 0[ t0w/h, mQ/0)mcn/ 0nJ 0tt0/ L0hct0n, Gcncva.
ntcrnat|onaI Labour rgan|zat|on, 2Ol O.
5 l . Kc|th radshcr, "H|gh-Spccd Ra|I Fo|scd to AItcr Ch|na, but Costs and
Farcs Draw Cr|t|c|sm,` cw 10tk 1tmc, Junc 23, 2Ol l .
52. Fctcr Mart|n and Dav|d Cohcn, "SocaI|sm 3. O |n Ch|na,` thc-d|pIomat.
com, AndcrI| n|, "Fatc o| RcaI Lstatc |s GIobal Conccrn`
Lm/|1CK 1mKCC. 1mC LKC/1| L`
L| 1mC O KC/` LLNNL`b
. Garrctt Hard|n, "Jhc Jragcdy o| thc Commons,` ttcntc l 62 [ l 68). ,243-
8, . McCay and J. Achcson, cds, 1hcQuc/t0n0[/hcL0mm0n: 1hc Lu//utc
0nJ t0/0_) 0[ L0mmun0/ Kc0uttc, Jucson, AZ. Ln|vcrs| ty o| Ar|zona
Frcss, l 87.
2. t |s aston| sh| ng how many Ich anaIysts gct Hard|n totaIIy wrong on th|s
po|nt. Jhus, Mass|mo dc AngcI|s, 1hcbc_tnntn_0[t/0t): V0/uc/tu/c
0nJ/000/L0Qt/0/,London. FIuto Frcss, 2OO7. l 34, wr|tcs that "Hard|n has
cng|nccrcd a j ust| hcat|on |or pr|vat|zat|on o| thc commons spacc rootcd |n
an aIIcgcd naturaI ncccss|ty`
3. LI| nor strom, 0vctntn_ /hc L0mm0n: 1hc v0/u/t0n 0[ n/t/u/t0n[0t
L0//ct/tvct/t0n,Cambr|dgc. CLF, l O.
4. Lr|c Shcppard and Robcrt McMastcr, cds, t0/c 0nJ c0_t0Qhtt ngutt),
x|ord. IackwcII, 2OO4.
5. nc anarch|st thcor|st who docs takc th|s probIcm scr|ousIy |s Murray
ookch| n, | n Kcm0ktn_ 0ttc/): 0/hw0) /0 0 tccn u/utc, oston, MA.
South Lnd Frcss, l O, and Lt00ntZ0/t0n wt/h0u/ Lt/tc: 1hc Ktc 0nJ
ct/tnc 0[ Lt/tZnhtQ, MontrcaI. Iack Rosc ooks, l 2. Mar|na S|tr|n,
0ttZ0n/0/tm: V0ttc 0[ 0Qu/0t 0wct tn t_cn/tn0, akIand, CA. AK
Frcss, 2OO6, prov|dcs a st|rr|ng dc|cnsc o| ant| - h|crarch|caI th|nk| ng. Scc
aIso Sara Motta and AI| GunvaId M|Ison, 0tt0/0vcmcn/ tn /hc L/000/
0u/h: tQ0ct0n, cvc/0Qmcn/ 0nJ Kct/0ntc, as| ngstokc, Hants.
FaIgravc Macm|IIan, 2Ol l . A Icad|ng thcor|st o| th|s hcgcmon|c ant|-
h|crarch|caI v|cw on thc Ic | s John HoIIoway, Lh0n_c /hc W0t/J wt/h0u/
10ktn_0wct, London. FIuto Frcss, 2OO2.
I 74 NTLS T PAGLS 7J T 8J
6. Jacgucs Ranc| crc, c||cd | n M|chacI Hard| and An|on|o Mcgr| , L0mm0n-
wc0//h, Cambr|dgc, MA. Harvard Ln|vcrs|q Frcss, 2OO. 35O.
7. LI|zabc|h Iackmar, "Appropr|a||ng ` |hc Common`. Jhc Jragcdy o|
Fropcr|y R|gh|s D|scoursc,` | n Sc|ha Low and Mc|| Sm||h, cds, 1hc0////t
0[u0//tQ0tc, Mcw ork. Rou|Icdgc, 2OO6.
8. Margarc| Kohn, K0J/t0/Q0tc:bu//J/n_/hc0uc0[/hcc0Q/c, thaca, M.
CorncII Ln|vcrs||y Frcss, 2OO3.
. CharIo||c Hcss and LI|nor s|rom, LnJct/0nJ/n_ n0w/cJ_c 0 0
L0mm0n: t0m 1hc0t)/0t0t//tc,Cambr|dgc, MA. MJ Frcss, 2OO6.
l O. Hard| and Mcgr|, L0mm0nwc0//h. l 37-.
I I . Mar||n McIos|, 1hc 0n//0t) L//): Lt00n n[t0/tut/utc /n mct/t0,
[t0m L0/0n/0/ 1/mc /0 /hc tccn/, a||| morc, MD. Johns Hopk|ns,
l .
l 2. An|hony V|dIcr, "Jhc Sccncs o| |hc Strcct. Jrans|ormat|ons |n dcaI and
RcaI||y, l 75O- l 87 l ,` | n S|an|ord Andcrson, Ln /tcc/: /tcc/05 /cmcn/
0[Ut00n /tut/utc, Cambr|dgc, MA. MIJ Frcss, I 78.
l 3. W0t/J cvc/0Qmcn/ KcQ0t/ ZJJ>: Kch0Q/n_ t0n0m/t Lc0_t0Qh),
Wash|ng|on, DC. WorId ank, 2OO, Ananya Roy, 0vct/) L0Q//0/:/tt0-
[n0ntc 0nJ /hc0k/n_0[cvc/0Qmcn/, Mcw ork. Rou|Icdgc, 2Ol O.
l 4. RonaId Mcck, /uJ/c /n /hcL000ut 1hc0t) 0[ V0/uc, Mcw ork. Mon|hIy
Rcv|cw Frcss, l 8.
I 5. LIIcn Mc|ks| ns Wood, mQ/tc 0[L0Q//0/, London. Vcrso, 2OO5.
l6. KarI Marx, L0Q//0/, VoIumc l, Mcw ork. V|n|agc, l 77. l 6-7O.
I 7. b|d. , l 7 l .
I 8. b|d. , 7l 4.
l . Rob|n Iackburn, "RudoIph Mc|dncr, l I 4-2OO5. A V|s|onary Fragma||s|,`
L0un/ctQunth, Dcccmbcr 22, 2OO5.
2O. Hard| and Mcgr| havc rcccn|Iy rcv|vcd gcncraI | n|crcs| | n |h|s |mpor|an|
|dca [ L0mm0nwc0//h. 258).
2 I . Ln||cd Workcrs rgan|za||on and Ma||ona| Lconom|c and Soc|aI R|gh|s
n|||a||vc, /JJcn /n /0/n /_h/: W0tkct 0/b0///m0tc3nnct0t00t0nJ
/hc /tu/c[0t 0/t cvc/0Qmcn/, aI|| morc and Mcw ork, 2Ol l , S|an
Lazar, ///0, Kc0c/L//): cq0nJL///Zcnh/Q /nnJc0n b0//v/0, Durham,
MC. Dukc Ln|vcrs||y Frcss, 2O l O.
22. KarI Marx, L0Q//0/, VoIumc l . 638.
23. Dav|d Harvcy, 1hc n/_m0 0[ L0Q//0/, nJ /hc Lt/c 0[ L0Q//0//m,
London. Froh|c ooks, 2Ol O.
24. LI|nor s|rom, "cyond Markc|s and S|a|cs. FoIyccn|r| c Govcrnancc o|
Comp|cx Lconom|c Sys|cms,` mct/t0n t0n0m/t Kcv/cw l OO [3). 2OO,
64l -72.
25. LI|nor s|rom, "FoIyccn|r|c Approach |or Cop|ng w||h CI|ma|c Changc,`
NTLS T PAGLS 8J T 4 I 75
ackground Fapcr |o |hc 2OI O WorId Dcvclopmcn| Rcpor|, Wash| ng|on,
DC. WorId ank, FoI|cy Rcscarch Workng Fapcr 5O5, 2OO.
26. Andrcw Sanc|on, 1hc 0u// 0n 0t0/ L0vctnmcn/, Mon|rcaI. McG|II-
Quccns Ln|vcrs| |y Frcss, 2OOO. l 67 [c||cd | n s|rom, "FoIyccn|r|c
Approach |or Cop|ng w||h CI|ma|c Changc).
27. V|nccn| s|rom, "FoIyccn|r|c||y-Far| I ,` | n M|chacI McG|nn|s, cd,
0/)tcn/tttt/) 0nJ0t0/ u0/tt t0n0mtc, Ann Arbor, M . Ln|vcrs||y o|
M|ch|gan Frcss, l [c||cd | n s|rom, "FoIyccn|r|c Approach |or Cop|ng
w||h CI|ma|c Changc).
28. CharIcs J| c bou|, "A Furc Jhcory o| Local Lxpcnd||urcs,` J0utn0/0[0/t/tt0/
t0n0m) 64. 5 [ I 56) . 4I 6-24.
2. Murray ookch|n, Ut00ntZ0/t0n Wt/h0u/ Lt/tc: 1hc Ktc 0nJ ct/tnc 0[
Lt/tZcnhtQ,Mon|rcaI. I ack Rosc ooks, I 2. Chap|crs 8 and .
3O. S|Iv|a Fcdcr| c|, "Womcn, Land S|ruggIcs and |hc Rccons|ruc||on o| |hc
Commons,` W0tktn_ U: 1hc J0utn0/ 0[ 000t 0nJ 0ttc/) I4 (2OI l ) .
4I -56.
Lm/|1CK |LOK. 1m C /K1 L| KC`1
I . Dan|cI cIl, 1hc Lu//ut0/ L0n/t0Jtt/t0n 0[ L0Qt/0/tm, Mcw ork. as|c
ooks, I 78. 2O, Dav|d Harvcy, 1c L0nJt/t0n 0[0/m0Jctnt/), x|ord.
as|I IackwcII, l 8. 2O-l , 347-, randon JayIor, 0Jctntm,
0/m0Jctntm, Kc0/tm: Ltt/tt0/ ctQct/tvc [0t t/, W|nchcs|cr.
W|nchcs|cr SchooI o| Ar| Frcss, I 87. 77.
2. 1hc gcncraI |hcory o| rcn| |o wh|ch I am appcal|ng | s prcscn|cd | n Dav|d
Harvcy, 1hctmt/ /0 L0Qt/0/,x|ord. as|I lackwcII, I 82. Chap|cr I I .
3. KarI Marx, L0Qt/0/, VoIumc 3, Mcw ork. n|crna||onaI FubI|shcrs, I 67.
774-5.
4. C||cd |n DougIas KcIbaugh, L0mm0n /0tc, Sca||Ic. Ln|vcrs||y o|
Wash|ng|on Frcss, I 7. 5 I .
5 . Wol|gang Haug, "Commod||y Acs|hc||cs,` Work| ng Fapcrs Scr|cs,
Dcpar|mcn| o| Compara||vc Amcr|can CuI|urcs, Wash|ng|on S|a|c
Ln|vcrs||y, 2OOO. I 3.
6. Marx`s v|cws on monopoly rcn| arc summar|zcd |n Harvcy, 1hc tmt/ /0
L0Qt/0/. Chap|cr 5.
7. AI|rcd ChandIcr, 1hc Vtt0/c0nJ: 1hc0n0_ctt0/Kcv0/u/t0n tnmcttt0n
butnc, Cambr|dgc, MA. Harvard Ln|vcrs||y Frcss, I 77.
8. Marx, L0Qt/0/, VoIumc 3. 246. Scc also Harvcy, 1hc tmt/ /0 L0Qt/0/.
Chap|cr 5.
I 76 NTLS T PAGLS 5 T J J 7
. KarI Marx, tunJttc, Harmondswor|h. Fcngu| n, l 73. 524-3. For a
gcncral cxpans|on o| |h|s argumcn|, scc Harvcy, 1hc tmt/ /0 L0Qt /0/.
Chap|cr l 2, and Dav|d Harvcy, 1hc L0ndt/t0n 0[ 0/m0Jctnt/), Far| 3,
and |or a spcc|hc appI|ca||on o| |hc conccp| scc W|lI|am Cronon, 0/utc3
c/t0Q0/t,Mcw ork. Mor|on, l l .
l O. Jahb||k W|nc CIub, Wtnc L/u0 Ltttu/0t l 5 [Junc 2OOO) , Jahb||k W|ncry
and V|ncyard, Jahb|Ik, V|c|or|a, Aus|raI|a.
l l . W|II|am Langcw|cschc, "1hc M|II|on Dollar Mosc,` A//0n/tt 0n/h/) 286.
6 [Dcccmbcr 2OOO). l l -22.
l 2. ob Jcssop, "An Ln|rcprcncur|aI C||y | n Ac||on. Hong Kongs Lmcrg|ng
S|ra|cg| cs |n Frcpara||on |or [ n|cr-) Lrban Compc||||on,` Ut00n /uJtc
37. l 2 [2OOO). 2,287-3 l 3, Dav|d Harvcy, "From Managcr| aI|sm |o
Ln|rcprcncur|aI| sm. Jhc Jrans|orma||on o| Lrban Govcrnancc | n La|c
Cap||al|sm,` c0_t0]k0nn0/ct7 l [ l 8). 3- l 7, Mc|I rcnncr, Q0tc0[
c0/t0ct0/tm: Ut00nKc/ut/uttn_ tn 0t/h Amcttt0 0nJ Wc/ctn ut0Qc,
x|ord. W|lcy-lackwcIl, 2OO3.
I 3. Scc Kcv|n Cox, cd, Q0tc 0[ /000/tZ0/ t0n: Kc0ct/tn_ /hc 0wct 0[ /hc
0t0/, Mcw ork. Gu|I|ord Frcss, I 7.
I 4. John Logan and Harvcy Molo|ch, Ut00n 0t/unc: 1hc 0/t/tt0/ t0n0m)
0[/0tc, crkcIcy. Ln|vcrs| |y o| CaI||orn|a Frcss, l 88.
I 5. F| crrc ourd| cu, t/tnt/t0n. A 0tt0/ Ltt/tguc 0[/hc JuJ_cmcn/ 0[ 10/c,
London. Rou|Icdgc Kcgan Faul, I 84.
l6. M|r|am Grccnbcrg, bt0nJtn_cw 10tk: 0w0 Lt/) tn Lttt W0 0/J /0
/hc W0t/J, Mcw ork. Rou|Icdgc, 2OO8.
I 7. Donald McMc| lI, Ut00n Lh0n_c0nJ/hc ut0Qc0n Lc[/: 10/c[t0m /hccw
b0ttc/0n0, Mcw ork. Rou|Icdgc, l .
I 8. Argyro Loukak| , "Whosc Gcn|us Loc| . Con|ras||ng n|crprc|a||ons o|
|hc Sacrcd Rock o| |hc A|hcn|an AcropoI|s,` Ann0/ 0[ /hc A0tt0/t0n 0[
Amcttt0n Lc0_t0Qhct87. 2 [ l 7). 3O6-2.
I . Rcbccca Abcrs, "Frac|| c|ng Rad|caI Dcmocracy. Lcssons |rom raz|I,`
/uttm0ndt l . 2 [ l ). 67-82, gnac|o Ramonc|, "For|o Alcgrc,` c0ndc
tQ/0m0/tguc 562. l [January 2OOl ) .
Lm/|1CK || VC. KCLL| N| `\ 1mC L| 11
|LK /`1| -L/|| 1/L| b1 b1KO\\LC
I . Jhc say|ng "c||y a| r makcs onc |rcc" comcs |rom mcd|cval ||mcs, whcn
| ncorpora|cd |owns w||h char|crs couId |unc||on as "non-|cudal |sIands |n a
|cudaI sca` Jhc cIass|c accoun| |s Hcnr| F|rcnnc, cJtcv0/Lt/tc,Fr| ncc|on,
MJ. Fr|ncc|on Ln|vcrs||y Frcss, l 25.
NTLS T PAGLS J J 8 T J 2 I 77
2. S|cphcn Graham, L///c UnJct/c_c: 1hccw////0t) Ut00n/m,London.
Vcrso, 2Ol O.
3. Kcv|n Jonson and H|Il ng H| ng, "Jhc Imm|grants R|gh|s Marchcs o|
2OO6 and thc Frospcc|s |or a Mcw C|vI R|gh|s Movcmcnt,` 0tv0tJ L/v//
K/_h/-L/v///0ct//c0wKcv/cw42. - l 38.
4. Jhomas Mcrtcs, cd, 0vcmcn/0[0vcmcn/,London. Vcrso, 2OO4, Sara
Mo|ta and AI| GunvaId M|Ison, cds, 0t/0/0vcmcn/ /n /hcL/000/0u/h:
/Q0c/0n, cvc/0Qmcn/ 0nJKc//0ntc, as|ngstokc, Hants. FaIgravc
Macm|IIan, 2O l l .
5. Karl Marx and VIad|m|r Lcn|n, 1hc L/v// W0t /n t0ntc: 1hc 0t/
L0mmunc,Mcw York. ntcrnat|onaI Fubl|shcrs, I 8.
6. Mar|o Jron||, "Workcrs and Cap| |aI,` a| l|bcom.org, hrs| pubI|shcd | n
ItaI|an, I 7 I .
7 . mmanucl Mcss and Dar|o Azzcl|n|, cds, Lut / 0 0/ct 0nJ / 0 Lwn:
W0tkct L0n/t0/[t0m /hc L0mmunc /0 /hc tccn/, London. Haymarkc|
ooks, 2O I I .
8. KarI Marx, L0Q//0/, VoIumc 2, London. Fcngu| n, l 78, Dav| d Harvcy,
L0mQ0n/0n /00tX3 L0Q//0/, V0/umcZ,London. Vcrso, |orthcom|ng.
. Dav|d Harvcy, bt/c[//0t)0[c0//0ct0//m, x|ord. LF, 2OO5.
l O. Murray ookch|n, Ut00n/Z0//0n Wh0u/ L///c: 1hc K/c 0nJ ct//nc 0[
L///Zcnh/Q,MontrcaI . Iack Rosc ooks, I 2.
I I . Dav|d Gracbcr, /tct/ t//0n: n /hn0_t0Qh), akIand, CA. AK Frcss,
2OO. 23. Scc aIso Ana D|ncrstc|n, Andrc Sp|ccr, and Stc||cn ohm,
"Jhc [Im)poss|b|I|t|cs o| Autonomy, Soc|aI Movcmcn| | n and cyond
Cap| taI, |hc Statc and DcvcIopmcn|,` 0n- L0vctnmcn/0/ u0//t t/0n
t0_t0m, W0tk/n_ 0Qct, London SchooI o| Lconom|cs and FoI|t|caI
Sc|cncc, 2OO.
l 2. Mondragon |s onc o| |hc most |ns|ruct|vc cascs o| workcr scI|-
managcmcnt that has stood thc tcst o| t|mc. Foundcd undcr |asc|sm |n
I 56 as a workcr-coopcrat|vc |n thc asguc Country o| Spa| n, |t now has
somc 2OO cn|crpr|scs throughout Spa|n and |nto Luropc. I n most cascs |hc
d|||crcncc | n rcmuncrat|on among thc sharcholdcrs |s l|m|tcd to 3. I , com-
parcd |o around 4OO. l |n mos| LS corpora||ons [ |hough |n somc | ns|anccs
|n rcccnt ycars |hc rat|os w||h| n Mondragon havc r|scn to . l ) . Jhc cor-
poratc cntcrpr|sc opcratcs across aII thrcc c|rcu|ts o| cap|taI by sctt|ng
up crcd|| | ns|||ut|ons and rc|a|I ou|Ic|s |n add|t|on |o produc||on un||s.
Jh| s may bc onc o| thc rcasons |t has surv|vcd. Lc cr|t|cs compIa|n at thc
Iack o| soI|dar||y w||h Iabor s|ruggIcs morc gcncraIIy, and po| n| |o somc
o| |ts cxplo||a||vc corpora||s| sub-con|rac||ng pract|ccs and |hc |n|crnaI
cmc|cncy mcasurcs nccdcd |o kccp |hc corpora||on compct|||vc. u| ||
aII cap||aI|s| cn|crpr|scs wcrc o| th|s sort, wc would bc l|v|ng |n a vcry
I 78 NTLS T PAGLS \ 2 T J J4
d|||crcn| worId. | canno| cas|ly bc d|sm|sscd. Gcorgc Chcncy, V0/uc 0/
W0tk:mQ/0)cc0t/tttQ0/t0ncc/0tkc/tcutc 0/0ndt0_0n, |haca,
M. LR Frcss, l .
l 3. ManucI Cas|cUs, 1hc Lt/) 0nd /hc mt00/, crkclcy, CA. Ln|vcrs| |y
o| CaI||orn|a Frcss, l 83, Rogcr GouId, nut_cn/ dcn/t/tc: L/0,
L0mmunt/), 0nd t0/c/ tn 0tt[t0m 4 /0 /hc L0mmunc, Ch|cago.
Ln|vcrs||y o| Ch|cago Frcss, l 5. For my rcbu|taI o| |hcsc argumcn|s,
scc Dav|d Harvcy, 0tt, L0Qt/0/0[0dctnt/), Mcw ork. Rou|Icdgc, 2OO3.
l 4. John Jully, "Grccn ans and thc LF. Jhc Labour Movcmcn| and Lrban
LcoIogy,` n/ctn0/t0n0/ VtcwQ0tn/ V 357 March 2OO4) .
I 5. M| chacl W|ncs, "Shangha| Jruckcrs` Frotcs| Lbbs w|th Conccss|ons Won
on Fccs,` cw 10tk 1tmc, Apr|I 23, 2Ol l , JacgucI|nc Lcv||| and Gary Ias|,
"Jhc Los Angclcs Jax| Workcrs AII|ancc,` |n Ruth M|lkman, Joshua Ioom,
and V|c|or Marro, cds, W0tktn_]0tJu/ ttc: 1hc 0dc/0[Lt_0ntZtn_0nd
dv0t0t), |haca, M. ComcII Ln|vcrs||y Frcss, 2Ol O. l O-24.
I 6. Excludcd Workcrs Congrcss, Unt/)[0t t_nt/): Xt/udcJ W0tkct KcQ0t/,
Mcw ork, LxcIudcd Workcrs Congrcss, clo n|cr-AII| ancc D|aIoguc,
Dcccmbcr 2Ol O.
I 7. Margarc| Kohn, K0dtt0/Q0tc:but/dtn_/hc 0uc 0[/hcc0Q/c, thaca, MY.
Corncll Ln|vcrs||y Frcss, 2OO3.
I 8. Ldward Jhompson, 1hc 0ktn_ 0[ /hc n_/th W0tktn_ L/0,
Harmondsworth, M|ddIcscx. Fcngu|n ooks, I 68.
l. Fc|cr Ran|s, "Argcn||na`s Workcr-ccup|cd Fac|or|cs and Ln|crpr|scs,`
0tt0/tm 0ndcm0tt0t) l . 3 Movcmbcr 2OO5) . I -23, CarIos Formcnt,
"Argcn||nas Rccupcra|cd Factory Movcmcn| and C|t|zcnsh|p. An
Arcnd||an Fcrspcct|vc,` ucnos A|rcs. Ccntro dc nvcs||gac|n dc Ia
V|da FubI|ca, 2OO, MarccIa LOpcz Lcvy, Wc tc t//t0n: c0-/t0ct0/tm
0nd cw 0tm 0[0/t/tt0/ t/t0n tn t_cn/tn0, London. La||n Amcr|ca
urcau, 2OO4.
2O. Forrcs| S|uar|, "From |hc Shop |o |hc S|rcc|s. LMJL HLRE rgan|z|ng |n
Los AngcIcs Ho|cIs,` | n Ru|h M|Ikman, [oshua Ioom, and V|c|or Marro,
cds, W0tktn_[0tJu/ttc: 1hc0dc/0[Lt_0ntZtn_0nddv0t0t), |haca,
M. CorncII Ln|vcrs||y Frcss, 2Ol O.
2 l . Huw cynon, ttn_ ccQct: uc tn /hc tnct3 /ttkc, London. Vcrso,
l 85.
22. Dana Frank, utth0tn_ 0wct: L0numct Lt_0ntZtn_ cndc( 0nd /hc
c0///c000t0vcmcn/, ! >! >-Z>, Cambr|dgc. CLF, l 4.
23. Fc|cr Whor|skcy, "WcaI|h Gap W|dcns bc|wccn Wh||cs, M| nor|||cs,
Rcpor| Says,` W0htn_/0n0/, us|ncss Scc||on, July 26, 2Ol l .
24. Jamcs Lorcncc, 1hc uQQtct0n 0[ 0// 0[ /hc 0t/h: 0w 0//)w00d, bt_
000t0nd0/t/ttt0n/0tk/t/cd00vtctnL0/dW0tmcttt0,AIbugucrguc.
NTLS T PAGLS J J4 T J 4J I 7
Ln|vcrs| |y o| Mcw Mcx|co Frcss, l . Jhc hlm can bc downIoadcd
|or |rcc.
25. |lI Flc|chcr and Fcrnando Gapas| n, 0/tJ0tt/) tvtJcJ: 1hc Lttt tn
Lt_0ntZcJ 000t 0nJ 0 cw 0/h 10w0tJ 0tt0/ Ju/ttc, crkcIcy, CA.
Un|vcrs|q o| CaI||orn|a Frcss, 2OO8. l 74.
26. b|d.
27. Max Jgg|, KcJ b0/0_n0, L| || Ichamp|on. L|||lchamp|on ook Scrv|ccs,
I 77, HcImu| Grubcr, KcJ \tcnn0: XQcttmcn/ tn W0tktn_-L/0 Lu//utc,
V V~J4, x|ord. LF, I I .
28. Rcbccca Abcrs, nvcn/tn_ 0t0/ cm0tt0t): mt00/ 0/t/tt tn bmZt/,
ouldcr, C. Lynnc Rcnncr FubIshcr, 2OOO. n |hc Iv ng wagc
movcmcn|, scc Robcr| FolI|n, Mark rcnncr, and Jcanc||c W|cks-L| m,
c05utc 0[0ttnc: 1hc t0n0mtt 0[Ltvtn_ W0_c 0nJ tntmum W0_c
tn /hc Lnt/cJ /0/c, |haca, MY. CorncII Ln|vcrs| |y Frcss, 2OO8. For a
par||cuIar casc, scc Dav|d Harvcy, Q0tc 0[0Qc, Ed|nburgh. Ed|nburgh
Lnvcrs||y Prcss, 2OOO, Ana Sugranycs and Charlo||c Ma|hvc|, cds, Lt/tc
[0t //: t0Q00/ 0nJ XQcttcntc 10w0tJ /hc Kt_h/ /0 /hc Lt/), San||ago,
Ch|Ic. Hab||a| n|crna||onaI Coal|||on, 2O l O.
2. Pc|cr Marcusc, "Jwo WorId Forums, Jwo WorIds Apar|,` a| www.
pIanncrsnc|work.org.
3O. Murray ookch|n, 1hc tmt/ 0[ /hc Lt/), Mon|rcal. lack Rosc ooks,
I 86.
3 l . Jhc h|s|ory o| |h|s |rcnd bcg|ns w||h Fa|r|ck Gcddcs, Lt/tc tn v0/u/t0n,
x|ord. x|ord Ln|vcrs| |y Frcss hrs| pubI|shcd |n I l 5) , and passcs
ma nIy |hrough |hc | nhucn|aI hgurc o| Lcw|s Mum|ord, n h|s 1hc Lt/)
tn t/0t): / Ltt_tn, / 1mn[0tm0/t0n, 0nJ/ t0Qct/, rIando, FL.
Harcour|, l 68.
32. Ray FahI, tvtt0n0[L000ut, x|ord. as|I lackwclI, I 84.
33. Ana|olc Kopp, Vt//c c/K?v0/u/t0n, Par|s. Ed|||ons An|hropos, l 67.
34. Gcrald Frug, Lt/) 0ktn_: but/Jtn_ L0mmunt/tc wt/h0u/ but/Jtn_ W0//,
Fr|ncc|on, MJ. Fr|ncc|on Un|vcrs||y Frcss, I , Mc|l rcnncr and M|k
Jhcodorc, Q0tc 0[c0/t0ct0/tm: Lt00nKc/tut/uttn_ tn 0t/h mcttt0
0nJ Wc/ctnut0Qc,x|ord. W|lcy Iackwcll, 2OO3.
35. Jchrcy Wcbbcr, t0m Kc0c//t0n /0 Kc[0tm tn b0/tvt0: L/0 /tu/c,
nJt_cn0uLt0ct0/t0n, 0nJ /hc0/t/tt0[v0 0t0/c, Ch| cago. Haymarkc|
ooks, 2O I I . ScvcraI Span|sh -languagc sourccs arc c||cd |n M| chacI Hard|
and An|on|o Mcgr|, L0mm0nwc0//h, Cambr|dgc, MA. Harvard Ln|vcrs| |y
Frcss, 2OO.
36. Ar|uro Escobar, 1cttt/0ttc 0[ _ ctcntc: /0tc, 0vcmcn/, gc, KcJc,
Durham, MC. Dukc Ln|vcrs| |y Frcss, 2OO8.
37. Fcdcr|co Fucn|cs, "Govcrnmcn|, Soc|al Movcmcn|s, and oI|v|a Joday,`
l 8O NTLS T PAGLS \ 4J T J 52
n/ctn0/t0n0/0tt0/t/Kcvtcw76 [March-Apr|I 2OI I ) , and |hc rcpIy |n |hc
samc |ssuc by Jc||rcy Wcbbcr, "Fan|as|cs As|dc, |`s Rccons|||u|cd Mco-
I|bcraI|sm | n oI|v|a Lndcr MoraIcs`
38. Wcbbcr, "Fan|as|cs As|dc`. I I I .
3. b|d. , 48.
4O. LcsIcy G|II, 1cc/cttn_0n /hcKtm: L/000/Kc/tut/uttn_, 0t/) gc, 0nJ/hc
AtmcJKc/tc0/ 0[/hcb0/tvt0n /0/c,Mcw York. Co|umb|a Ln|vcrs| |y Frcss,
2OOO, S|an Lazar, /A//0,Kc0c/Lt/): cq0ndLt/tZcnhtQtnAndc0nb0/tvt0,
Durham, MC. Dukc Ln|vcrs| |y Frcss, 2Ol O.
4I . Wha| |oIIows |s a compos||c accoun| bascd on G|II, 1cc/cttn_ 0n /hc Ktm,
and Lazar, L///0, Kc0c/Lt/).
42. G| Il, 1cc/cttn_0n /hcKtm. 6.
43. b|d. . 74-82.
+. Lazar, ///0, Kc0c/ Lt/). 252-4. Jhc |hcory o| agon|s||c rcIa||ons w||h|n
soc|aI movcmcn|s |s cIabora|cd | n Chan|a| Mou||c, Ln /hc 0/t/tt0/,
London. Rou|Icdgc, 2OO5.
45. Lazar, ///0, Kc0c/Lt/). l 78. My cmphas|s.
46. Hard| and Mcgr|, L0mm0nwc0//h. l l O.
47. Lazar, L///0, Kc0c/Lt/). l 8 I , 258.
48. b|d. . I 78.
4. b| d. . l 8O.
5O. b|d. . 26O.
5 l . b|d. . 63.
52. b|d. . 34.
53. Murray ookch| n, Kcm0ktn_ 0ttc/): 0/hw0) /00 Ltccn u/utc, os|on,
MA. Sou|h Lnd Frcss, l O, "L|bcr|ar|an Mun|c|pal|sm. An vcrv|cw,`
0ttc/) 0nJ 0/utc l [ l 2). l - l 3, LI|nor s|rom, "cyond Markc|s and
S|a|us. FoIyccn|r|c Govcrnancc o| CompIcx Lconom|c Sys|cms,` Amcttt0n
t0n0mtt Kcvtcw l OO [2Ol O) . 64l -72.
54. Hard| and Mcgr|, L0mm0nwc0//h.
55. r|s Mar|on Young, Ju/ttc 0nd /hc 0/t/tt 0[ _ ctcntc, Fr|ncc|on, MJ.
Fr| ncc|on Ln|vcrs||y Frcss, I O.
' HUCX
AbuOhab| , l 2
AcropoIsoI A|hcns, lO5
AIghans|an,5J, l25
AIIcn, au, 2J
AmcrcanBankcrsAssoca| |on,JO
AppIcbaum,Bnyamn, 5O
Argcn| |na, l l , l l 9, l J2. cc 0/0
Crdoba,Argcn|| na
A|hcns,xv||,99, lOJ, lO4, l l5. cc 0/50
Acropo|soIA|hcns,Syn|agma
Sguarc
Aus|raIa, 57, 97-98. cc 0/50
NcIbournc,NcwSou|hWaIcs
Ba, lOO
Ba| |morc, l2, lJ, 2J, J l, 55, 55, 79,
lO4
Bangkok,22, , l l 5,
BangIadcsh,2l, lJJ
Banzcr, Hugo, l45
BarccIona,xv,7J, lOJ, lO4-5, l ,
ll5, ll5
BarccIona Nuscum oICon|cmporary
Ar|. cc NuscudAr|
Con|cmporan|dcBarccIona
BasgucCoun|ry, ! OO. cc 0/50 B|bao,
Nondragon
Bcch|cCorpora||on, l 4l , l47
Bcj | ng, 58, 59, 5J. cc 0/50 Jananmcn
Sguarc
BcI|,Oan|c|,89
BcrI|n, l O4, l O5-8, l l l , l l 5
1c b|_ h0t/ (Lcws) ,48-49
B|Ibao, O4,
BIa|r,Jony, l 55
Boombcrg,N|chac, l2, 2J
Bo va,87, l l 9, l4 l -5l. cc 0/50
Cochabamba,BoI|va,EI AI|o,
Bo| |v|a,Laaz
Boogna, l l 2, lJ5
Bonapar|c,NapoIcon,7
Bookch|n,Nuray, 8 l, 84-85, l25, l25,
J7-J8, l 5 l , l 52
Braz,x, l5, J l, l , ll9, lJ5. cc
0/50 R|o dc]anc| ro, So auIo
BRlC(cconom|cs),+, 5l . cc 0/0
Brazd,Ch|na, lnd|a,Russa
Br||an. cc Grca|Br|an
BrLx|on,London, l 55
Brown, M|chacI O., l 5O
BuHao, NcwYork, 55
BuHc||,Warrcn, 5J, l5l, l52
Burng|on,Vcrmon|, lJ5
Bush,Gcorgc W, 5J, l5O
l 82 RLHLc C| T| LS
BusRdcrsUnon( LosAngcIcs), l 3 l
Caro,xv,20-2 l , l03, l l 6.cc 0/50
Jahr|rSguarc
CaI|Iorn|a,32, 86. cc 0/50 LosAngccs,
San Ocgo,Sanrancsco
Camcron,Oavd, l 55, l 56
CanaryWharI,London, l02
L0Q|/0/ (Narx),x,x , xv,35-39
pas m, 46, 47, 76-80pass|m,
l 22, l 7l n24
Cas|cIIs,NanucI,x|
ChandIcr,AIIrcd,94
Cha|cauJahb|k.cc Jahbdk
Chcncy, O|ck, 53
Ch|cago,22,32,55, 57, l l 5, l l 6, l l 8,
l 5 l
Ch|c,57,85, l 3 l , l 53, l 64. cc 0/50
San|ago
Chna,xv, l l - l 5 passm, l 9, 44,46,
57-65, l 24, l 33, bm onarcs, l 5,
consumcr|sm,39, 6l , cxccp|on
|ogobaIan| warpro|cs|s, l l 6,
urbanza|on,xv, l l -l 2, l 9,US
housngcrssand,3 l , WorId
Bankand, 29. cc 0/50 Bc|jng,
Chongg| ng, Guangdong,
Shangha,Shcnzcn
Chongg| ng,5, l 36
Chrs||ana,Copcnhagcn, 78
L|/) 0jG0d, l 00
L/055 /tN/c5 |n t0nCc ( Narx) , 37
CIcvcand, l 3,3 l , 56, 83
CI| n|on, B ,45, 53, 54,56
Cochabamba,BoIv|a, 82-83, l l 6, l42,
l43, l 49
CoIdWar, 9, l 24
CoIumbaUnvcn|y, 23-24
L0mm0nwc0//h ( Hard|andNcgr),
l 52
1c L0mmNn|5/ 0nqc5/0 (Narxand
EngcIs),53
Copcnhagcn,78
Crdoba,Argcn|na, l l 5
Coun|ryvdc,47, 54
Cur|ba,BrazI , , l 36
Oc AngcIs,Nassmo, l 73n2
OcSo|o,Hcrnando,20,75
Oc|ro|, l 3, 5 l , 53, 56,80
LcNX 0N /t0|5 Ch05c5 gNc ]c 50|5 d0//c
(Godard), x
Oharav,Numba, l 8, 24, 29, l 09
O|sncyWor|d,92
Oongguan,62
Lt0|/ d /0 v|//c, Lc ( LcIcbvrc) . Scc 1c
K|_h/ /0 /hc L|/) ( LcIcbvrc)
Ouba, l 2
OUNBO,NcwYorkC||y,78
Eas|crnEuropc, l40
EcoIogs|cs,LI
Egyp|, l 64. cc 0/0 Ca|ro
1c |_h/ccn/h btNm0|tc 0jL0N|
0j0/c0n (Narx) , 37
EAI|o,BoIva, 79, l l 6, l l 7, l 3 l ,
l 4l -5 l pass|m
/ //0, Kc0c/ L|/) ( Lazar) , l 44-50
passm
E|yachar,]uI |a,20-2l
EngcIs,rcdrch,4, l 6- l 8passm,53
Envronmcn|aIPro|cc|onAgcncy
(EPA), l 60
Escobar,Ar|uro, l42
LuropcanCcn|raIBam,24
Europcan Unon,29
Euskad|JaAska|asuna( EJA) , l 00
ExcudcdWorkcrsCongrcss, l 3 l -32,
l 37, l 5 l
IaIIujah,Irag, l l 7
Iann|cNac, 39, 4 l , 45, 47, 49, 5 l
cdcraIEmcrgcncyNanagcmcn|
Agcncy( FENA), l 60
IcdcraI HomcNor|gagcCorpora| on.
cc rcddcNac
cdcraINatonaINortgagc
Assocaton. cc anncNac
cdcra RcscrvcBaw,24-25,45
Ictchcr, BII, I 34-35, I 40
Int,Nchgan, I 32
Iorda,3 l , 32, 45, 54, 58
os|cr,Norman, l 04, l 07
rancc, 3l , l l 9, l 3 l , l49. cc 0/50
Pars
rcddc Nac, 39, 45, 5 l
rcnchCommun|starty, l 35-36
Gapasn, crnando, l 34-35, l40
Gaud,An|on, l 04
Gchry, rank, I 04
Gcnoa, I I 6
Gcorgc,Hcnry, l 70n4
Gcorg|a,3 I
Gcrmany, I 5,3 l , 57, l 08, l 70n8.
cc 0/50 BcrI n,Hamburg
GII,LcsIc, l 44, l45
G|u|an|,RudoIph, I 05
Godard,]can-Luc,A
Goctzmann,WIam,32, 39, 45
GoIdmanSachs, l2
Go|tIcb,Robcr|,42,44
G0vcrn|n_ /hc L0mm0n5 ( Ostrom),
68-69, 7 l -72
Gracbcr,Oavd, I 26
GrcatBrtan, , l 3,3 l , 44, 85, l 32,
l 56,bm onarcs, l b, brcwng
ndus|ry, 95, cons|ruc|on,
I 70n8, IandcncIosurcs,68,
mun|c|paIcouncIs, I 35.
cc 0/50 LvcrpooI,London,
EngIand,No||ngham
GrcatcrLondonCouncI , l 36, l 4l ,
I 42
Grcccc,86, l 57, l 64. cc 0/50
Athcns
Grccnspan, AIan,30,45
GrNndr|55c (Marx) ,35, 36,38
Guangdong,6l . cc 0/50 Oongguan
| NDL l 83
Guggcnhcm Nuscum BIbao, l 04,
I
Hamas, I I 7
Hamburg,78, l 36
HanscatcLcaguc, l 53
Hardn,Garrc||,68,69, 70, 75, 79, 80,
I 73n2
Hardt,N|chacI,36,67,72,78, I 46-47,
L0mm0nwc0//h, l 52
Har|cm,NcwYorkC|ty, I 09
Haug, WoIIgang,93
Haussman,Gcogcs- Eugcnc,7- l 2
passm, l 6,42, l l 7, l 30
HczboIIah, l I 7
thc H|ghLnc,NcwYorkCty, 75
HtIcr,AdoII, I 07
Ht|orI,]acgucslgnacc,7
HoIIand.cc Nc|hcrIands
HoI|yvoodJcn, I 34
Hong Kong, l 2, l02
lnd a, I 4, I 5, I 9,2 I , 22,6 I , 86, I I 9.
cc 0/50 Numba
lndoncsa, l 9
l ntcmatonaNonc|aryund( l N),
62, I I 9
lrag,53, l l 6, l l 7
lrcI and, l I , 3 l , 44
lsaacs, Wham, 30
lsracI, l I 7
l|aIy,7l . cc 0/50 BoIogna,Gcnoa,
Ndan, Romc,Jurn
]acobs, ]anc, l 0, I 7, 23, l 5 l
]apan,30,3 l , 59. cc 0/50 Jokyo
]ohanncsburg, l 2, 88
]ohns HopknsUnvcrsty,23
KcrIandCommons,hocnb,7 l
Kng,Nar| nLu|hcr,]r. , 5 l , 55
Kohn, Nargarc|, 7 l , l 32
l 84 RLHLc C| T| LS
Labourar|y(UK), l 32
La az, l l 7, l 3 l , l 4l , l44, l45, l 49
Lazar,San. L/ //0, Kc0c/ L|/y, l 44-50
pass|m
LcIcbvrc, Hcnr,x-xv||, 3, 25, I 38, I40
Lcn n, VIadmr, l l l , l 20
LcsHaIIcs,x, 7
Lcws,NchacI. 1c b|_ h0t/, 48-9
L|0ct0/|0n, x
L| ma, 20
L|vcrpooI, I 04, I 06.cc 0/50 Joxc|h,
L|vcrpooI
L|vngs|onc,Kcn, l 36, l 4 l
Lockc,)ohn,75-77passm
London,EngIand, l 2,20,29, 39, l02,
I I 6, I I 7, I 55-57. cc o/so
Grca|cr London CouncI ,S|.
auIsCathcdraI,London
LosAngcIcs,l 2, 57,88, I l 7, l I 8, ! 3 I ,
l 32, l 36, l 5 l . cc 0/50 Wa||s,
LosAngcIcs
Nad|son,W|scons|n, xv||, I I 6
Nadr|d,xv, l I 5, l l 6
Nanha||an,NcwYorkC|y, 29. cc
0/50 SoHo,NcwYorkCty,WaII
S|rcc|
Narx,KarI,5,35-42,78,9 I -94pass|m,
l 20, I 2 l , I 27, I 3 l , I 53,L0j|/0/,
x,x,xv,35-39pass|m, 46,
47,76-80pasm, l 22, l 7 I n24,
L/055 /tN__/0 |n t0nCc, 37,
1c L0mmNn|5/ 0nqc5/0, 53,
1c |_h/ccn/h btNm0|tc 0] L0N|5
0j0/c0n, 37, GtNndt|55c, 35,
36, 38
Nccr,Rchard, l 04
Nc|boumc, l , l I 6
Ncsa, CarIos, l 4 l
Ncx|co, l 5.cc 0/50 Oa.xaca,Zapa|s|as
Ncx|coC|y, I 2,22, 23, I I 5, I I 6
N|Ian, l 03, ! I I , I l 6
N|Iwaukcc, l 36
Nondragon, l 77n l 2
Nora|cs,Evo, l 4 l , l42, l43
Noscow, l2
Noscs, Robcr|,9, I 0, I 7,20, 23, I 5 I
Nubarak,Hosn, l 64
Numba|, l 2, l 8, 88. cc o/soOharav,
Nmba
NumIord,Lcw|s,l 38
Nurdoch,Rupcr|, I 55
Nuscu dAr| Con|cmporandc
Barcc|ona, I 04, I 05
Nandgram, Wcs| BcngaI, l 9
Napocon, Louis(NapoIconl l l ) , 8, 9
NapoIcon I. cc Bonapar|c,NapoIcon
Na||onaBurcauoIEconom|c Rcscarch
( NBER), 32, 44,49
Na|onaIar|ncrsn Homc Owncrshp,
45
Ncgr|, Anton|o,36,67,72,78, I 46-47,
L0mm0nwc0//h, l 52
Ncthcr| ands,3 l
NcwHavcn, Conncc||cu|, 23
Ncwman,rank,32, 39, 45
NcwNcxco, l 34
NcwSou|hWaIcs, l 30
NcwYorkC||y, xv|, I 0, I 5, 3 I -34
pass| m, 57, I 3 l , l 5 l , an|war
pro|cs|(2003) , l l 6,ar|s|sn,
89,CoIumbaUnvcrs|yand,
23-24, cons| ruc| on,32, 46,
dcccncycomm||cc n, l05,
gcn| r|hcaton, l 8, 78,|hcHgh
L|nc,75, |mponcdbccr | n, 95,
N|chac|BIoombcrgand, l 2,23,
OccupyWaIIS|rcc|movcmcn|,
l l 6- l 7, Robcr|Noscsand, 9,
l0, I 7,20,symboIccaptaIand,
I 04,Zuccot| | ark,xv| | | . cc
0/50 Har|cm, NcwYorkC|y,
Nanha||an,NcwYorkC|y
NcwYorkCtyCcn| raILaborCouncI ,
l 5 l
NcwYorkS|a|c,84
NXon, Rchard, 5 l , 63
Nor|humbra,UK, l 32-33
NoU|ngham,UK, I 32, I 39
Oaxaca, l l 6, l48
OccupyWaIIS|rcc| movcmcn|,
l l 6- l 7, l l 9, l 6l -64pasm
OIympcGamcs( l 992), l 04
Os|rom,EI nor,8 l -82, 87, l 5 l , l 52,
G0vcrn|n_ Ihc L0mm0n5, 68-69,
7 l -72
Os|rom,Vnccn|,82,83
aIcstnc, I l 7
ars,|x-xv|pass|m,7-8, I 6, I 7,22,
42, l 04, l I 5- l 7passm, l 30
ar|sCommunc,xv|,8, 22, ,
l l 5, l 20, l 28, l 30, l 36, l 4l ,
dcmonza|onand, l 55,EIA|o
and, l b,Haussmanand,8, l 0
1c 0r|5 L0mmNnc ( LcIcbvrc),x||
ark,Robcr|,3-4,67, I 53
arkcr, Robcr|,98
ar|communs|cIranas( CF) . cc
FrcnchCommuns|ar|y
crc|rc,m|Ic, I 3,42
crc|rc,Isaac, I 3,42
hocn|x,Ar|zona,7 I
nochc|,Augus|o, I 64
Iazadc Ca|aIunya,BarccIona,73,
l l 6
oIand,3 l
ortoAIcgrc,BrazI, , I 36, I 40
o|sdamcrPIa|z,BcrI n, l07
Praguc, l l l , l l 5
rbam,KarI, l 70n8
r0C/0m0I|0n dc /0 L0mmNnc, L0
( LcIcbvrc). Scc1c 0r|5
L0mmNnc (LcIcbvrc)
1c r0dNCI|0n 0] j0Cc ( LcIcbvrc),xv
Pucr|a dcISoI, Nadrd, l l 6, l 6l
QucbccC|y, l l 6
RamaIah, I l 7
Rcagan,RonaId,6,53, I 60
Rcchs|ag, l 07
| NDL l 85
L0 Kcv0/N/|0n Lr00|nc ( LcIcbvrc). Scc
1c Ur00n Kcv0/N/|0n (LcIcbvrc)
RcvucI|as, Rosaura, I 34
1c K|_hI I0 Ihc L|I) (LcIcbvrc),A, x|,
x|, xv
R|gh|tothcC|tyAII |ancc,x||, xv|, I 37,
I 5 I
Rodc]ancro,20,6l , l 00, l 04, l 09,
I I 7,WorIdUrbanForum
(20 I 0) , I 37
Romc, I I 6
RoyaI Ins||u|coIBr| shArch|cc|s,
l 05
Russa, l I , I 5, 6l . cc 0/50 Noscow
S|. auI`sCa|hcdraI,London, l 6l
0/I 0] Ihc 0rIh, I 34, l 38
Samaranch,]uan An|ono, I 04, l05
SanchczdcLozada,GonzaIo, l 4l
Sanc|on,Andrcw, 8l
SanO|cgo, l 2, 45
San Iranc|sco, 03, , D
San|aCruz,BoIva, I42, l43
San|ago, l 2, l l 6, l 53
So auo,6l , 88
SchnkcI,KarIFr|cdr|ch, l 07, l08
Sca||Ic,23, l l l , l l 5, l I 6
Scou!, I 2, I 8, l 9
Shangha|, I 8,58,6 I , 63,88, I 3 I
Shangha| Lxpo, 62
Shcnn, 65
ShdIcr,Robcr|,27,3 l
S|mmcI,Gcorg,4
S|ngaporc, I 06
S||ua||on|s|s, x|, x
SI m, CarIos, l5,23
Sm|h,Adam, 75,76, 94
Soc|aIs|Workcrs`ar|y( UK), l 2 l
l 86 RLHLc C| T| LS
SoHo,NcwYorkC|y,78
Sou|hAIrca, l09.cc 0/50
]ohanncsburg
Sov|c|Un|on,9, 53, I 07, I I 2, I I 5, I 23,
l 35, l 40
Span, l l , l 2,3 l , 44,45, l 57, l 64.cc
0/50 BarccIona, BasgucCoun|ry,
Nadrd
SpanshCv!War, l l 5
Spccr, AIbcr|, l07
S||g|||z,]oscph,45
S|ockman, Oavd,53
SuczCanaI,7
SuczS. A. , l 4l , l47
Swcdcn,30-3 l , 77
Syn|agmaSguarc,Athcns,73, l I 6, l l 7,
l 6l
Jabb,WIIam, l 0
Jah-Har|IcyAc|, l 34
Jahbm, 97-98
JahrrSguarc, Ca|ro,73, l l 6, l I 7, l 6 I ,
I 62, I 64
Japc, l 2
JAR. cc JroubIcdAssc|RcIcI
rogram (JAR)
Ja|cGa|Icry, London,
Jca ar|y, l47
1cc/ct|n_ 0n /hc K| m (G I I ), l 44
Jadand,3 , 34. cc 0/50 Bangkok
Jatchcr,Nargarc|,6, 20, l 2 l , l 36,
l42, l 56
Jomas,BrnI cy,42-43,44
Jompson,L. . , I 32
JananmcnSguarc, l l 7
Jcbou|,CharIcs,82
Jokyo, 88
Joron|o, l 37
Jox|c|h,LvcrpooI, l 56
J1cJragcdyoI|hcCommons
( Hard| n), 68
JroubIcdAssc|RcIcIrogram
(JAR), 58
Jurn, l l 6, l 32
Untcd Kngdom.cc Grca| Br|an
Un|tcdNa| |ons,4
Un|cdS|a|cs,8- l 4passm, l 8-27
passm, 44-64passm, 78-86
pasm, l47, CvIRgh|s
movcmcnt, 3,cons|ruc|on
workcrs, I 30,LxcIudcdWorkcrs
Congrcss, l 3 l -32, l 37, l 5 l ,
hnanc|aIcr|s|s,29-34pass| m,
| mmgran|s`rgh|smovcmcn|,
l l 8-l 9,Iabormovcmcn|, l 32,
I ossoIhouschoIdwcaI|h, l 33,
mor|gagcrchnanc| ng, ,
48-49, l 70n6, OccupyWaII
S|rcc|movcmcn|, l l 6-l 7, l l 9,
l 6l -64passm, sX|csuprsngs
n, l 5, l l 5, l l 6, l l 7,socaIs|
omc| aIs, I 36,|our|sm | n, 92,
l09, wncndus| ry, 98. cc 0/50
WaI|S|rcc|
Un||cdS|a|csSoca| Iorum,x|
UNlJLHERE, l 32
1c Lt00n Kcv0/N/|0n ( LcIcbvrc),xv,
xv
Vcnna, l l 6, l 35
WaIIS|rcc|, l 5,23-24,39, 54, l 59-64
pass| m. cc 0/50 OccupyWaII
S|rcctmovcmcn|
Wa|ts, LosAngcIcs,5 l
Wcbbcr,]chrcy, I 4I -3, l 5 I
Wcs|Bank,aIcs| nc, l l 7
WuIamsburg, NcwYorkC|y, 78
W|nc dv0C0/c, 98
Works rogrcss Adm| n|s|ra|on
(WA), 52
WorIdBank,75, l l 9, l 37
W0t/d Lcvc/0Qmcn/ KcQ0t/ (2009),
28-29, 34, 46, 50, l 69n4
WorIdSocaIIorum,x, l l l , l l 9
WorIdUrbanorum(20 l 0), l 37
WorIdWarl l , 9,49, 50
WorIdWdc FundIorNa|urc,70
WA.cc Worksrogrcss
Admns|ra|on(WA)
YaIc Unvcrs|y,23
Young,l rs, l 52
Yunus, Nuhammad,2 l
Zagrcb,236
Zapa| s|as, l 22, l 25
| NOL l 87
Zucco|| ark, NcwYorkC|y,xv
Zukn,Sharon, l 4