In the Classroom

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JCE DigiDemos: Tested Demonstrations

Ed Vitz

Thin-Layer Fuel Cell for Teaching and Classroom Demonstrations

Kutztown University Kutztown, PA 19530

submitted by: M. Shirkhanzadeh Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, K7L 3N6, Canada; shirkhan@queensu.ca checked by: James H. Maynard Department of Chemistry, University of WisconsinMadison, Madison, WI 53706

Many efforts are currently underway to develop and optimize novel forms of fuel cells. Among these, micro-fuel cells are believed to be particularly promising candidates for replacing solid-state batteries owing to their potential to offer greater energy densities (13). Because of the inherently low risk involved in handling small volume of fluids in micro-fuel cells, these devices can also be employed as safe teaching tools for demonstrating the operation of fuel cells. Hydrogen is the most common fuel for use with such systems because of its superior electrochemical reactivity and energy density, but its storage and safe handling are troublesome. For teaching and demonstrations in a classroom, it would be safer to use unitized regenerative fuel cells where hydrogen fuel is produced in situ by electrolysis. This would eliminate the need for an external source of hydrogen and the delivery system for supplying the fuel to electrodes. A simplified unitized regenerative fuel cell has been described for teaching and demonstration (4). The fuel cell is constructed by placing a pair of platinum wires in a beaker containing a dilute salt solution. The cell is charged by connecting the electrodes to a dc power source for a short time to generate hydrogen and chlorine gas bubbles at the cathode and anode, respectively. In the fuel cell mode, the cell utilizes the gas bubbles adhered to the electrodes to generate electricity. However, in practice, the cell voltage drops rapidly after the power source is disconnected owing to the departure of gas bubbles from the electrode surface and the onset of convective mixing associated with the gas evolution. As a result, sufficient power cannot be generated to drive a portable device for demonstration purposes. One way of increasing the output power of this cell is to use platinum electrodes with a large surface area to increase

the overall number of gas bubbles that can be adhered to the electrodes (4). This approach, however, can be prohibitively expensive due to the high cost of platinum metal. This article describes the design and construction of a thin-layer fuel cell that operates using ~40 L of electrolyte. The cell performs both as an electrolyzer and as a fuel cell. As an electrolyzer, an external power source such as a regulated dc power supply or a photovoltaic array is used to drive electrolysis to generate hydrogen and chlorine gas bubbles at the cathode and anode, respectively. As a fuel cell, the cell uses the stored hydrogen and chlorine to generate electricity. The cell design exploits the phenomenon of gas bubble coalescence to suppress the occurrence of bubble-induced turbulence mixing in the system. This minimizes the level of fuel crossover and cell depolarization and thus sufficient power can be generated to drive a small electronic calculator or a light-emitting diode (LED). The system is simple, safe, and easy to set up, and it is particularly useful for teaching and demonstration in a classroom setting. Materials and Methods A schematic illustration of the thin-layer fuel cell is shown in Figure 1 and a photograph of this cell is shown in Figure 4A. A list of materials for constructing and operating the fuel cell is available in the online material. The cell used in this work consisted of a pair of parallel platinum wire electrodes 28 mm apart and sandwiched between two closely spaced planar slides. The diameter of the platinum wires (127 m) defined the space between the planar slides. Electrical contact to the electrodes was provided using nickel-coated conductive terminals that

plastic base conductive terminal anchor post polystyrene cover Pt electrode glass or mirror Pt electrode glass or mirror
Figure 1. (left) Schematic design of the thin-layer regenerative fuel cell. (right) Schematic of the setup employed for measuring the anode and cathode potentials using an external Ag/AgCl reference electrode.

reference electrode electrolyte polystyrene cover

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were firmly secured to a rectangular plastic base as shown in Figure 1. In one configuration, the base was constructed with an optically transparent material such as plexiglass. A round glass cover slip (~25 mm diameter) together with an optically transparent polystyrene slide (2560 mm, 0.9mm thick) were used as the bottom and top slides, respectively. This standard configuration allowed the image of the cell to be displayed on a large screen using a conventional overhead projector. In another configuration of the cell, a round flat glass mirror (25 mm diameter) was used as the bottom slide instead of the round glass cover slip. This allowed the experimenter to clearly observe the growth and coalescence of gas bubbles during the course of electrolysis without visual aids. For demonstration in a large classroom, the cell can be used with a document camera. In the experiments, the cell was used with a round glass mirror as the bottom slide as shown in Figure 4A. In a typical run, ~40 L of the electrolyte (~1.9 g table salt dissolved in 100mL water) was first placed on the glass mirror between the pair of platinum electrodes using a micropipet. The polystyrene slide was then rested on the wire electrodes as shown in Figure 1. This resulted in the formation of a uniform thin layer of electrolyte (~127 m thick) sandwiched between the glass mirror and the polystyrene slide. The cell was then run as an electrolyzer to generate hydrogen and chlorine gas bubbles at the cathode and anode, respectively. A regulated dc power supply was used to consistently generate a constant voltage (9 V) to drive the cell as an electrolyzer for 35 s. Shortly after electrolysis was completed, the external power supply was disconnected and the performance of the cell in fuel cell mode was evaluated. The open circuit potential (OCP) generated by the fuel cell was recorded with time using a high impedance voltmeter. In addition, the individual anode and cathode potentials were measured against an external AgAgCl reference electrode. A schematic diagram of the setup employed for measuring the anode and cathode potentials using the external reference electrode is shown in Figure 1. For these measurements, contact between the external reference electrode and the electrolyte in the cell was established by cutting a small hole (~20 m diameter) in the center of the polystyrene slide. The hole can be cut using a needle with a sharp tip. A small drop (~25 L) of the salt solution was placed over the hole to facilitate ionic communication between the external reference electrode and the electrolyte inside the cell. The hydrophobic nature of the polystyrene surface together with the small size of the hole allowed the droplet to remain undisturbed on the surface of the polystyrene slide for more than 2 h. This permitted stable potential measurements to be made with the external AgAgCl reference electrode. A series of representative polarization curves were also recorded by taking the current and voltage readings of the system in fuel cell mode. The current densities were calculated with respect to the geometrical surface area of the electrode (0.096cm2) in contact with the electrolyte. Furthermore, the use of the external AgAgCl reference electrode during these tests allowed for separate analysis and evaluation of individual electrode performance characteristics. Characterization of the Cell as an Electrolyzer In unbuffered sodium chloride solutions, electrolysis favors the evolution of chlorine gas rather than oxygen (5). Chlorine evolution causes the solution adjacent to the anode to become

acidic through partial hydrolysis and conversion to ClO and H+ (6) as follows: Cl2 H2O HClO Cl H (1) (2) HClO ClO H Thermodynamically, oxidation of water molecules, which can lead to evolution of oxygen at the anode, is also possible since the equilibrium formation potential for oxygen is lower than that for chlorine (7). Oxidation of water molecules can cause solution close to the anode to become acidic through formation of hydrogen ions according to the following reaction: 2H2O O2 4H 4e (3) However, the kinetics of the oxygen evolution reaction is known to be slow owing to its well-known high overpotential (6). Thus, similar to the industrial production of chlorine by the electrolysis of chloride solutions (7), the chlorine formed at the anode is practically free from oxygen. Concomitant with the anodic reactions, the reduction of H+ is expected to lead to an increasing alkalinity in the vicinity of the cathode. To confirm the local pH changes during electrolysis, pH sensitive strips were attached to the upper surface of the glass mirror under the platinum electrodes. Visible and distinctive red and blue bands indicative of strong acidic and alkaline pH were clearly observed close to the anode and cathode, respectively. Visual observation of gas evolution during electrolysis revealed that the hydrogen and chlorine gas bubbles generated at the cathode and anode, respectively, tended to undergo rapid coalescence because of the surface tension forces in the narrow gap between the glass mirror and the polystyrene slide. Continual dynamic interactions between gas bubbles during electrolysis resulted in the formation of large and flat gas bubbles of hydrogen and chlorine that remained immobilized in close vicinity to the cathode and anode, respectively. This resulted in progressive increase in cell resistance and decline of the current from 10mA at the start of electrolysis to ~ 5 mA after 35 s. The overall process of bubble coalescence comprises three distinct phases: (i) establishment of close contact between two (or more) bubbles, (ii) the thinning of the interface film formed between bubbles and its subsequent rupture, and (iii) establishment of the interface for the newly formed bubble (8). The rapid coalescence and immobilization of gas bubbles resulted in the effective suppression of the bubble-induced turbulence and convective mixing that are normally observed in gas-evolving electrochemical systems (9). Because of the suppressed convective mixing, the pH gradients that were established close to electrodes persisted more than 1 h after electrolysis was terminated. The progression of the pH gradient toward the midpoint between the two electrodes was extremely slow. Without the polystyrene cover, pH gradients could not be stabilized close to electrodes owing to the vigorous convective mixing in the electrolyte caused by the gas bubbles. Some experiments were also performed using a clean glass slide as the cover slide instead of the polystyrene slide. Extensive coalescence close to the electrodes could be observed during electrolysis but gas bubbles could not be immobilized as effectively as when the polystyrene slide with a hydrophobic surface was used. This observation is attributed to the fact that the clean glass surface is hydrophilic and allows complete wetting and a zero contact angle and, therefore, surface tension forces
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Open Cell Potential / V

do not effectively hinder bubble movement. Similar behavior of electrogenerated gas bubbles on hydrophilic surfaces has also been observed in the case of narrow gap cells used for chlorine production (10). Characterization of the Cell in Fuel Cell Mode The OCP values of the thin-layer cell operating in fuel cell mode shortly after electrolysis was stopped are shown in Figure 2A. The cell generates relatively high OCP values exceeding 1.5V during the entire period of the test. These results confirm that the cell can effectively suppress fuel crossover in the absence of an anodecathode separator. The cell design therefore eliminates the need for a physical barrier such as a proton exchange membrane that is commonly used for separating fuels in the anodic and cathodic compartments. It should be noted, however, that to effectively suppress the convective mixing in the cell, the cover slide should remain resting on the platinum wires. It is therefore important to place the cell on a stable platform during the tests and avoid excessive mechanical vibrations that might disturb the cover slide. Previous work on fuel cells that do not require a membrane has exploited the laminar flow that occurs in liquids flowing at a low Reynolds number to eliminate convective mixing in fuel cells (13). The individual OCPs for the cathode and anode of the cell operating in fuel cell mode are shown in Figure 2B. The electrode potentials were recorded using the external AgAgCl reference electrode shortly after electrolysis was stopped. The data show that during the test, the cathode potential remained stable and close to the standard electrode potential for the Cl2Cl (7) redox in acidic solutions. Cl2(aq) 2e 2Cl(aq) E = 1.39 V (vs SHE) (4)

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Figure 2. (A) Open circuit potential (OCP) of the cell operating in fuel cell mode recorded shortly after electrolysis was stopped. (B) Individual open circuit potentials (vs SHE) for the cathode () and anode (). Electrode potentials were measured against an external Ag/AgCl reference electrode.

The data also show that anode potential immediately after charging is stopped is close to the standard electrode potential for hydrogen in strong alkaline solutions (pH ~14; ref 7 ) in accordance with the following equation: H2(g) 2OH(aq) 2H2O 2e E = 0.83 V (vs SHE) (5)

The maximum OCP of the cell is about 2.18 V (Figure2A). This is approximately 1 V greater than the theoretical OCP (1.23 V) that can be obtained with H2O2 fuel cells using a single acidic or alkaline electrolyte (11). In the present study, because of the significant difference between the pH values of the electrolyte in close vicinity to the anode and cathode, the system is in effect operating as a dual electrolyte fuel cell (i.e., the cell uses H2 as a fuel dissolved in an alkaline electrolyte and Cl2 as an oxidant dissolved in an acid medium). As shown in Figure 2A, the OCP of the fuel cell is initially high owing to the suppressed convective mixing in the system. In the longer term, however, diffusive mixing and neutralization reactions involving H+ and OH ions inevitably occur, and as a result, the cell potential gradually declines. The polarization curves for the cell in fuel cell mode shortly after the cell was charged for 35 s are shown in Figure 3A. For these measurements, the anode and cathode were electrically connected to an external variable resistor and the output char326

acteristics of the cell were measured by changing the external resistance from 6.8 to 800 k to generate a set of correlated currentvoltage readings. To minimize the amount of power drawn from the cell during the test, measurements under each load were restricted to 5 s, and after each measurement, the system was left to remain under OCP for 30s before the next measurement was taken. The full symbols in Figure 3A correspond to data taken in the direction of increasing current density, while the open symbols depict data collected immediately after, in the direction of decreasing current density. The small magnitude of the hysterisis in the polarization curves confirmed that the small current drawn from the cell during the course of these measurements did not significantly affect the activity of the fuel cell. It is seen in Figure 3A that the cell voltagecurrent density relationship is, to a good approximation, linear (ohmic) for a wide range of current density. The ohmic behavior of the cell is primarily due to the presence of gas bubbles in contact with electrodes that occupy a significant volume in the narrow gap between the glass mirror and the polystyrene cover. Given the extensive screening effect of the gas bubbles, the actual current density is expected to be much higher than the value calculated based on the apparent surface area of the electrodes. It is seen in Figure 3A that the current density for the cell drops rapidly at around 1.6 mA cm2 as a consequence of the

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rent generated by the fuel cell. A ZRA also measures current by changing current to voltage, but it uses a feedback loop to maintain accuracy, without encountering the voltage drop associated with an ordinary ammeter. The output voltage of the ZRA and high impedance voltmeter can be fed into a standard analog-to-digital converter interfaced with a portable computer for recording and processing of the data. Performance of the Cell as a Regenerative Fuel Cell To realistically test the thin-layer cell as a regenerative fuel cell, the cell was charged for 3 min using a photovoltaic array with an output voltage of ~4.8 V that delivered a current of ~1.3 mA. Shortly after charging, the photovoltaic array was disconnected and the cell was operated in fuel cell mode to drive a portable electronic calculator that otherwise uses a 1.5V battery (Figure 4A). The output voltage of the cell during the test was also monitored and data points were periodically taken using a digital voltmeter. As illustrated by the voltage versus time plot given in Figure 4B, the fuel cell operated continuously for more than 1 h, providing sufficient voltage to drive the portable calculator. The same cell charged for 3 min could provide sufficient power to make a LED glow for ~10 min. Considering the small surface area of the electrodes (0.096 cm2) and the small volume (40 L) of the electrolyte used, the performance of the cell was remarkable. In addition to the experiment with a single cell, experiments involving cells configured in series and parallel were also carried out. Since the cell does not require a physical anodecathode separator, it is practically maintenance-free and it can be charged and discharged repeatedly without encountering problems such as membrane fouling or clogging. Multiple tests with the same cell were run over several months without any problem or drop in performance. After each test, initial conditions could be restored by renewing the electrolyte. The experimental results obtained with the thin-layer fuel cell in the present study show that its performance can be superior to the prior designs that simply employed platinum wires immersed in sodium chloride solutions (4). The low cost and simplicity of construction of the device in the present work offers a practical alternative for teaching and demonstrations. For demonstration in large classrooms, the cell with a round glass mirror can be used with a document camera. Alternatively, a conventional overhead projector can be used to display the image of the cell on a screen. In this case, the fuel cell should be constructed with transparent materials (i.e., the glass mirror should be replaced by a round cover slip and the base of the cell should be made of an optically transparent material such as plexiglass). A see-through cell as described above was constructed and placed on the light platform of a conventional overhead projector. The cell was charged for 3 min using a flexible and flat photovoltaic array that was placed (facing down) on the overhead projector next to the cell. With the overhead projector turned on, the photovoltaic array could generate an output voltage of ~4.8 V. Using this setup, the growth and coalescence of gas bubbles during the course of electrolysis could be clearly seen on the screen at a high magnification. Shortly after charging, the photovoltaic array was disconnected and the cell was operated in fuel cell mode to drive a portable electronic calculator with a transparent liquid-crystal display (LCD) window. For these tests, the calculator was placed on the light platform
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Current Density / (mA/cm2) Electrode Potential vs SHE / mV

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Figure 3. (A) Polarization curves for the cell in fuel cell mode shortly after electrolysis was stopped. The full symbols () correspond to data taken in the direction of increasing current density, while the open symbols () depict data collected immediately after, in the direction of decreasing current density. (B) Polarization curves for the individual cathode () and anode () electrodes in fuel cell mode.

mass transfer limitations. To accurately determine the cause of the mass transport-limited current density, polarization curves for the individual anode and cathode electrodes were determined using the external Ag/AgCl reference electrode (Figure 3B). Results in Figure 3B clearly show that the diffusion-limited current densities are caused by the mass transport limitations at the anode. The kinetics of electron transfer for the hydrogen oxidation reaction (eq 5) is apparently sufficiently fast that the concentration of the dissolved hydrogen close to the anode surface is depleted. This limitation is attributed to the slow dissolution of hydrogen gas into the electrolyte, which is controlled by the surface-to-volume ratio of the hydrogen bubbles and the surface tension of the interface. Visual observations of the gas bubbles during the discharge period confirmed that coalesced gas bubbles in contact with electrodes tended to deflate very slowly even when the fuel cell was short-circuited. For accurate measurement of the electrode potentials and cell voltage, a high impedance voltmeter is used to minimize the extent of cell polarization during the measurements. For current measurement, it is essential to use a zero resistance ammeter (ZRA). Ordinary ammeters measure current by adding a known resistance (internal shunt resistor) and measuring the resulting voltage drop, which is then converted into current. This method of measurement can interfere with the actual cur-

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of the overhead projector close to the fuel cell. The fuel cell operated continuously for more than 1 h, providing sufficient voltage to drive the portable calculator. With this arrangement, the enlarged view of the LCD and the fuel cell could be simultaneously observed on the screen. Procedure for Constructing and Operating a Simple Cell for Demonstration in a Classroom The cell described in this section is a simple version of the cell shown in Figure 4A. It is much easier to make and does not need all the components that are shown in Figure 4A. It is a simple design for students and teachers to use with a minimum number of easily obtainable materials.
1. Gently remove the transparent front of a CD case without scratching the surface. This piece is used as the transparent base of the cell. The outer surface of the transparent front is used as the upper surface of the base.

2. Drill four 3/32 in. holes at each corner of a 12 40 mm rectangle centered on the base. 3. Insert a 1/4 in. long stainless steel screw in each hole with one washer below the base. (The stainless steel screw is inserted with the screwhead below the base.) Use matching nuts for securing the screws to the base (do not tighten the nuts yet). The nuts should be positioned on the upper surface of the base and are used for securing the platinum wires to the base. A short length of each screw, approximately 3 mm, protrudes from the upper surface of the base and serves as a terminal for electrical connection to the platinum wires. Conventional insulated wires with alligator clips at each end are used to connect the cell terminals to the power source during electrolysis (see the section dealing with the cell operation below). 4. Coat a round standard cover slip (~25 mm diameter) with a thin film of clear silicone adhesive (GE Sealant & Adhesive, Huntsville, NC 28078, Stock No. SE 2124) and press it firmly onto the base between the four screws. 5. Place a 10 cm length of 0.127 mm platinum wire under the nut of one screw and tighten the screw from the back using a screwdriver. Guide the wire over the round glass slide and under the nut of the opposite screw, and tighten the screw while pulling the wire gently. Repeat this step for the other wire. 6. Place the cell on an overhead projector and place 2 drops of the electrolyte (1.9 g NaCl in 100 mL water) between the wires. Place a short strip of universal indicator paper against the outer edge of each platinum wire. Alternatively, add a drop of universal indicator to the electrolyte. Place a standard rectangular microscope slide on the wires. Turn on the projector and adjust to obtain a clear image of the cell on the screen before connecting the cell to the power source. 7. Use a pair of wires with alligator clips at each end to connect the cell terminals to a 9 V battery and electrolyze for ~35 s. Alternatively place a photovoltaic array (face down) on the projector to drive the cell for ~3 min. Note that hydrogen and chlorine bubbles form at the cathode and anode, respectively. Note also that the pH paper close to the cathode turns blue and that close the anode turns red, and eventually bleaches white due to the formation of chlorine. Disconnect the power source after charging. 8. Connect a voltmeter (one designed for overhead projector display or a Vernier voltage input device allowing projection of a computer display) to display the cell output. Note that the fuel cell output can provide sufficient power to run some calculators or red LEDs with colorless plastic lenses (which allow a dim glow to be seen in a darkened room). The LED may be used with a concave mirror (reflector) borrowed from a small flashlight that allows the red light to be clearly seen from a far distance in a darkened room. Place an overhead calculator with a transparent display window on the projector and connect to the cell using the alligator clips. The overhead calculator can be prepared by gently removing the reflective backing from the LCD panel of a small conventional calculator. Cut a rectangular window in the back of the calculator so that light can be transmitted through the LCD panel when placed on the overhead projector. Alternatively, use the fuel cell with a LED wired in parallel with the calculator.

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Figure 4. (A) Photograph of the thin-layer fuel cell during operation as a power source for a portable electronic calculator. (B) Voltage produced by the fuel cell as a function of time of operation.

The cell described above can also be used with a document camera. For use with a document camera, place a small flat mirror under the transparent base of the cell. This will allow clear

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visualization of gas bubbles through light reflection. Note also that two or three cells similar to one described above can be constructed on a common transparent base and connected in series, parallel, or combinations of both to generate a higher output power. Cells connected in series have the positive terminal of one cell connected to the negative terminal of another cell. This configuration has the effect of increasing the overall voltage but the current remains the same as in a single cell. Cells that are connected in parallel have their similar terminals connected together. In this case, the overall voltage remains the same but the current is increased. Hazards Although only 40 L of salt solution is required as the electrolyte for the operation of the fuel cell, there are safety issues that must be considered. During charging (electrolysis), the pH of the electrolyte adjacent to the anode and cathode becomes strongly acidic and alkaline, respectively, and hydrogen and chlorine gas bubbles form under the cover slide. Even though it is unlikely that gas bubbles entrapped under the cover slide can cause splashing of the electrolyte onto an experimenter, safety goggles should be used during the experiments. During the discharge period, owing to the diffusive mixing, the electrolyte is gradually neutralized over a period of about 1 to 2 h. A micropipet can be safely used to remove the electrolyte from the cell after the cell has been fully discharged. Learning Outcome Table salt was used in these experiments because it is familiar, safe, effective, inexpensive, and easily obtainable. Alternatively, lemon juice (pH ~ 2.5) or a mixture of lemon juice and salt solution can be used for conducting experiments. This allows students to study the principles of fuel cell operation and familiarize themselves with fuel cell performance as a function of electrolyte composition. Since most thermodynamic, transport, and kinetic parameters are influenced by the electrolyte concentration, a variation of the initial electrolyte concentration can have a strong effect on the cell performance. For example, in the absence of chloride ions in the electrolyte, electrolysis results in splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen rather than hydrogen and chlorine and thus the system can be operated as an O2H2 fuel cell. In the fuel cell mode, oxygen bubbles generated during electrolysis are reduced on the cathode according to the following reaction: O2 4H 4e 2H2O E = 1.23 V (vs SHE) (6)

Using the simple fuel cell described in this article, the polarization curves and potential measurements can be easily determined for a wide range of electrolytes with different pH and salt concentrations, and the experimental data can be fitted to simple models from which ohmic losses, kinetic parameters, and limiting current density can be estimated and compared to theoretical values. Furthermore, students can conduct the polarization experiments and determine the maximum power density of the fuel cell at a fixed cell voltage and as a function of the electrolyte concentration. The goal in these experiments can be to maximize the performance of the fuel cell. Experiments conducted in the present study using the thinlayer fuel cell embody principles in electrochemistry, thermodynamics, kinetics, and transport. These experiments are suited for undergraduate engineering students as well as high school students with a basic understanding of the electrochemical principles. Physical chemistry texts such as Atkins (13) provides a detailed discussion of electrochemical cells and the concepts of the electrode potential, cell voltage, over-potential, concentration polarization, and power output of working cells. Acknowledgment The author thanks Natural Science & Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) for the financial support provided for this work. Literature Cited
1. Ferrigno, R.; Stroock, A. D.; Clark, T. D.; Mayer, M.; Whitesides, G. M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2002, 124, 12930. 2. Choban, E. R.; Markoski, L. J.; Wieckowski, A.; Kenis, P. J. A. J. Power Sources 2004, 128, 54. 3. Choban, E. R.; Waszczuk, P.; Kenis, P. J. A. Electrochem. Solid State Lett. 2005, 8, A348. 4. University of Cambridge: Building a Simple Fuel CellJust Like Billy Grove Did. http://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/fuel-cells/ grove_cell.php (accessed Nov 2008). 5. Bockris, J. OM. Energy: The Solar-Hydrogen Alternative; Wiley: New York, 1976. 6. Bennett, J. E. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 1980, 5, 401. 7. Pourbaix, M. Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions; Pergamon Press: Oxford, United Kingdom,1966. 8. Egan, E. W.; Tobias, C. W. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1994, 141, 1118. 9. Shah, A.; Jorne, J. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1989, 136, 144. 10. St-Pierre, J.; Wragg, A. A. Electrochimica Acta 1993, 38, 1705. 11. Cohen, J. L.; Volpe, D. J.; Westly, D. A.; Pechenik, A.; Abruna, H. D. Langmuir 2005, 21, 3544. 12. Chin Kwie Joe, J. M.; Janssen, L. J. J.; Van Stralen, S. J. D.; Verbunt, J. H. G.; Sluyter, W. M. Electrochim. Acta 1988, 33, 769. 13. Atkins, P. W. Physical Chemistry, 5th ed.; Oxford University Press: Oxford, United Kingdom, 1994.

The anode potential for the O2/H2 fuel cell is expected to be close to the standard electrode potential for hydrogen (eq 5, E = 0.83 V (vs SHE); ref 7 ). Thus the OCP for the O2H2 fuel cell is expected to be 2.06 in dual electrolyte mode. The lower theoretical OCP of the O2H2 fuel cell in comparison with the Cl2 H2 cell and the lower solubility of the oxygen compared with chlorine (12) leads to a lower power density. The pH of the electrolyte can also have an effect on reaction kinetics at the individual electrodes as well the electrode potential at which oxidation or reduction occurs.

Supporting JCE Online Material

Abstract and keywords

http://www.jce.divched.org/Journal/Issues/2009/Mar/abs324.html Full text (PDF) Links to cited URL and color figures Supplement Materials for constructing and operating the fuel cell

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