Thermo - LectureNote Sep2013 PDF

Universiti Kuala Lumpur
An Engineering Approach
!introduction to principles and applications of
macroscopic thermodynamics!
Thcrmndynamics
to accompany
Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, 6th edition
by Yunus A. engel and Michael A. Boles
2 2

the ultimate goal is to DESIGN
products
that meet society needs
Mechanical Engineering
! Mechanics
! Energy
! Systems
! Design
Thermodynamics
! A part of the Energy
components
of mechanical engineering.
! Governs ALL energy
consuming and transforming
devices and systems.
3 3
Course Overview
Basic Concept
Terminology
Pure Substance
Energy, Energy
Transfer and Analysis
Closed & Open System 2
nd
Law
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics Application
Power Generation
Refrigeration
! Gas Power Cycle
! Vapor Power Cycle
! Combined Gas Power Cycle
! Refrigeration Cycle

! Thermodynamic
& Energy
! Dimension
! Unit
! System &
Control Volumes
! Process
! Cycle
! Temperature
! Zeroth Law
! Pressure
! Phase & Phase
Change
! Property Diagram
! Property Table
! Equation of State
! Ideal Gas
! Real Gas
! Compressibility
Factor
! Thermodynamics
Properties
! Forms of Energy
! Energy Transfer
by Heat
! Energy Transfer
by work
! Mechanical Works
! The 1
st
Law
! Energy
Conversion
! Energy &
Environment
! Energy Balance
! Specific Heats
! Internal Energy
! Enthalpy
! Mass Balance
! Flow Work and
Energy of Flowing
Fluid
! Steady Flow
! Unsteady Flow
! Energy Reservoir
! Heat Engine
! Refrigeration
! Heat Pump
! Reversible and
Irreversible Process
! Carnot Cycle
! Carnot Principle
! Carnot Devices
4 4
Course Objective
The objective of this course are.
! to cover the basic principles of
thermodynamics
! to present a wealth of real-world
engineering applications for
engineering practices
! to develop an intuitive
understanding of the subject matter
Introduction and Basic Concepts
Chapter 1
Thcrmndynamics
to accompany
6 6
Outline
! Thermodynamics and Energy
! Application Areas of
Thermodynamics
! Dimensions and Units
! System and Control Volume
! Properties of a System
! Density and Specific Gravity
! State and Equilibrium
! Processes and Cycles
! Temperature and Zeroth Law
! Pressure
7 7
THERMODYNAMICS and ENERGY
! thermodynamics is the science of
energy it about understanding the
patterns of energy change and how
these changes relate to the state of
matter
! thermodynamics is a branch of
physics that is built upon the
fundamental laws that heat and work
obey
8 8
Conservation of Energy
! During an interaction, energy
can change from one form to
another but the total amount of
energy remains constant.
! Energy cannot be created or
destroyed.
Energy cannot be created or
destroyed; it can only change
forms (the first law).
9 9
The 1
st
Law of Thermodynamics
! An expression of the
conservation of energy principle.
! The first law asserts that
energy is a thermodynamic
property.
Conservation of energy
principle for the human
body.
10 10
The 2
nd
Law of Thermodynamics
! It asserts that energy has
quality as well as quantity, and
actual processes occur in the
direction of decreasing quality of
energy.
Heat flows in the direction
of decreasing temperature.
11 11
Classical vs Statistical
Classical thermodynamics
! A macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge of
the behavior of individual particles.
! It provides a direct and easy way to the solution of
engineering problems and it is used in this text.
Statistical thermodynamics
! A microscopic approach, based on the average
behavior of large groups of individual particles.
! It is used in this text only in the supporting role.
12 12
Application Areas
13 13
DIMENSIONS
refer to physical nature of quantity
Primary/Fundamental
Mass m
Length L
Time s
Temperature T
Pressure P

Sland-aIone
Secondary/Derived
Velocity v
Energy E
Volume V
Area A

DerivedfromIrimary
! !
a m F =
14 14
UNITS
defining how measurements are made
English System
United States Customary System (USCS)
12 in. in 1 ft, 16 oz in 1 lb

! no numerical base
! units are related arbitrarily
Metric System SI
International System
meter (m), kilogram (kg)

! simple and logical based on a decimal
relationship between the various units
! mostly used for scientific and
engineering work

15 15
Dimensional Homogeneity
All equation MUST be dimensionally
homogeneous
( )
kJ kJ kJ
kg X
kg
kJ
kJ kJ
+ =
+ !
( ) ( )
kg
kJ
kJ kJ
kg
kJ
kJ kJ E
+ !
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
+ = 25
correction
16 16
SYSTEM, SURROUNDINGS, BOUNDARY
Thermodynamics
System
System
! a quantity of matter or a region
in space
! may be considered as CLOSED or
OPEN
! system depending on whether a fixed
MASS or fixed VOLUME is chosen

Boundary !.control surface
! real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its
surroundings
! contact surface shared by the system
and its surroundings
! zero thickness without mass and
volume
! can either be fixed or movable
Energy
Flow
Surroundings
! mass or region outside the
system
17 17
SYSTEM
0 =
dt
dm
Closed
System
Open
System
Mass Flow
Mass Flow
Energy
Flow
Energy
Flow
Isolated
System
18 18
Closed SYSTEM
Also known as CONTROL MASS, when a
particular quantity of matter in a system
under study contains the same matter with
fixed amount of mass.
no mass may enter or leave the system
19 19
Open SYSTEM
Also known as CONTROL VOLUME,
has mass as well as energy crossing
the boundary or CONTROL
SURFACE.
mass FLOW across their control surface
20 20
Open SYSTEM
21 21
Isolated SYSTEM
! Energy in the form of work or heat can cross the
boundary. In the event that energy is not allowed
to cross in a closed system, the system is known
as ISOLATED SYSTEM.
! Normally a collection of a a main system and its
surroundings that are exchanging mass and
energy among themselves and no other system.
22 22
Properties of a SYSTEM
! Every system has certain characteristics by
which its physical condition is described. Such
characteristic of a system is called a PROPERTY,
it is used to describe a system and predict its
behavior.
! Property is INDEPENDENT OF THE PATH used to
arrive at the system condition
! Some familiar properties are Pressure,
Temperature, Volume and Mass. Other may include
viscosity, thermal conductivity, modulus of
elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, electric
resistivity, and even velocity and elevation.
23 23
! Properties are considered to be either intensive
or extensive.
! Intensive properties are those that are
independent of the mass of the system. (not
additive to the
! Extensive properties are those whose values
depend on the size of the system.
EXTENSIVE
mass
volume
energy
velocity
additive over the
system
INTENSIVE
temperature
pressure
density
specific volume
not additive over the
system
24 24
! Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
! Intensive properties are those
that are independent of the mass
of the system. (not additive over
the system)
! Extensive properties are those
whose values depend on the size
of the system. (additive over the
system)
25 25
extensive properties per unit mass are
intensive properties
SPECIFIC VOLUME DENSITY
26 26
Density is defined as a mass per unit volume
Density
Specific volume is the reciprocal of density
27 27
Continuum
! Matter is made up of atoms that are widely spaced in
the gas phase. Yet it is very convenient to disregard the
atomic nature of a substance and view it as a
continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes, that is,
a continuum.
! The continuum idealization allows us to
treat properties as point functions and to
assume the properties vary continually in
space with no jump discontinuities.
! This idealization is valid as long as the
size of the system we deal with is large
relative to the space between the
molecules.
! This is the case in practically all
problems.
! In this text we will limit our consideration
to substances that can be modeled as a
continuum.
Despite the large gaps
between molecules, a
substance can be treated
as a continuum because of
the very large number of
molecules even in an
extremely small volume.
28 28
When the density of a substance is given relative to the
density of a well-know substance, then it is called Specific
Gravity or Relative Density.
Specific Gravity
O H
SG
2
!
!
=
The specific gravity is defined as
the ratio of the density of a
substance to the density of some
standard substance at a specified
temperature.
29 29
The weight of a unit volume of a
substance is called a specific weight.
Specific Weight
g
s
! " =
) / (
3
m N
30 30
STATE
The word STATE in thermodynamics refers to the
condition of a system as described by its
properties. The properties can be measured or
calculated throughout the entire system which
described the condition or state of the system.

Changing one property, changes the state
31 31
EQUILIBRIUM
The word EQUILIBIRUM implies a state of balance.
A system is said to be in THERMODYNAMIC
EQUILIBRIUM if its experiences no changes when
it is isolated from its surrounding. In an equilibrium
state there are no unbalanced forces or driving
forces that would trigger the system for any
changes in its properties.
32 32
! Thermal equilibrium
temperature is the same throughout the
system
! Mechanical equilibrium
no change of pressure with time
! Phase equilibrium
mass of each phase reaches an
equilibrium level and stay there
! Chemical equilibrium
chemical composition does not change
with time
EQUILIBRIUM Condition
33 33
STATE AND EQUILIBRIUM
The state of a system is described by its properties. Once a
sufficient number of properties are known, we would be able
to specify the state of any system and shall be able to
calculate all other properties of the system.
How many properties ?
The number of properties required to specify a state of a simple,
homogeneous compressible system shall be given by the

The THERMODYNAMICS
STATE of a simple
homogeneous
compressible system is
completely specified by
two independent,
intensive properties.
STATE POSTULATE
34 34
PROCESSES and CYCLES
Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another is called a PROCESS, and the series of states through
which a system passes during a process is called the PATH of the
process. When the final state is identical with the initial state the
process is defined as a CYCLE.
5tatc1 5tatc2 PROCE55:
5tatc1 5tatc2 5tatc1 CYCLE:
35 35
! Isothermal Process
temperature remains constant throughout
the process
! Isobaric Process
pressure remains constant throughout
the process
! Isometric Process
specific volume remains constant
throughout the process
PROCESSES Condition
36 36
EQUILIBRIUM PROCESSES
! Sufficiently slow process
! Adjust itself internally
! Represent idealized process
! Easy to analyze
! Deliver most work
as the piston-cylinder devices is
compressed suddenly, all the nearby
molecule will pile up in a small region
near piston and creating a high-
pressure region thus the system
can no longer be in an equilibrium
state..
37 37
PROCESSES DIAGRAM
provides mean to easily visualize processes.
Thermodynamic properties are used as
coordinates, such as temperature (T), pressure (P),
and volume (V) or specific volume (v).
38 38
STEADY-FLOW PROCESSES
a process during which a working fluid flows through a
control volume (open-system) steadily at any time. Although
the properties of the working fluid may change from point to
point within the control volume system, but at any fixed point
they remain the same at any time.
Vn!umc(V),mass(m)andTnta!Encrgy(E)rcmaincnnstant
39 39
TEMPERATURE
as a measure of hotness or coldnessit is a
thermodynamics property that measure energy
contents of a mass
Large body
at constant
temperature
T
1

Large body
at constant
temperature
T
2
<T
1

Our sense of the direction of
heat flow - from high to low
temperature.
Thcrma!Equi!ibrium
40 40
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Two bodies individually in THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
with a third bodies are in thermal equilibrium with
each other.
41 41
Temperature Scales
as a common basis for temperature
measurements, based on some reproducible
states such as freezing and boiling points of
water.
Two-Points Scales
! Celcius Scale C (0~100 C) and Fahrenheit Scale F
(32~212 F)
Thermodynamics Temperature Scale
Independent of the properties of any subtances
! Kelvin Scale K and Rankine Scale R
Ideal Gas Temperature Scale
Based on the principle that at low pressure, the temperature of a gas
is proportional with its pressure at constant volume, T=a + bP
42 42
Ideal Gas Temperature Scale
FIGURE 145
P versus T plots of the experimental data obtained from a constant-volume gas thermometer using four different
gases at different (but low) pressures.
43 43
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS
REFERENCE POINTS
Relationship between Kelvin and Celcius Scale
Relationship between Rankine and Farhrenheit Scale
Relationship between Two Unit System
44 44
PRESSURE
defined as the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area
2
1 1
m
N
Pa =
Pa 9.807x10
m
N
9.807x10
cm
N
9.807
cm
kgf
1
bars 1.01325 kPa 101.325 Pa 101,325 atm 1
kPa 100 MPa 0.1 Pa 10 1bar
4
2
4
2 2
5
= = =
= = =
= = =
A
F
P =
45 45
PRESSURE
Absolute pressure
Is the actual pressure at a given
position/location and measured
relative to absolute zero pressure
Gage pressure
Is the pressure difference between
the absolute pressure and local
atmospheric pressure
Vacuum pressure
Is the pressure between the
atmospheric pressure and the
absolute pressure. It is the pressure
below the atmospheric pressure.
abs atm vac
atm abs gage
P P P
P P P
! =
! =
46 46
PRESSURE
Variation with depth
z
z g
P P P
! =
! =
" = !
#
$
1 2
47 47
PRESSURE
48 48
PRESSURE
49 49
Pascals Law
The ratio A
2
/A
1
is called
the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift
50 50
PRESSURE measurement
manometer
1 2
2
P P
gh P P
atm
=
+ = !
measuring pressure with fluid column
51 51
manometer
1 3 3 2 2 1 1
P gh gh gh P
atm
= + + + ! ! !
52 52
manometer
( )
( )gh P P
P ga gh h a g P
1 2 2 1
2 1 2 1 1
! !
! ! !
" = "
= " " + +
53 53
Barometric PRESSURE
measuring atmospheric pressure
Energy, Energy Transfer & General Energy Analysis

Chapter 2
Thcrmndynamics
to accompany
55 55
Outline
! Understanding energy and forms of Energy
! Concept of Energy Transfer
! First Law of Thermodynamics
! Energy Balance and Energy Transfer
! Energy and the Environment
56 56
Understanding ENERGY
57 57
Understanding ENERGY
! If we take the entire roomincluding the air and the
refrigerator (or fan)as the system, which is an
adiabatic closed system since the room is well-sealed
and well-insulated, the only energy interaction involved
is the electrical energy crossing the system boundary
and entering the room.
! As a result of the conversion
of electric energy consumed by
the device to heat, the room
temperature will rise.
58 58
Form of ENERGY
! energy exists in numerous forms such as thermal,
mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical,
and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy of
the system denoted as E (kJ). On a unit mass basis it is
denoted as e=E/m (kJ/kg)
Macroscopic
With respect to outside
reference frame
Microscopic
Related to the molecular
structure of the system

59 59
! Kinetic energy, KE
The energy that a system
possesses as a result of its motion
relative to some reference frame.
! Potential energy, PE
The energy that a system
possesses as a result of its
elevation in a gravitational field.
! Flowing Fluid
Macroscopic ENERGY
ke per unit mass
pe per unit mass
Mass flow rate
Energy flow rate
60 60
Microscopic ENERGY
internal energy = microscopic form of energy denoted as U
! related to the molecular
structure and the degree of
molecular activity
! viewed as the sum of kinetic
and potential energy of the
molecules
61 61
Total energy of a system
Energy of a system per unit mass
Total energy per unit mass
Total ENERGY
62 62
Energy Transfer
Mass
out
Mass
in

System Boundary
Control Volume
!energy may be transported across the system boundary
in several ways. In a closed system (fixed mass), energy is
transported in the form of heat and work. For control
volume (open system), energy can cross the boundary in
the form of heat, work and energy transported by the
mass stream crossing the control surface.
Heat
Work
63 63
Heat vs Work
Heat,Q is defined as the form of energy that is transferred
between two systems (or a system and its surroundings)
by virtue of temperature difference whereas Work, W is
the energy transfer associated with a force acting through
a distance.
64 64
Sign Convention For Energy Transfer
by Heat and Work
Heat and work are directional quantities, thus their
magnitude and direction are necessary to completely
describe them
Classical Sign Convention
heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are
positive
65 65
Energy Transfer by Heat
! form of energy that is transferred across a system
boundary by mean of temperature difference between
two systems!otherwise it is work
no heat transfer if same temperature
66 66
Adiabatic Process
! is defined as a process with perfectly insulated system
and the heat transfer is zero . 0 = Q
There are two methods to
achieve adiabatic process:

! the system is well insulated
! both the system and the
surrounding are at the same
temperature! no driving force
for heat transfer
67 67
Heat Transfer
Heat transfer per unit mass Heat transfer per unit time
Rate of Heat Transfer
t
Q
Q =
!
! recall that heat is energy in transition across the
system boundary solely due to temperature difference
between the system and its surrounding. Therefore, the
net heat transferred to a system is defined as ...
Q Q Q Q
out in net
= ! =
" "
( ) kJ
m
Q
q = !
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
kg
kJ
!
"
#
$
%
&
s
kJ
68 68
!
=
2
1
t
t
dt Q Q
!
t Q Q ! =
!
Heat Transfer
when the rate of heat transfer
varies with time, the amount
of heat transfer during a
process is determined by
integrating the rate of heat
transfer over the time interval.
when the rate of heat transfer
remains constant during a
process, the above reduces to
69 69
Is there any Heat Transfer?
70 70
Heat Transfer Mechanism
is the transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic ones as a result of
interactions between the particles. In solid,
the interaction is due to the combination of
vibrations of molecules and the energy
transport by the free electrons. In liquid and
gases, the interaction take places during
collision of the molecules.
Conduction
Fouriers Law
the rate of heat conduction in
a direction is proportional to
the temperature gradient in
that direction
71 71
Conduction
x
T
A k Q
cond
!
!
=
1
!
0 ! "x
Where,
= heat flow/time (W)
k = thermal conductivity (W/m.K)
A = area normal to heat flow (m
2
)
= temperature gradient (K/m)
dx
dT
A k Q
cond 1
! =
!
cond
Q
!
dx
dT
72 72
!is the mode of heat transfer between a solid surface
and the adjacent liquid of gas that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid
motion.
Convection
73 73
HcatTransIcrMcchanism
!the rate of heat transfer by convection is determined
from Newtons Law of Cooling
Cnnvcctinn
( )
f s conv
T T hA Q ! =
!
Where,
= heat transfer rate (W)
A = heat transfer area (m
2
)
h = convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m
2
.K)
T
s
= surface temperature (K)
T
f
= temperature gradient (K)
conv
Q
!
74 74
!is the energy emitted by
matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves as a
result of the changes in the
electronic configurations of
the atoms or molecules.
Unlike, other mechanisms,
radiation does not requires
medium for it to occur. It is
faster and suffers no
attenuation in a vacuum.
Just like sun light reaches
earth.
Radiation
75 75
5tcIan-Bn!omanLaw
!gives the maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted by a
surface at an absolute Temperature T
s
. The idealized surface that
emits radiation at maximum rate is called blackbody and the radiation
emitted by a blackbody is called blackbody radiation.
Radiatinn
Where, A is the surface area and
4
max , s emit
AT Q ! =
!
4 2 8
. / 10 67 . 5 K m W X
!
= "
Stefan_Boltzman Constant
4
s emit
AT Q !" =
!
Real surface
! is the emissivity of the surface
where
1 0 ! ! "
Blackbody surface
76 76
Kirchhoffs Law
!states that the emissivity and absorptivity of a surface
are equal at the same temperature and wavelength.
Radiation
is the rate at which radiation is
incident on the surface
is the absorptivity of the surface
inc
Q
!
!
inc abs
Q Q
! !
! =
77 77
Energy Transfer by Work
!work is the energy transfer associated with a force
acting through a distance. If the energy crossing the
boundary of a closed system is not heat, it must be work.
Thermodynamics work is defined as energy in transition
across the system boundary and is done by a system if
the sole effect external to the boundaries could have been
the raising of the weight. Mathematical, the differential of
work can be expressed as
A rising piston, a
rotating shaft, and an
electric wire crossing
the system boundaries
are all associated with
work interactions.
78 78
!if the force F is not constant, the work done
between two states is obtained by adding (integrating)
the differential amounts of work,
! !
= =
2
1
2
1
12
Fds W W "
!total work done during a
process 1-2 is determined by
following the process path and
adding the differential amounts
of work done along the path
79 79
m
W
w =
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
kg
kJ
Power is the work done
per unit time (kW)
80 80
Is there any Work Done?
81 81
Heat & Work similarities
! both are recognized at the boundaries as they crosses
the boundary, they are boundary phenomena
! system possess energy, not heat or work
! both are path function,
their magnitudes depend on
the path followed during a
process as well as end
states.
Properties are point functions
have exact differentials (d ).
! both are associated with a
process, not a state. They
have no meaning at a state.
Path functions have inexact
differentials (! )
82 82
WnrkDnnc
E!cctrica!Wnrk
Electrical work
Electrical power
When potential difference
and current change with
time
When potential difference
and current remain
constant
83 83
WnrkDnnc
5haItwnrk
( )
T n W
nT rn
r
T
Fs W
sh
sh
!
!
!
! !
2
2 2
=
=
"
#
$
%
&
'
= =
84 84
WnrkDnnc
5pringwnrk
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( )
2
1
2
2
2
1
x x k W
spring
! =
85 85
The First Law of Thermodynamics
The first Law of Thermodynamics states that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed; it can only change
forms. Implicitly, it is a statement of the
Conversation of Energy
86 86
Energy Balance
system out in
E E E ! = "
the conservation of energy principle
the net change in the total energy of the system during a
process is equal to the difference between the total
energy entering and the total energy leaving the system
during the process
87 87
Energy Change of a System,
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system
E !
PE KE U E
E E E E E
initial final system
! + ! + ! = !
" = " = !
1 2
!the determination of the energy change of the system
concentrates the evaluation of the energy system at initial
and final state of the process, and taking the difference !
( )
( )
( )
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
1
z z mg PE
V V m KE
u u m U
! = "
! = "
! = "
where
88 88
system
E !
!when the final and initial state is specified, the values of
the specific internal energy can be determined from the
property table or property relation.
When the system is stationary, thus, the kinetic and
potential energy is zero,
( )
1 2
u u m U E ! = " = "
Therefore, the energy change reduces to
PE KE U E
E E E E E
! + ! + ! = !
" = " = !
1 2
=0 =0
89 89
E
in
& E
out
!energy can be transferred to or from a system in the form of
heat, work and mass flow, and this energy interaction is only
recognized as it crosses the system boundary. It represent the
energy gained or lost by a system during a process.
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Heat, Q Work, W
Mass Flow, m
90 90
E
in
& E
out
system out mass in mass out in out in out in
E E E W W Q Q E E ! = " + " + " = "
, ,
!realizing that energy is transferred in several forms, the
energy balance can be written as !
91 91
Energy Balance
!" !# $
!" !# $
energy potential and energy
kinetic energy, internal in change
flow mass and work heat,
by nsfer energy tra net
system out in
E E E ! = "
during the process
E E E W W Q Q E E ! = " + " + " = "
, ,
92 92
Energy Balance
t W W ! =
!
!" !# $
%
!" !# $
% %
kinetic energy, internal in change of rate
by nsfer energy tra net of rate
system out in
E E E ! = "
t Q Q ! =
!
In the rate form, the energy balance is represented as
For constant rates, the total quantities during a time
interval are related to the quantities per unit times as
follows:
t E E ! ! = !
!
93 93
Energy Balance
system out in
e e e ! = "
other form of energy balance equation
Energy balance per unit mass
Energy balance in differential form
system out in
system out in
de e e
dE E E
= !
= !
" "
" "
94 94
Energy Balance
out in
out in
E E
E E
=
= ! 0
0
1 2
= ! = " = ! E E E E E
system out in
For a closed system undergoing a CYCLE
Where the initial and final states are identical then
the energy balance for a cycle
simplifies to
In terms of heat and work
in net out net
in net out net
Q W
Q W
, ,
, ,

! !
=
=
95 95
Ex 2-10: Cooling of a Hot Fluid in a Tank

PE KE U E E W W Q Q
E E E E E
out mass in mass out in out in
system out in
! + ! + ! = " + " + "
" = ! = "
, ,
1 2
Energy Balance
where
( )
( )
( )
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
1
z z mg PE
V V m KE
u u m U
! = "
! = "
! = "
96 96
Ex 2-10: Cooling of a Hot Fluid in a Tank

) 0 0 ( ) 0 100 ( ) 500 0 (
, ,
! + ! + ! =
! + ! + ! = !
out mass in mass out in out in out in
E E W W Q Q E E
For E
in
and E
out
0 0 ) 800 (
) ( ) ( ) (
2
1 2 1 2 1 2
+ + ! =
! + ! + ! =
" + " + " = "
U
PE PE KE KE U U
PE KE U E
system
For "E
system
Energy Balance becomes

kJ U
U
U U U E W Q E E
system in sht out out in
400
800 100 500
2
2
1 2 ,
=
! = + !
! = " = " = + ! = !
97 97
ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT
! The conversion of energy from one form
to another often affects the environment
and the air we breathe in many ways, and
thus the study of energy is not complete
without considering its impact on the
environment.
! Pollutants emitted during the combustion
of fossil fuels are responsible for smog,
acid rain, and global warming.
! The environmental pollution has reached
such high levels that it became a serious
threat to vegetation, wild life, and human
health.
98 98
Ozone and Smog
! Smog: Made up mostly of ground-level ozone (O
3
), but it also
contains numerous other chemicals, including carbon monoxide
(CO), particulate matter such as soot and dust, volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) such as benzene, butane, and other
hydrocarbons.
! Hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides react in the presence of sunlight
on hot calm days to form ground-level ozone.
! Ozone irritates eyes and damages the air sacs in the lungs where
oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged, causing eventual
hardening of this soft and spongy tissue.
! It also causes shortness of breath, wheezing, fatigue, headaches,
and nausea, and aggravates respiratory problems such as asthma.
! The other serious pollutant in smog is carbon
monoxide, which is a colorless, odorless,
poisonous gas.
! It is mostly emitted by motor vehicles.
! It deprives the bodys organs from getting
enough oxygen by binding with the red blood
cells that would otherwise carry oxygen. It is
fatal at high levels.
! Suspended particulate matter such as dust and
soot are emitted by vehicles and industrial
facilities. Such particles irritate the eyes and the
lungs.
99 99
Acid Rain
! The sulfur in the fuel reacts with oxygen to form sulfur dioxide
(SO
2
), which is an air pollutant.
! The main source of SO
2
is the electric power plants that burn high-
sulfur coal.
! Motor vehicles also contribute to SO
2
emissions since gasoline and
diesel fuel also contain small amounts of sulfur.
! The sulfur oxides and nitric oxides
react with water vapor and other
chemicals high in the atmosphere in
the presence of sunlight to form
sulfuric and nitric acids.
! The acids formed usually dissolve
in the suspended water droplets in
clouds or fog.
! These acid-laden droplets, which
can be as acidic as lemon juice, are
washed from the air on to the soil
by rain or snow. This is known as
acid rain.
100 100
The Greenhouse Effect: Global Warming
! Greenhouse effect: Glass allows the solar radiation to enter freely
but blocks the infrared radiation emitted by the interior surfaces.
This causes a rise in the interior temperature as a result of the
thermal energy buildup in a space (i.e., car).
! The surface of the earth, which warms up
during the day as a result of the
absorption of solar energy, cools down at
night by radiating part of its energy into
deep space as infrared radiation.
! Carbon dioxide (CO
2
), water vapor, and
trace amounts of some other gases such
as methane and nitrogen oxides act like a
blanket and keep the earth warm at night
by blocking the heat radiated from the
earth. The result is global warming.
! These gases are called greenhouse
gases with CO
2
being the primary
component.
! CO
2
is produced by the burning of fossil
fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
101 101
! A 1995 report: The earth has
already warmed about 0.5C
during the last century, and they
estimate that the earths
temperature will rise another
2C by the year 2100.
! A rise of this magnitude can
cause severe changes in
weather patterns with storms
and heavy rains and flooding at
some parts and drought in
others, major floods due to the
melting of ice at the poles, loss
of wetlands and coastal areas
due to rising sea levels, and
other negative results.
! Improved energy efficiency,
energy conservation, and using
renewable energy sources help
minimize global warming.
102 102
Systematic Solution Method
! Sketch the system and show energy interaction across
the boundary.
! Determine the property relation. Is the working substance
an ideal gas or a real substance? Begin to set up and fill in
a property table.
! Determine the process and sketch the process diagram.
Continue to fill in the property table.
! Apply conservation of mass and conservation of energy
principles.
! Bring in other information from the problem statement,
called physical constraints, such as the volume doubles or
the pressure is halved during the process.
! Develop enough equations for the unknowns and solve.
Chapter 3
Thermodynamics
Properties of Pure Substances
to accompany
104 104
Outline
! Concept of Pure Substance
! Physics of Phase Change
! Property Diagram
! Property Tables
! Ideal Gas and the Ideal Gas Equation
! Real Gas and Compressibility Factor
105 105
PURE SUBSTANCES
! has a homogeneous and fixed chemical composition
throughout and may exist in more than one phase!but the chemical
composition is the same in all phases.
106 106
Phases of Pure Substance
! 3-D pattern and repeated
! attractive forces are large
! spacing very close!zero
! molecules are in fixed
positions
! oscillate about equilibrium
position
! molecule velocity depends
on T
! attractive force weaker than
solid
! spacing slightly greater than
solid
! molecules able to rotate and
translate freely
! molecules are no longer in
fixed position

! attractive forces are the
weakest
! high energy level
! far apart from each other
! non-existent order
! molecule moves at random and
collide within each other
! molecules are no longer in
fixed position

107 107
Phase-Change Processes
of a Pure Substance
Saturated
liquid
Saturated
vapor
108 108
State 1 T=20 C and P=1 atm
At state 1, water exists in the liquid phase, or so
called compressed liquid or subcooled liquid,
meaning that it is not about to vaporize.
Process 1-2 T=20~100 C and P=1 atm
As heat being transfer and the temperature rises, the
liquid water expand thus increases the specific
volume. To accommodate this changes, the piston
will move up. The pressure is kept constant at P=1
atm since it depends on the outside atmospheric
pressure and the weight of the piston.
As more heat is being transferred, the
temperature will keep rising until it reaches
T=100 C, at this point, the water still exists in the
liquid phase and additional heat transfer will cause
some of the liquid water to vaporize.
109 109
Process 2 T=100 C and P=1 atm
At state 2, the liquid water has reached the
temperature, called saturation temperature, at
which it begins to boil and some of the liquid
water will start to vaporize (from liquid to vapor).
A liquid that is about to vaporize is called a
saturated liquid.
Process 2-3 T=100 C and P=1 atm
Once the boiling starts, additional heat transfer
does not increase the temperature of the liquid.
The temperature will remain at 100 C until all the
liquid is completely vaporized. This is where the
phase-change from liquid to vapor takes place if
the pressure remains constant at 1 atm. During
this process, the volume will increase and liquid
level will decrease as result of more liquid turning
to vapor. At this stage, the substance is called
saturated liquid-vapor mixture.
110 110
At state 3, midway about the vaporization line, the
cylinder contains equal amount of liquid and
vapor at constant temperature and pressure.
Process 3-4 T=100 C and P=1 atm
As heat is continued being transferred, the
vaporization process will continue until all liquid
turns into vapor completely. More vapor will
occupy the cylinder as vapor will gradually
increase and liquid decreases. At this stage, the
substance is called saturated liquid-vapor
mixture.

111 111
At state 4, when the last drop of the liquid water is
completely vaporized, the entire cylinder now
contains with vapor that is on the border line of
the liquid phase. Any heat loss from this vapor
will cause some of this vapor to condense (from
vapor to liquid). A vapor that is about to condense
is called a saturated vapor.
Process 4-5 T=100~ C and P=1 atm
As heat is continued being transferred, both the
temperature and the volume will increase. At
temperature higher that the saturation
temperature, any heat loss will result in
temperature drop but no condensation will take
place, as long as the temperature remains above
100 C. A vapor that is not about to condense is
called a superheated vapor.
112 112
Process 5 T= 300 C and P=1 atm
As heat is continued being transferred, both the
temperature and the volume will continue to
increase.
113 113
What happen if we reverse the process?
If the entire process is
reversed by cooling off
the water and whilst
maintaining the pressure
at 1 atm, the liquid water
will return to state 1
retracing the same path .
In doing so, the amount of
heat released will exactly
match the amount of heat
added during the heating
process.
114 114
Saturation Temperature and Pressure
At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes
phase is called Saturation Temperature. Likewise, at a given
temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes phase is called
Saturation Pressure.
Water boils at 100 C at 1 atm
115 115
116 116
117 117
Heat Transfer of Phase Change
Latent Heat
The amount of energy absorbed
and released during phase change
Latent Heat of Fusion
Energy absorbed during melting
Latent Heat of Vaporization
Energy absorbed during vaporization
L=Latent Heat of Substance
mL Q =
Latent Heat of Sublimation
Energy absorbed during sublimation
118 118
! Latent heat: The amount of energy
absorbed or released during a phase-
change process.
! Latent heat of fusion: The amount
of energy absorbed during melting. It is
equivalent to the amount of energy
released during freezing.
! Latent heat of vaporization: The
amount of energy absorbed during
vaporization and it is equivalent to the
energy released during condensation.
! The magnitudes of the latent heats
depend on the temperature or pressure
at which the phase change occurs.
! At 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of
fusion of water is 333.7 kJ/kg and the
latent heat of vaporization is 2256.5 kJ/
kg.
! The atmospheric pressure, and thus
the boiling temperature of water,
decreases with elevation.
Heat Transfer of Phase Change
Latent Heat
119 119
Key Terms
Saturated
liquid
Saturated
vapor
120 120
The T-v Diagram
121 121
The T-v Diagram
122 122
The T-v Diagram
123 123
The P-v Diagram
124 124
The P-v Diagram
solid-liquid-vapor
125 125
The P-T Diagram
The phase diagram
126 126
The P-v-T Surface Diagram
127 127
Property Table
! because the relationship among thermodynamics
properties are too complex to be expressed in term of a
simple equation, these data are normally tabulated in the
form of table.
! Some thermodynamic properties can be measured easily, but
others cannot and are calculated by using the relations between
them and measurable properties.
! The results of these measurements and calculations are presented
in tables in a convenient format.
No Phase Table for H20
1 Saturated liquid and vapor A-4 and A5
2 Superheated vapor A-6
3 Compressed liquid A-7
128 128
Property Table
for saturated liquid and saturated vapor Table A-4Ex1
x1chap3.ppt
129 129
Key Thermodynamics Properties
Enthalpy
! the combination of properties derived for the sake of
simplicity and convenience.
Pv u h
PV U H
+ =
+ =
130 130
Property Table
for saturated liquid and saturated vapor
131 131
Enthalpy
simplicity and convenience. The quantity h
fg
is called the
enthalpy of vaporization (or latent heat of vaporization. It
represent the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit
mass of saturated liquid at a given temperature or
pressure.
Pv u h
PV U H
+ =
+ =
132 132
Property Table
133 133
Property Table
134 134
Property Table
for saturated liquid-vapor mixture
! for constant pressure heat addition process, there is a
mixture of saturated liquid and saturated vapor during the
vaporization process.
135 135
Property Table
Quality x the ratio of mass of vapor to the total mass of
the mixture
136 136
Property Table
137 137
Property Table
For superheated vapor Table A-6
138 138
Property Table
For superheated vapor Table A-6
139 139
Property Table
For superheated vapor
140 140
Property Table
for compressed liquid Table A-7
141 141
Property Table
In the absence of compressed liquid
data, approximate compressed
liquid as saturated liquid at the
temperature
142 142
Property Table
143 143
How to choose the right Table?
! the correct table to use to find the thermodynamics
properties of a real substances can always be determined
by comparing the known state properties to the properties
in the saturation region.
v
f
v
g
v=superheated
table
v=v
f
+ x(v
g
-v
f
)
144 144
Using Steam Tables Ex 4-9 pg 135
145
Sat. mixture
v
f
v
g
T= Tsat@P=200 kPa
u=u
f
+ x(u
g
-u
f
)
X=0.6
P=200 kPa
146
Step 1
Step 3
intensive properties
u
f
u
g
T= Tsat@P=1000 kPa
P=1000 kPa
u=2950

147
4-30 Ten kg of R134A fill a 1.348 m
3
rigid container at an initial
temperature of -40C. The container is then heated until the pressure is
200 kPa. Determine the final temperature and initial pressure.
State T P v Phase
1 -40
C
0.1348
m3/kg
2 200
kPa
extensive properties System, rigid=v constant
Working fluid
Step 1
Find intensive
properties
kg
m
kg
m
m
V
v
mv V
3 3
1348 . 0
10
348 . 1
= = =
=
m=mass (kg)
V=volume (m
3
)
V
1
=V
2
148
State T P v Phase
1
-40C
51.25
kPa
0.1348 m
3
/kg Since v
f
<v<v
g
Saturated mixture
2 200
kPa
v
2
=v
1
0.1348 m
3
/kg
Since v
g
<v
Superheated vapor
Step 1
Step 3
V
f
=0.0007054

V
g
=0.36081

v=v
f
+ x(v
g
-v
f
)=0.1348 m
3
/kg
T
T=-40C
P= Psat@T
=-40C=51.25kPa
P= 200kPa
T= Tsat@P=200kPa
-10.09C
V
f
=0.0007533

V
g
=0.099867

2
1
Step 2
T
2
149
V
f
=0.0007054

V
g
=0.36081

v=v
f
+ x(v
g
-v
f
)=0.1348 m
3
/kg
T
T= C
P= 51.25kPa
P= 200kPa
T= Tsat@P=200kPa
-10.09C
V
f
=0.0007533

V
g
=0.099867

2
1
Step 2
T
2
150
P= 1000 kPa
T= C
v
f
= m
3
/kg v
g
= m
3
/kg
u
f
= kJ/kg u
g
= kJ/kg
151
State T P v Phase
1
-40C
51.25
kPa
0.1348 m
3
/kg Since v
f
<v<v
g
Saturated mixture
2
66.30
C
200
kPa
v
2
=v
1
0.1348 m
3
/kg
Since v
g
<v
Superheated vapor
From Table A-12, under P=200 kPa, v=0.1348 is between T=60C and
70C. Thus, to find T
2
requires interpolation between these temperatures.
T v
60 0.13206
T
2
0.13480
70 0.13641
( )
( )
C T
T v v
v v
T T
T
v v
T T
v v
T T
=
+ !
!
!
=
+ !
!
!
=
!
!
=
!
!
30 . 66
60 13206 . 0 1348 . 0
13206 . 0 13641 . 0
60 70
2
1 1
'
1 2
1 2 '
1
'
1
'
1 2
1 2
State T P v Phase
1 200
kPa
0.12322 m
3
/
kg
Since v
f
<v<v
g
Saturated mixture
2 200
kPa
v
2
=0.5v
1
0.0616 m
3
/kg
Since v
g
<v
Superheated vapor
4.38 One hundreds kg of R 134A at 200 kPa are contained in a
piston-cylinder device whose volume is 12.322 m
3
. The piston in now
moved until the volume is half of its original. This is done such that
the pressure of the R 134A does not change.
Step 1
Find intensive
properties
kg
m
kg
m
m
V
v
mv V
3 3
12322 . 0
100
322 . 12
= = =
=
Determine the R 134A
A) Initial temperature
B) Final temperature
C) Change in the TOTAL internal energy
D) Show this process on a P-v and T-v diagram
v=v
f
+ x(v
g
-v
f
)=0.0616 m
3
/kg
T= Tsat@P=200kPa
-10.09C
V
f
=0.0007533

V
g
=0.099867

2
1
Step 2
T
1
State T P v u Phase
1
40C

200
kPa
0.12322 m
3
/
kg
263.08 Since v
g
<v

Superheated vapor
2
-10.09
C
200
kPa
v
2
=0.5v
1
0.0616 m
3
/kg
Since v
f
<v<v
g
Saturated mixture
X=0.614
P=200 kPa
V=0.12322

V=0.0616

From Table A-12, under P=200 kPa, v=0.12322 is at T=40C
( )
6140 . 0
0007533 . 0 099867 . 0
0007533 . 0 0616 . 0
=
!
!
=
!
!
=
! + =
f g
f mix
f g f mix
v v
v v
x
v v x v v
( )
f g f mix
u u x u u ! + =
2 ,
Then,
( )
( )
kg
kJ
u u x u u
f g f mix
6 . 152
28 . 38 48 . 224 6140 . 0 28 . 38
2 ,
=
! + =
! + =
State T P v u Phase
1
40C

200
kPa
0.12322 m
3
/
kg
263.08 Since v
g
<v

Superheated vapor
2
-10.09
C
200
kPa
v
2
=0.5v
1
0.0616 m
3
/kg
152.6 Since v
f
<v<v
g
Saturated mixture
X=0.614
c) Therefore change in TOTAL internal Energy
( )
( )
kJ
u u m U
048 , 11
08 . 263 6 . 152 100
1 2
! =
! =
! = "
155 155
Definition of a Gas
A liquid will take the
shape of its container
but exhibits a free
surface.
A gas will fill its container
completely and does not
exhibit a free surface.
gas gas
container gas
P T
V V
,
=
156 156
Ideal-Gas
Equation of State
! an equation that relates pressure, volume and
temperature of a sample of matter. Its provides a more
practical and desirable approach in establishing
relationships between the properties of the gases and it
predicts the P-v-T behavior of a gas quite accurately
within some properly selected region.
RT Pv
v
T
R P =
!
"
#
$
%
&
= ,
157 157
gas constant R
M
R
R
u
=
!
"
!
#
$
K kmol m bar
K kmol m kPa
K kmol kJ
R
u
. / . 08314 . 0
. / . 314 . 8
. / 314 . 8
3
3
insert it again.
mol
gram
kmol N
kg m
M = =
) (
) (
! is different for each gas and R
u
is the universal gas
constant
158 158
Ideal-Gas
Several different forms of Equation of State
( )
v N V
NR R MN mR
mv V
u
=
= =
=
159 159
Ideal-Gas
For a fixed mass, the properties of an ideal gas at two
different states are related to each other by
2
2 2
1
1 1
RT
V P
RT
V P
m = =
160 160
How to define
Ideal-Gas
! determination based on
errors yield !
161 161
Compressibility Factor
a measure of deviation from ideal-gas behavior
!real gases deviate from ideal-gases behavior
significantly especially near the saturation region and
critical point. This deviation can be accurately accounted
for by a correction factor called the
compressibility factor Z
ZRT Pv
RT
Pv
Z = = ,
ideal
actual
v
v
Z =
where
P
RT
v
actual
=
162 162
Compressibility Factor
163
Principle of Corresponding States
! gases behave differently at a given temperature and
pressure real gases, but they behave very much the
same at temperature and pressure normalized with
respect to their critical temperatures and pressures
cr
R
P
P
P =
cr
R
T
T
T =
!
!
"
!
!
#
$
... = Z
164 164
Generalized Compressibility Chart
165 165
Observation from Generalized Compressibility Chart
! at very low pressures, P
R
<< 1, the gases
behave as an ideal gas regardless of temperature

! at high temperatures, TR > 2, ideal gas
behavior can be assumed with good accuracy
regardless of pressure (except when PR >> 1)
! the deviation of a gas from ideal-gas behavior is
greatest in the vicinity of the critical point
166 166
pseudo-reduced specific volume
! when P and v, or T and v are given instead of P and
T , the pseudo-reduced specific volume can be
calculated to used the generalized compressibility
chart
cr cr
actual
R
P RT
v
v
/
=
cr
R
P
P
P =
!
!
"
!
!
#
$
... = Z
167 167
Van der Waals
( ) RT b v
v
a
P = !
"
#
$
%
&
'
+
2
cr
cr
cr
cr
P
RT
b
P
T R
a
8
,
64
27
2 2
= =
Equation of State
168
168
Beattie-Bridgeman
!
"
#
$
%
&
' =
!
"
#
$
%
&
' =
v
b
B B
v
a
A A
o o
1 , 1
( )
2 3 2
1
v
A
B v
T v
c
v
T R
P
u
! +
"
#
$
%
&
'
! =
Equation of State
169 169
Equation of State
Benedict-Webb-Rubin
2
3 3
/
2
2
6 2 2
1
1
v
u o
o u o
u
e
v
T v
c
v
a
v
a T bR
v T
C
A T R B
v
T R
P
!
! "
#
$
%
&
'
(
)
+ + +
#
+
$
%
&
'
(
)
# # + =
170 170
Virial
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
.....
5 4 3 2
+ + + + + =
v
T d
v
T c
v
T b
v
T a
v
RT
P
Equation of State
171 171
Comparison
Equation of State
172 172
T
constant
, pump 0 = !T
P
constant
, heater 0 = !P T C u h
av
! " ! = !
( )
1 2 1 2
P P v h h
P v h
! = !
" = "
( )
sat T f T f T P
T f T P
P P v h h
h h
! + "
"
# # #
# #
,
,
By taking state 2 to be compressed liquid at given P and T and
state 1 to be saturated liquid at the same T
Enthalpy Changes
for Liquids
Energy Analysis of Closed System
Chapter 4
Thcrmndynamics
to accompany
174 174
Outline
! Examine the PdV Works
! Identify Energy Balance for Closed System
! Define Specific Heat, Internal Energy and
Enthalpy for Ideal Gas
! Describe incompressible substances
! Analyze Energy Balance for Heat and Work
Interaction of a Closed System
175 175
!work is the energy transfer associated with a force
acting through a distance. If the energy crossing the
boundary of a closed system is not heat, it must be work.
Thermodynamics work is defined as energy in transition
across the system boundary and is done by a system if
the sole effect external to the boundaries could have been
the raising of the weight. Mathematical, the differential of
work can be expressed as
A rising piston, a
rotating shaft, and an
electric wire crossing
the system boundaries
are all associated with
work interactions.
176 176
!if the force F is not constant, the work done
between two states is obtained by adding (integrating)
the differential amounts of work,
! !
= =
2
1
2
1
12
Fds W W "
!total work done during a
process 1-2 is determined by
following the process path and
adding the differential amounts
of work done along the path
177 177
m
W
w =
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
kg
kJ
Power is the work done
per unit time (kW)
178 178
Work Done
! the net work done by a closed system may be in two
forms:-
1. Rotating shaft, electrical , that is other works not
associated with moving boundary works.
2. Moving Boundary Work

Thus, the net work done by a closed system is defined as
By a closed system
( )
( )
b
other
net
b
other
in out net
W W
W W W W
+ =
+
! !
" =
179 179
Moving Boundary Work
!one form of mechanical
works. It is the expansion and
compression work of a
moving boundary in piston-
cylinder devices.
PdV work
Consider, Fig 4-2, initial pressure P, volume
of piston V and total area A. If the piston is
allowed to move a distance ds, in a quasi-
equilibrium manner, the work done during
a process is given by
PdV PAds Fds W
b
= = = !
work is done by
the gas on the
piston
180
Total work Done
The total area A under the process
curve 1-2 is obtained by adding all the
differential areas.
!
=
2
1
PdV W
b
!by adding all the differential
works from the initial stage 1
to the final stage 2.
! !
= = =
2
1
2
1
PdV dA A Area
181 181
therefore, the area under the
process curve on a P-V diagram
is equal, in magnitude, to the
work done during a quasi-
equilibrium expansion or
compression process of a
closed system
Quasi-equilibrium process
A process during which the
system remains nearly in
equilibrium at all times.
W
b
is positive ! for expansion
W
b
is negative ! for compression
182 182
183 183
Energy is conserved
( )dx F A P F
W W W W
crank atm friction
crank atm friction b
!
+ + =
+ + =
2
1
184 184
0
2
1
= =
!
PdV W
b
Work Done
Moving boundary for Constant Volume
Total Work Done
!if the volume is held constant, dV=0, the boundary work equation
becomes
185 185
Work Done
Moving boundary for Constant Pressure
Total work Done
!if the pressure is held constant, the boundary work equation
becomes
( )
1 2
2
1
2
1
V V P dV P PdV W
b
! =
"
=
"
=
186 186
Work Done
Moving boundary for Constant Temperature Ideal Gas
Total work Done
!if the temperature of an ideal gas system is held constant, then the
equation of state provides the pressure volume relation, then
boundary work equation becomes
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
= = =
' '
1
2
2
1
2
1
ln
V
V
mRT dV
V
mRT
PdV W
b
For an ideal gas in a closed system (mass, m=constant),
1
2
2
1
2
2 2
1
1 1
2 1
thus
, ,
V
V
P
P
RT
V P
RT
V P
m m
=
= =
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
=
2
1
ln
P
P
mRT W
b
187 187
Work Done
Moving boundary for Constant Temperature Ideal Gas
Total work Done
1
2
1 1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
ln
ln
V
V
V P
V
V
C
V
dV
C
dV
V
C
PdV W
b
=
=
=
= =
!
! !
V
C
P
or
C mRT PV
=
= =
mRT V P V P = =
2 2 1 1
where
188 188
Work Done
!for actual expansion and compression processes of
gases, pressure and volume are often related by
PV
n
=C, where n and C are constants.
Polytropic Process
189 189
Work Done
Polytropic Process
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
+ !
!
=
= =
+ ! + !
!
" "
n
V V
C
dV CV PdV W
n n
n
b
n
CV P
!
=
The pressure for a polytropic process can be expressed
as
Thus,
190 190
Work Done
Polytropic Process
n n
V P V P C
2 2 1 1
= =
1
1
1 1 2 2
!
"
"
=
n
n
V P V P
W
b
since
191 191
Work Done
Polytropic Process for Ideal Gas
( )
1
1
1 2
!
"
"
=
n
n
T T mR
W
b
Ideal Gas
mRT PV =
192 192
Work Done
Polytropic Process for n=1
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
=
= =
' '
(
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
ln
V
V
PV
dV CV PdV W
b
193 193
Energy Balance
system out in
E E E ! = "
during the process
194 194
system
E !
PE KE U E
E E E E E
! + ! + ! = !
" = " = !
1 2
( )
( )
( )
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
1
z z mg PE
V V m KE
u u m U
! = "
! = "
! = "
where
195 195
system
E !
( )
1 2
u u m U E ! = " = "
PE KE U E
E E E E E
! + ! + ! = !
" = " = !
1 2
=0 =0
196 196
E
in
& E
out
E E E W W Q Q E E ! = " + " + " = "
, ,
197 197
Energy Balance
!" !# $
!" !# $
system out in
E E E ! = "
during the process
E E E W W Q Q E E ! = " + " + " = "
, ,
198 198
Energy Balance
t W W ! =
!
!" !# $
%
!" !# $
% %
kinetic energy, internal in change of rate
by nsfer energy tra net of rate
system out in
E E E ! = "
t Q Q ! =
!
In the rate form, the energy balance is represented as
For constant rates, the total quantities during a time
interval are related to the quantities per unit times as
follows:
t E E ! ! = !
!
199 199
Energy Balance
system out in
e e e ! = "
other form of energy balance equation
Energy balance per unit mass
Energy balance in differential form
system out in
system out in
de e e
dE E E
= !
= !
" "
" "
200 200
Energy Balance
out in
out in
E E
E E
=
= ! 0
0
1 2
= ! = " = ! E E E E E
system out in
For a closed system undergoing a CYCLE
Where the initial and final states are identical then
the energy balance for a cycle
simplifies to
In terms of heat and work
in net out net
in net out net
Q W
Q W
, ,
, ,

! !
=
=
201 201
Energy Balance for Closed System
PE KE U W Q
E W Q
out net in net
system out net in net
! + ! + ! = "
! = "
, ,
, ,
! the energy balance for a closed system, based on the classical
thermodynamics sign convention, is represented as
If the system is does not move with a velocity and has
no change in the elevation
1 2
, ,
) ( U U W W Q Q
U W Q
in out out in
out net in net
! = ! ! !
" = !
202 202
Energy Balance for a Cycle
in out out in
out net in net
out net in net
W W Q Q
W Q
U W Q
! = !
=
" = !
, ,
, ,
!a thermodynamics cycle is composed of processes that cause
the working fluid to undergoes a series of processes such that the
final and initial states are identical, therefore, the change in the
internal energy of the working fluid is zero for whole number of cycle,
thus the energy balance becomes
Closed system
0
203 203
Systematic Solution Method
! Sketch the system and show energy interaction across
the boundary.
! Determine the property relation. Is the working substance
an ideal gas or a real substance? Begin to set up and fill in
a property table.
! Determine the process and sketch the process diagram.
Continue to fill in the property table.
! Apply conservation of mass and conservation of energy
principles.
! Bring in other information from the problem statement,
called physical constraints, such as the volume doubles or
the pressure is halved during the process.
! Develop enough equations for the unknowns and solve.
204 204
Enthalpy
simplicity and convenience. The quantity h
fg
is called the
enthalpy of vaporization (or latent heat of vaporization. It
represent the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit
mass of saturated liquid at a given temperature or
pressure.
Pv u h
PV U H
+ =
+ =
205 205
Enthalpy
dP
P
h
dT
T
h
dh
T P
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
+
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
=
) , ( P T h h =
206 206
Internal Energy
dv
v
u
dT
T
u
du
T v
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
+
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
=
) , ( v T u u =
207 207
Specific Heat
! is defined as the energy required
to raise the temperature of a unit
mass of a substance by one degree
at maintained volume c
V
or
pressure c
P

! it take different amounts of energy
to raise the temperature of identical
masses of different substances by
one degree due to energy storage
capabilities of various substances!

! is specified by two independent
intensive properties, thus it is
different at different temperature and
pressure
208 208
Specific Heat
At constant volume c
v
dv
v
u
dT
T
u
du
T v
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
+
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
=
= 0
v
v
T
u
c
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
=
! is the change in internal energy
with temperature at constant volume

209 209
Specific Heat
At constant pressure c
p
dP
P
h
dT
T
h
dh
T P
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
+
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
=
P
P
T
h
c
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
=
! is the change in enthalpy with
temperature at constant pressure

= 0
210
Specific Heat-Summary
211 211
Internal Energy For Ideal Gases
) (T u u =
(Shown in experiments performed by
Joule in 1843.)
212 212
Enthalpy For Ideal Gases
( ) ( )
( ) T h h
RT T u T h
Pv u h
=
+ =
+ =
213 213
Specific Heat For Ideal Gases
for constant volume c
v
( )
( )dT T c du
dT
du
T
u
c
T u
v
v
v
=
=
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
=
=
214 214
Specific Heat For Ideal Gases
for constant pressure c
p
( )
( )dT T c dh
dT
dh
T
h
c
T h
P
v
P
=
=
!
"
#
$
%
&
'
'
=
=
215 215
Internal Energy and Enthalpy
For Ideal Gases
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
!
!
= " = #
= " = #
2
1
2
1
1 2
1 2
T
T
P
T
T
v
dT c T h T h h
dT c T u T u u
216 216
Specific Heat for Ideal Gas
217 217
For Ideal Gases
( )
( )
1 2 , 1 2
1 2 , 1 2
T T c h h
T T c u u
ave p
ave v
! = !
! = !
218
For Ideal Gases
THREE methods to determine the internal energy and
enthalpy changes of ideal gases
( )
( )
1 2 , 1 2
1 2 , 1 2
T T c h h h
T T c u u u
ave p
ave v
! = ! = "
! = ! = "
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
!
!
= " = #
= " = #
2
1
2
1
1 2
1 2
T
T
p
T
T
v
dT c T h T h h
dT c T u T u u
1 2
1 2
h h h
u u u
! = "
! = "
! using property table

! using the temperature
function and performing
integration (Table A-2c)
! using average specific
heat (Table A-2b)

219 219
Specific Heat Relations
of Ideal Gases
R c c
RdT dT c dT c
RdT du dh
RT u h
v P
v P
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
v
P
c
c
k =
Specific Heat
Ratio
220 220
Specific Heats
for Solids and Liquids
c c c
v p
= =
221 221
Internal Energy Changes
for Solids and Liquids
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 2
2
1
1 2
T T c u
dT T c u u u
dT T c dT c du
T u u
ave
v
! " #
= ! = #
= =
=
$
222 222
Enthalpy Changes
for Solids
T c u h
vdP T c vdP u h
vdP du Pdv vdP du dh
Pv u h
ave
ave
! " ! = !
+ ! " + ! = !
+ = + + =
+ =
= 0 for incompressible
= 0 for solid
223 223
Enthalpy Changes
for Liquids constant pressure process
vdP T c vdP u h
vdP du Pdv vdP du dh
Pv u h
ave
+ ! " + ! = !
+ = + + =
+ =
P
constant
, heater
0 = !P T c u h
ave
! " ! = !
= 0
224
Enthalpy Changes
for Liquids constant temperature process
vdP T c vdP u h
av
+ ! " + ! = !
T
constant
, pump
0 = !T
( )
1 2 1 2
P P v h h
P v h
! = !
" = "
= 0
( )
sat T f T f T P
T f T P
P P v h h
h h
! + "
"
# # #
# #
,
,
By taking state 2 to be compressed liquid at given P and T and
state 1 to be saturated liquid at the same T
Mass and Energy Analysis of Control Volumes
Chapter 5
Thcrmndynamics
to accompany
226 226
Outline
! Develop the conservation of mass principle
! Apply the conservation of mass principle to
steady and un-steady flow for control volumes
! Define the flow work and energy by flowing fluid
! Apply energy balance to control volumes
devices for steady and un-steady flow.
227 227
Energy Transfer
Mass
out
Mass
in

System Boundary
Control Volume
!energy may be transported across the system boundary in several
ways. In a closed system (fixed mass), energy is transported in the
form of heat and work. For control volume (open system), energy
can cross the boundary in the form of heat, work and energy
transported by the mass stream crossing the control surface.
Heat
Work
228 228
Sign Convention For Energy Transfer
by Heat and Work
Heat and work are directional quantities, thus their magnitude
and direction are necessary to completely describe them
Classical Sign Convention
heat transfer to a system and work done by a system are positive
229 229
Energy Transfer by Mass
In addition to the heat transfer and work crossing the
system boundaries, mass carries energy with it as
it crosses the system boundaries. Thus, the mass and
energy content of the open system or control volume
may change when mass enters or leaves the system.
230 230
Energy Balance
system out in
E E E ! = "
during the process
231 231
system
E !
PE KE U E
E E E E E
! + ! + ! = !
" = " = !
1 2
( )
( )
( )
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
1
z z mg PE
V V m KE
u u m U
! = "
! = "
! = "
where
232 232
system
E !
( )
1 2
u u m U E ! = " = "
PE KE U E
E E E E E
! + ! + ! = !
" = " = !
1 2
=0 =0
233 233
E
in
& E
out
E E E W W Q Q E E ! = " + " + " = "
, ,
234 234
Energy Balance
!" !# $
!" !# $
system out in
E E E ! = "
during the process
E E E W W Q Q E E ! = " + " + " = "
, ,
235
Mass Flow Rate
the amount mass flow a cross section per unit time is
called mass flow rate
m
!
c avg
A
c n
A
c n
A V m
dA V m m
dA V m
c c
!
! "
! "
=
= =
=
# #
!
! !
!
Where
c
m
n
A
V
V Velocity component normal to A
Mean Velocity normal to A
Cross area of the pipe
236 236
Volume Flow Rate
! the volume of fluid flow through a cross section per
unit time is called volume flow rate V
!
c c ave c
A
n
A V A V dA V V
c
= = =
!
!
Relation between mass
and volume flow rate
v
V
V m
!
!
!
= = !
237 237
Conservation of Mass Principle
!is expressed as net mass transfer to or from a
system during a process is equal to the net change in
the total mass of the system during that process
1 2
m m
m m m
CV out in
! =
" = !
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
(
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' t during CV within
mass in change Net
t during CV leaving
mass TTL
t during CV entering
mass TTL
238 238
dt
dm
m m
CV
out in
= !
! !
where
insert it again.
dt
dm
m
m
CV
out
in
!
!
TTL rate of mass flow in and out of the system
The rate of change of mass within the
boundary
The mass balance
It can also be expressed in term of rate form as
239 239
Control Volume
The general rate form of mass balance
!
"
!
"
!
!
" "
= #
= #
CV
e
A
n i
A
n
CV
out in
dV
dt
d
dA V dA V
dV
dt
d
m m
e i
$ $ $
$
) ( ) (
! !
!and when the properties at the inlet and out outlet
as well as within the control volume are not uniform,
the mass flow rate, can be expressed in the
differential form as
m
!
c n
dA V m ! " = !
240 240
Steady-Flow Process
The mass balance
insert it again.
During a steady-flow process, the amount of mass
contained within a control volume does not change with
time. Thus !
! !
=
out in
m m
! !
0 = ! =
CV
CV
m
dt
dm
!
241 241
5tcady-F!nw5ing!c5trcam
insert it again.
Thcmassba!ancc
insert it again.
2 2 2 1 1 1
2 1
A V A V
m m
m m
out in
! ! =
=
=
! !
! !
242 242
Incompressible Steady-Flow
The mass balance
!for incompressible working fluid, when density is
constant, the mass balance form shall be
2 2 1 1
2 1
2 2 2 1 1 1
2 1
A V A V
V V
V V
A V A V
m m
out in
=
=
=
=
=
! !
! !
! !
! !
" "
243 243
Flow Work of Flowing Fluid
since control volume involve mass flow across the boundary, some
work is required to push the mass in and out of the system! this is
known as flow work or flow energy
Flow work per unit mass
the term Pv is called the flow work on the
unit mass as it crosses the control surface
PV PAL FL W
PA F
flow
= = =
=
Pv w
flow
=
244 244
Total Energy of Flowing Fluid
!the total energy of the fluid entering and leaving a
control volume is the sum of internal energy, potential
energy, kinetic energy and an additional energy ! the
flow energy. Then the total energy of a flowing fluid on
a unit-mass basis becomes
( )
gz
V
h
pe ke h
pe ke u Pv
pe ke u Pv e Pv
+ + =
+ + =
+ + + =
+ + + = + =
2
2
!
h =
245 245
Energy Transport by Mass
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
+ + = =
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
+ + = =
gz
V
h m m E
gz
V
h m m E
mass
mass
2
2
2
2
! !
!
'
'
Amount of Energy Transport
Rate of Energy Transport
246 246
Energy Balance for Open System
! the conservation of energy principle for open system apply to a
system having a mass crossing the system boundary or control
surface. In addition to the heat transfer and work crossing the
boundary, the mass carries energy with it as it crosses the system
boundary. Thus, for a control volume system, conservation of mass
principle shall also be included, as the mass and energy content of
the control volume system may change when mass enters or leaves
the control volume
247 247
!is expressed as net mass transfer to or from a
system during a process is equal to the net change in
the total mass of the system during that process
1 2
m m
m m m
CV out in
! =
" = !
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
(
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' t during CV within
mass in change Net
t during CV leaving
mass TTL
t during CV entering
mass TTL
248 248
Conservation of Energy Principle

!
!
!
"
#
$
$
$
%
&
=
!
!
!
"
#
$
$
$
%
&
'
!
!
!
"
#
$
$
$
%
&
volume control
the inside enery of
change rate time
volume control the
from flowing energy
of rate of sum
volume control the
into flowing energy
of rate of sum
! the conservation of energy principle for the open system or
control volume is expressed as
! " #
$
%! %" #
$ $
energies potential and
kinetic internal, in change rate
mass and work heat, by
nsfer energy tra net of rate
system out in
E E E ! = "
for Open System
249 249
! !
! !
= " " +
dt
dE
m W m Q
CV
e e net i i net
exit each for inlet each for
# #
"
"
"
"
! considering that energy flows into and from the control volume
with the mass, energy enters because the net heat is transferred to
the control volume, and energy leaves because the control volume
does net work on its surrounding, the control volume energy balance
becomes
gz
V
h
gz
V
Pv u
h
+ + =
+ + + =
2
2
2
2
! " #
!
for Open System
250 250
! !
" =
#
#
$
%
&
&
'
(
+ + ) )
#
#
$
%
&
&
'
(
+ + +
CV e
e
e e net i
i
i i net
E gz
V
h m W gz
V
h m Q
!
" " " # " " " $ %
!
!
" " " # " " " $ %
!
!
exit each for
2
inlet each for
2
2 2
Therefore, the energy balance becomes,
CV out in
E E E
! ! !
! = "
for Open System
251 251
Steady Flow Systems
0
0
= ! =
= ! =
CV
CV
CV
CV
E
dt
dE
m
dt
dm
!
!
! define as a process during which the working fluid flows through a
control volume steadily, remains constant during the entire process
with respect to time. During this process, no intensive or extensive
properties within the control volume change with time, as a result,
the boundary work is zero
252 252
!
!
!
"
#
$
$
$
%
&
=
!
!
!
"
#
$
$
$
%
&
volume control
from flowing mass
of rate of sum
volume control
into flowing mass
of rate of sum
! since the mass of the control volume is constant with time during
the steady state, steady flow process, the conservation of mass
principle becomes
! !
=
out in
m m
! !
for Steady Flow
253 253
! !
system the from
system the into
out in
E E
" "
=
! since the energy of the control volume is constant with time during
the steady state, steady flow process, the conservation of energy
principle becomes
for Steady Flow
dt
dE
E E
E E E
system
out in
system out in
= !
" = !
! !
=0 for steady
254 254
! !
! !
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
+ + + + =
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
+ + + +
+ + = + +
! ! ! " ! ! ! # $
%
% %
! ! ! " ! ! ! # $
%
% %
%
% %
%
% %
exit each for
2
inlet each for
2
2 2
e
e
e e out out i
i
i i in in
out
out out
in
in in
gz
V
h m W Q gz
V
h m W Q
m W Q m W Q ( (
! !
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
+ + (
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
+ + = (
! ! ! " ! ! ! # $
%
! ! ! " ! ! ! # $
%
% %
inlet each for
2
exit each for
2
2 2
i
i
i i e
e
e e net net
gz
V
h m gz
V
h m W Q
Considering that energy flows into and from the control volume with
the mass, energy enters because heat is transferred to the control
volume, and energy leaves because the control volume does work on
its surroundings, the steady-state, steady flow first law becomes,
for Steady Flow
Simplified !.
! !
" =
! !
" =
in out net out in net
W W W Q Q Q
! ! ! ! ! !
and
where,
255 255
One Inlet & One Outlet
! many engineering devices which operates in thermodynamics
system operates with one inlet and one outlet such as, nozzles,
diffusers, turbines, compressors, heaters. The steady state, steady
flow conservation of mass and energy balance reduces to
2 2
2
1 1
1
2 1
1 1
A V
v
A V
v
m m
m m
out in
=
=
=
! !
! !
! !
Mass Balance
Steady State, Steady Flow
256 256
One Inlet & One Outlet
( )
( )
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' +
'
+ ' = '
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' +
'
+ ' = '
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
2
z z g
V V
h h w q
z z g
V V
h h m W Q
!
! !
1 2
h h w q ! = !
0 0
Steady State, Steady Flow
Energy Balance
257 257
Condition of Parameters
( )
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' +
'
+ ' = '
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
z z g
V V
h h m W Q
!
! !
fer heat trans of rate = Q
!
! +ve when heat is added,
ve when losing heat (i.e. heaters)
! zero when the control volume is
well insulated (i.e. adiabatic system)
258 258
( )
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' +
'
+ ' = '
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
z z g
V V
h h m W Q
!
! !
power = W
!
! zero, for steady state because
constant volume thus no boundary
work
! represent work done by others
(i.e. shaft, electrical)
259 259
change Enthalpy
1 2
= ! = " h h h
( )
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' +
'
+ ' = '
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
z z g
V V
h h m W Q
!
! !
! for fluid, the exit and inlet states
refers the property table
! for ideal gases, approximates
from
( )
1 2 ,
T T c h
ave P
! = "
260 260
energy kinetic of Change
2
2
1
2
2
=
!
= "
V V
KE
( )
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' +
'
+ ' = '
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
z z g
V V
h h m W Q
!
! !
! neglect, for low velocities
! zero, when the inlet and exit
velocities is equal
261 261
( ) energy potential of Change
1 2
= ! = " z z g PE
( )
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
' +
'
+ ' = '
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
z z g
V V
h h m W Q
!
! !
! zero, for no elevation different
262 262
Nozzles & Diffusers
! commonly utilized in jet engines,
rockets, garden hoses and many
orders. A nozzle is a devices that
increases the velocity of the fluid
by the reducing a pressure, whilst a
diffuser is a device that increases
the pressure of a fluid by slowing
the velocity. The heat transfer Q, work
W and potential energy PE are
normally neglected and they have one
entrance and one exit. This is a
control volume system.
263 263
Turbines
! is the device that drives the electric generator in a hydroelectric
power plant. As the working fluid passes through the turbine, work is
done against the blade, which is attached to the shaft. As a result, the
shaft rotates, and the turbine produces work. The work done in a
turbine is positive since it is done by the fluid. This is a control
volume system.
264 264
! compressors, as well as, pumps and fans, are devices used to
increase the pressure of a fluid. Work is supplied to these
devices from an external source through a rotating shaft. Therefore,
these devices required work input. Compressor is capable of
compressing the gas to a very high pressure, whilst fan increases the
pressure of a gas just slightly. Pump, on the other hand, work with
liquid, performing the same functions as a compressors.
Compressor & Pump
265 265
Throttling valves are a kind of flow-restricting
devices that cause a significant pressure
drop in the fluid. Unlike, turbines, they
produces a pressure drop without involving
any work, and this pressure drop is always
accompanied with a large drop in temperature.
Commonly used in refrigeration and air-
conditioning application.
Throttling Valve
2 2 2 1 1 1
1 2
v P u v P u
h h
+ = +
!
266 266
The mixing of two fluids occur
frequently in engineering application.
The section where the mixing
process took place is called a mixing
chamber. The ordinary shower is an
example of mixing chamber.
Mixing Chambers
267 267
Heat exchangers are a well-insulated devices that allow energy
exchange between hot and cold fluids without mixing the fluids. The
devices that causing the fluids to flow across the control surface are
normally located outside the control surface.
Heat Exchanger
268 268
The flow of fluids through pipes and ducts usually satisfies the
steady flow process. They are of importance in many engineering
application because liquids or gases are normally transported
through them.
Pipe & Duct Flow
269 269
Unsteady Flow Systems
! unlike steady flow system, unsteady flow or transient flow system
involves changes within the control volume with time.

270 270
Unsteady Flow vs Steady Flow
! Change occurs
within the control
volume
! Start and end over
finite time period
! Not fixed, may
involve moving
boundaries and thus
boundary work
! Change do not
occur within the
control volume
! Process continue
indefinitely
! Fixed in space,
size and shape
271 271
Unsteady Flow Systems
! generally, unsteady flow process is difficult to analyze because the
properties of the mass at the inlets and exits may change during a
process. Therefore, most unsteady flow process can be represented
well by the uniform flow process.
Definition !
uniform implies no change with location
over a specified region
272 272
Uniform Flow System
! The process takes place over a
specified time period
! The state of the mass within the
control volume is uniform at any
instant but may vary with time
! The state of mass crossing the
control surface is uniform and steady
! The mass flow may be different at
different control surface location
Assumption of Uniform Flow System
273 273
Uniform Flow System
! The fluid properties do not change with time or
position over the cross section of an inlet or
exit. If they do, they are averaged and treated as
constants for the entire process.
! The state of the mass leaving the control
volume at any instant is the same as the state
of the mass in the control volume at that
instant.
! The initial and final properties of the control
volume are determined from the knowledge of
the initial and final states.
Idealization of Uniform Flow System
274 274
! the mass balance for a control volume for unsteady flow system
can be represented as
( )
CV
t t
e
t
i
CV
e i
dt
dm
dt m dt m
m m m m
! ! !
" "
= #
# = #
0 0 0
1 2
! !
for Unsteady Flow System
275 275
!" !# $
!" !# $
system out in
E E E ! = "
! the energy balance for a control volume for unsteady flow system
can be represented as
( )
sys
out
out out
in
in in
e m e m m W Q m W Q
1 1 2 2
! = "
#
$
%
&
'
+ + ! "
#
$
%
&
'
+ +
( (
) )
276 276
( )
( )
sys
in out
sys
out
out out
in
in in
u m u m mh mh W Q
u m u m mh W Q mh W Q
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
! + ! = !
! = "
#
$
%
&
'
+ + ! "
#
$
%
&
'
+ +
( (
( (
pe ke u e pe ke h + + = + + = and !
Since
When the kinetic and potential energy changes associated with the
control volume and the fluid streams are negligible, the energy
balance is simplified to
in out
out in
W W W
Q Q Q
! =
! =
Where
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
Chapter 6
Thcrmndynamics
to accompany
278
Outline
! Introduce the 2
nd
Law of Thermodynamics and
processes that satisfy both the 1
st
and 2
nd
Laws.
! Define Energy Reservoirs, Reversible and Irreversible
processes, Heat Engine, Refrigerators and Heat pumps.
! Describe Kelvin-Planck and Clausius Statements of the
2
nd
Law of Thermodynamics.
! Describe Thermodynamics Temperature Scale.
! Introduce Carnot Cycle, Principles and Idealized Carnot
Heat Engine, Refrigerators and Heat Pumps.
! Introduce Performance Measurements for Heat Engine,
Refrigerators and Heat Pumps.
278
279
Second Law of Thermodynamics
processes occur in a certain
direction, not in just any direction,
and that energy has quality as well
as quantity
279
280
Thermal Heat Reservoirs
! is a sufficiently large system in a stable equilibrium that can
supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without undergoing
any change in temperature. A high temperature reservoir that supply
energy in the form of heat is called Heat Source, and the low
temperature reservoir that absorb energy in the form of heat is called
Heat Sink.
280
281
Thermodynamics Cycles
A system has completed a thermodynamic cycle when the system
undergoes a series of processes and then return to its original state,
so that the properties of the system
at the end of the cycle are the same as at its beginning.
i f i f i f i f
v v u u T T P P = = = = , , ,
281
282
Heat Engines
! is a thermodynamic system device operating in
a thermodynamic cycle to convert heat to work.
Its operation involves a fluid to and from which
heat is transferred while undergoing a cycle. This
fluid is called working fluid.
! receive heat from a high-
temperature source
! convert part of the heat to work
! reject remaining heat as waste to a
low-temperature sink
! operate in a cycle
282
283
Heat Engines
Steam Power Plant
283
284
Thermal Efficiency
input Required
output Desired
e Performanc =
in
out net
th
Q
W
,
= !
For Heat Engine
! is the index of performance of a work-producing device or heat
engine and is defined by the ratio of the net work output (desired
output) to the total heat input (required input).
For a heat engine, the thermal efficiency is
in out out net
W W W ! =
,
where
284
285
Thermal Efficiency
in
out
in
out in
th
Q
Q
Q
Q Q
! =
!
=
1
"
For Heat Engine
Applying the energy balance to the heat engine, for a closed
system
the thermal efficiency may also be written as
out in
in net out net
out net in net
Q Q
Q W
U W Q
! =
=
" = !
, ,
, ,
285
= 0
286
Thermal Efficiency for Heat Engine
H
L
H
L H
H
out net
th
Q
Q
Q
Q Q
Q
W
! =
!
=
=
1
,
"
Cyclic devices such as heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps
often operates between a high temperature reservoir at temperature
T
H
and low temperature reservoir at temperature T
L
. Applying the
energy balance to the heat engine, for a closed system
thermal efficiency
286
287 287
Can We Save Qout?
In a steam power plant, the
condenser is the device where
large quantities of waste heat is
rejected to rivers, lakes, or the
atmosphere.
Can we not just take the
condenser out of the plant and
save all that waste energy?
The answer is, unfortunately, a
firm no for the simple reason that
without a heat rejection process
in a condenser, the cycle cannot
be completed.
Every heat engine must waste some
energy by transferring it to a low-
temperature reservoir in order to
complete the cycle, even under idealized
conditions.
288
Kelvin-Planck Statement
It is impossible for any device that operates on a
cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and
produce a net amount of work
No heat engine can
produce a net amount
of work while
exchanging heat with
a single reservoir
288
289
Refrigerators
! is a thermodynamic system
device operating in a
thermodynamic cycle that
transfer heat from a low-
temperature medium to a
high-temperature medium.
289
290
Coefficient of Performance
in net
L
R
W
Q
COP
,
input Required
output Desired
= =
The efficiency of a refrigerator is expressed in term of the
coefficient of performance COP
R
. The objective of a refrigerator is to
remove Q
L
from the refrigerator space to cool it down.
For Refrigerator
290
291
1
1
!
=
!
=
L
H
L H
L
R
Q
Q
Q Q
Q
COP
L H in
H L in
out in in out
in net out net
out net in net
Q Q W
Q Q W
Q Q W W
Q W
U W Q
! =
! = !
! = !
=
" = !
, ,
, ,
Applying the energy balance,
For Refrigerator
Coefficient of Performance,
291
= 0
292
Heat Pumps
! is another device that transfer heat
from a low-temperature medium to a
high-temperature medium. The
objective of heat pump, however, is to
maintained a heated space at a high
temperature by absorbing heat from a
low-temperature source and supplying
this heat to the high-temperature
medium.
292
293
in net
H
HP
W
Q
COP
,
input Required
output Desired
= =
The efficiency of a heat pumps is also expressed in term of the
coefficient of performance COP
HP
.
For Heat Pumps
293
294
H
L
L H
H
HP
Q
Q
Q Q
Q
COP
!
=
!
=
1
1
L H in
H L in
out in in out
in net out net
out net in net
Q Q W
Q Q W
Q Q W W
Q W
U W Q
! =
! = !
! = !
=
" = !
, ,
, ,
Applying the energy balance,
For Heat Pumps
Coefficient of Performance,
294
= 0
295
Under the same operating condition,
Relationships between Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
1 + =
R HP
COP COP
295
296
Clausius Statement
It is impossible to construct a
device that operates in a cycle and
produces no effect other than the
temperature body to a higher-
temperature body
296
297
Heat Pump vs Refrigeration
H
L
HP
Q
Q
COP
!
=
1
1
1
1
!
=
L
H
R
Q
Q
COP
297
298
Heat Engine vs Heat Pump
H
L
th
Q
Q
! =1 "
1
1
!
=
L
H
R
Q
Q
COP
298
299
Kelvin-Planck Statement
It is impossible for any device that operates on a
cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and
produce a net amount of work
No heat engine can
produce a net amount
of work while
exchanging heat with
a single reservoir
299
300
Clausius Statement
It is impossible to construct a
device that operates in a cycle and
produces no effect other than the
temperature body to a higher-
temperature body
300
301
Kelvin-Planck vs Clausius
The Equivalence
Both statements are equivalent in their consequences
and can be used as expression of the second law of
thermodynamics.
The violation of
either statement
implies the violation
of the second law of
thermodynamics
301
302
Perpetual-Motion Machine
Any device that violates the first and second law of
thermodynamics is called a perpetual-motion machine
302
303
Perpetual-Motion Machine
Any device that violates the first and second law of
thermodynamics is called a perpetual-motion machine
303
304
Reversible Processes
! defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any trace
on the surroundings. That is, both the system and the surroundings
are returned to their initial states at the end of the reversed process.
net heat and net work is zero between the system and surrounding.
! Reversible process deliver the most work by
consuming the least work, in reality cannot be
achieved due to irreversibilities.
! Idealization of actual process.
! Viewed as theoretical limit for actual process.
304
305
Irreversible Processes
! the opposite of a reversible process. Once a process occurs in a
certain direction, this process can not reverse themselves
spontaneously and restore the system to
its initial state. In order to be reversible, the
surroundings usually do some works on
the system and therefore the system will
not return to their initial states.
305
306
Irreversibilities
! the factors that cause a process irreversible are called
irreversibilities.
! Frictions
! Unrestrained expansion of gas
! Heat transferred through finite
temperature difference

306
307
Internally Reversible Process
A process is called internally reversible if no irreversibilities occur
within the boundaries of the system during the process. The quasi-
equilibrium process is an example of an internally reversible process.
307
308
Externally Reversible Process
A process is called externally reversible if no irreversibilities occur
outside the system boundaries during the process. Heat transfer
between a reservoir and a system if the outer surface of the system is
at the temperature of the reservoir.
308
309
The Carnot Cycle
Probably the best reversible cycle, developed by Sadi Carnot,
which composed of four reversible processes, two isothermal and
two adiabatic, and can be executed either in a closed system or a
steady-flow system. Being a reversible cycle, the Carnot Cycle is the
most efficient cycle operation between two specified
temperature limits. In reality, it cannot be achieved but it can be
improved by attempting to approximate the cycle more closely.
309
310
The Carnot Cycle
Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2,T
H
=constant)
Initially, the temperature of the gas is T
H
and the cylinder is
contact with the heat reservoir, where the gas takes in heat
Q
H
at high temperature T
H
. Because the system absorbs heat
in a reversible process, its temperature is the same as the
reservoir (isothermal). As the heat is absorbed, the gas
expands and does work on the piston. At the same time, the
temperature of the gas tends to decrease. But as soon as the
temperature drops by infinitesimal amount dT, some heat
flows from the reservoir, raising the gas temperature to T
H
.
Since the temperature difference between the gas and
reservoir never exceeds a differential amount dT, this is a
reversible process.
This process continues until the
piston reaches state 2. During
this isothermal process, the
internal energy of system does
not change, therefore the work
done by the system is equal to
the heat transfer.

310
311
The Carnot Cycle
Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3,T
H
drops to T
L
)
At state 2, the reservoir that was in contact with the cylinder
is removed and replaced with insulation so that the system
becomes adiabatic, where the heat input is zero. As the gas
continue doing work by expanding slowly, its internal energy
reduces. This expanding accompanied by temperature
reduction until the cylinder reaches the temperature of the
heat sink, TL.
The piston is assumed to be friction-less and the process to
be quasi-equilibrium, therefore the process is reversible and
adiabatic.
311
312
The Carnot Cycle
Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 3-4,T
L
=constant)
At state 3, the insulation is removed and the cylinder is
brought back into contact with the heat sink at TL. Here the
gas undergoes an isothermal contraction in which an
amount of QL is released to the heat sink TL. As the gas is
compressed, its temperature tends to increase. But as soon as
it rises by an infinitesimal amount dT, heat flows from the
gas to the heat sink. Since the temperature difference
between the gas and the heat sink never exceeds a
differential amount dT, this is a reversible heat transfer
process.
This process continues until the
piston reaches state 4. During
this isothermal process, the
internal energy of system does
not change, therefore the heat
released is equal to the work
done on the system.

312
313
The Carnot Cycle
Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 4-1,T
L
rises to T
H
)
At state 4, the cylinder is moved back to the insulation body
and the gas is compressed in a reversible manner. Again, the
heat transfer is zero and because the volume is decreasing
(work is being done to the system), the internal energy and
the temperature rises. This temperature rises from TL to TH
during this reversible adiabatic compression process.
When the temperature reaches the reservoir temperature,
TH, the insulation is removed and the cylinder is brought to
the reservoir TH and the cycle starts again.
313
314
The Reversed Carnot Cycle
Carnot Refrigeration cycle
Being a reversible processes, all processes of Carnot Cycle can be
reversed, in which it becomes the Carnot Refrigeration Cycle. The
cycles remain the exactly the same, except that the directions of heat
and work interactions are reversed.
314
315
The Carnot Principles
2 ., , 1 ., ,
, , . ,
rev th rev th
carnot rev th irrev th
! !
! !
=
<
Based on the Kelvin-Plank and Clausius statements of the second law
of Thermodynamics, two conclusions were derived for the heat
engine operating between two fixed temperature reservoirs, T
H
> T
L
,
pertaining to the thermal efficiency of the reversible and irreversible
processes, known as the Carnot Principle.
1
2
315
316
Thermodynamics Temperature Scales
As a result of Carnot Principle, Lord Kelvin used energy as a
thermodynamic property to define temperature and devised a
temperature scale that is independent of the thermodynamic
properties of the substances that are used to measure the
temperature.
( )
( )
L H
L
H
H
L
carnot th
L H th
T T f
Q
Q
Q
Q
T T g
,
1
,
,
=
! =
=
"
"
Since energy reservoirs are characterized by their temperatures, the
thermal efficiency of a reversible heat engine is a function of the
reservoir temperature only.
316
317
Considering Fig. 6-43,
( ) ( ) ( )
3 1
3
1
3 2
3
2
2 1
2
1
, , , , , T T f
Q
Q
T T f
Q
Q
T T f
Q
Q
= = =
( )
L
H
rev
L
H
T
T
Q
Q
T T f
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
Q
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
= =
3 1
3
2
2
1
3
1
,
H
L
H
L
carnot th
T
T
Q
Q
! =
! =
1
1
,
"
Rearranging,
The Carnot Efficiency becomes,
317
318
The Carnot Efficiency becomes,
H
L
H
L
carnot th
T
T
Q
Q
! =
! =
1
1
,
"
318
319
Kelvin Scale
319
320
The Carnot Heat Engine
H
L
th
Q
Q
! =1 "
H
L
th
T
T
! =1 "
Hypothetical heat engine that operates
on the reversible or irreversible Carnot
Cycle is called Carnot Heat Engine. The
thermal efficiency of any heat engine,
reversible and irreversible, is given by:-
The thermal efficiency of any Carnot
heat engine, reversible and irreversible,
can also be expressed as :-
This is known as Carnot Efficiency, and this is the highest heat engine
efficiency operating between two thermal energy reservoir T
H
and T
L
320
321
The Carnot Heat Engine
!
"
!
#
$
>
=
<
engine heat impossible
engine heat reversible
engine heat le irreversib
. ,
. ,
. ,
rev th
rev th
irrev th
th
%
%
%
%
The thermal efficiency of actual and reversible and irreversible heat
engine operating between the same temperature limit compare as
follows:-
The thermal efficiency of actual
heat engines can be maximized by
supplying heat to the engine at the
highest possible temperature and
rejecting heat from the engine at
the lowest possible temperature.

321
322
Quality of Energy
Thermal efficiency values shows that energy has quality as well as
quantity. It is clear more of the high temperature thermal energy can
be converted to work. Therefore, the higher the temperature, the
higher the quality of the energy.
322
323
Work vs Heat
Work is more valuable form of energy than heat since 100% work can
be converted to heat, but only a fraction of heat can be converted to
work. When heat is transferred from a high-temperature body to a
lower-temperature body, it is degraded since less of it now can be
converted to work.

323
324
The Carnot Refrigerator
1
1
!
=
!
=
L
H
L H
L
R
Q
Q
Q Q
Q
COP
A refrigerator that operates on the reversed Carnot Cycle is called
Carnot Refrigerator. The coefficient of performance COP for a Carnot
Refrigerator is expressed as:-
Replacing the heat transfer ratio by the ratio of the absolute
temperature of the high and low temperature reservoir, then the
coefficient of performance COP for a Carnot Refrigerator is expressed
as:-
1
1
!
=
L
H
R
T
T
COP
324
325
The Carnot Refrigerator
!
"
!
#
$
>
=
<
or refrigerat impossible
or refrigerat reversible
or refrigerat le irreversib
. ,
. ,
. ,
rev R
rev R
irrev R
R
COP
COP
COP
COP
The COP
R
for a Carnot Refrigerator gives the highest COP
R
that a
refrigerator operating between the temperature limit of T
L
and T
H
can
have. All actual refrigerators will have lower COP between the
temperature limits.
325
326
The Carnot Heat Pumps
An heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot Cycle is called
Carnot Heat Pump. The coefficient of performance COP for a Carnot
Heat Pumps is expressed as:-
H
L
HP
Q
Q
COP
!
=
1
1
Replacing the heat transfer ratio by the ratio of the absolute
temperature of the high and low temperature reservoir, then the
coefficient of performance COP for a Carnot Heat Pump is expressed
as:-
H
L
HP
T
T
COP
!
=
1
1
326
327
The Carnot Heat Pumps
The COP
HP
for a Carnot Heat Pump gives the highest COP
HP
that a
heat pump operating between the temperature limit of T
L
and T
H
can
have. All actual heat pumps will have lower COP between the
temperature limits.
!
"
!
#
$
>
=
<
pump heat impossible
pump heat reversible
pump heat le irreversib
. ,
. ,
. ,
rev HP
rev HP
irrev HP
HP
COP
COP
COP
COP
327
Entropy
Chapter 8
Thcrmndynamics
to accompany
329
Outline
! Apply the 2
nd
Law of Thermodynamics to processes
! Define entropy to quantify the effects of 2
nd
law
! Establish the Increase of Entropy Principle
! Calculate the entropy changes during processes
! Examine isentropic processes
! Examine the reversible steady-flow work relations
! Develop isentropic efficiency for steady-flow devices
! Introduce and apply the entropy balance to open and
close system
329
330
What is Entropy?
Entropy can be viewed as a measure of
molecular disorder, or molecular randomness
From a microscopic point of view, the entropy of the system increases
when the molecular randomness or uncertainty of a system increases.
331
Organized and Disorganized Energy
Being an organized form of energy, this organized energy can
readily be used to perform useful tasks, work is free of disorder
or randomness and thus free of ENTROPY.

There is no entropy transfer associated with energy
transfer as work.
332
Organized and Disorganized Energy
333
Entropy and The Second Law
The quantity of energy is always preserved during an
actual process, but the quality is bound to decreases.
This decrease in quality is always accompanied by an
increase in entropy.
The second law requires that
the increase in the entropy of
the cold body be greater than
the decrease in entropy of the
hot body, and thus the net
entropy of the combined system
increases.
Thus, we conclude that processes can occur only in
the direction of increased overall entropy or molecular
disorder.
334
Absolute Entropy
From statistical point of view, entropy is a measure of molecular uncertainty
about the positions of molecules at an instant. This uncertainty or
oscillations fade as temperature decreases and the molecules supposedly
become motionless at absolute zero, which defined as state of ultimate
molecular order.
the entropy of a pure crystalline substance at
absolute zero temperature is zero
since there is no uncertainty about the state of the molecule at that instant.
The above statement is known as
The third law of thermodynamics
It provides an absolute reference point
for the determination of entropy. The
entropy determined relative to this point
is called
Absolute Entropy
335
Since entropy is a property, thus the entropy of a system is
fixed once the state of the system is fixed. Therefore, the
entropy and entropy change of a system for a pure substance
can be obtained from the property table, in the same manner
as other properties.
Entropy Change of A Pure Substance
( ) K kg kJ xs s s
fg f
. / + =
( ) K kg kJ s s
T f P T
. /
@ , @
!
In the saturated mixture region
In compressed and saturated region
The entropy change during a process is
simply
( ) ( ) K kJ s s m s m S
(kJ/kg.K) s s s
/

1 2
1 2
! = " = "
! = "
336
Entropy Change of A Pure Substance
337
A process during which the entropy remains constant is called
isentropic process. That is, a substance will have the same
entropy value at the end of the process as it does at the beginning
if the process is to carried out in an isentropic manner, which is
internally reversible and adiabatic.
Isentropic Process
1 2
or 0 s s s = = !
A reversible adiabatic process is necessarily
isentropic, but an isentropic process is not
necessarily a reversible process because
The entropy increase of a substance during a
process as a result of irreversibilities may be
offset by a decrease in entropy as a result of
heat losses.
Isentropic process serves as an
appropriate model for actual process
and can be used to define
efficiencies of an actual process
338
Isentropic Process
1 2
1 2
1 2
2
1
1 2
0
0
S S
S S S
S S S
T
Q
S S S
=
= ! = "
# ! = "
# ! = "
$
%
For an adiabatic process, one in which there is no heat transfer, the entropy
change is
If the process is adiabatic and reversible, the equality holds and the entropy
change is
339
T-S diagram
Property Diagram for Entropy
!
!
=
=
"
#
$
%
&
'
= =
"
#
$
%
&
'
2
1
rev int
rev int
rev int rev int
and 0
TdS Q
TdS Q
T
Q
dS
T
Q
(
( (
A temperature-entropy (T-S Diagram) is derived from the
relationships of Clausius equality for internally reversible process.
The area under the process curve on a T-S Diagram represents heat
transfer during an internally reversible process. This area has no
meaning for irreversible process.
For internally reversible isothermal
process, the heat transfer is

0 rev int
0 rev int
s T q
S T Q
! =
! =
340
T-S diagram
A temperature-entropy (T-S Diagram) for isentropic process is
simply a vertical line segment. This is expected since isentropic
process involves no heat transfer, and therefore the area
under the process curve is zero.
341
h-s diagram
The enthalpy-entropy (h-s Diagram) also known as the Mollier
Diagram is a valuable diagram for analysis of steady-flow device
because it represents two important properties.
342
Isentropic Efficiencies
Most steady-flow devices operates under adiabatic
conditions and the ideal process for these devices is the
isentropic process. The isentropic or adiabatic efficiencies
measure the deviation of actual processes from the
corresponding ideal processes as a result of
irreversibilities. Isentropic efficiencies are defined
differently for different devices since each device perform
different tasks.
343
Constant Specific Heats
Isentropic Process for Ideal Gases
0 ln ln
1
2
1
2
, 1 2
= + = !
v
v
R
T
T
c s s
ave v
1 thus and ! = = ! = k
c
R
c
c
k c c R
V V
P
V P
When the Constant Specific Heats assumption is valid, the isentropic
relation for ideal gases are obtained by setting the entropy change
expression for Constant Specific Heats equal to zero.
From 1
st
Tds Equation
constant or
1
1
2
1
constant s
1
2
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
=
k
k
Tv
v
v
T
T
ave v
c
R
ave v
ave v
v
v
T
T
v
v
c
R
T
T
v
v
R
T
T
c
,
2
1
1
2
1
2
, 1
2
1
2
1
2
,
ln ln ln ln
ln ln
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
= ' ( =
( =
Since for ideal gas,
Therefore the 1
st
Isentropic
relation for ideal gas based
on 1
st
Tds Equation is
344
1 thus and ! = = ! = k
c
R
c
c
k c c R
V V
P
V P
From 2
nd
Tds Equation
constant or
1
1
1
2
constant s
1
2
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
'
'
=
k
k
k
k
TP
P
P
T
T
Since for ideal gas,
Therefore the 2
nd
Isentropic
relation for ideal gas based on 2
nd

Tds Equation is
0 ln ln
1
2
1
2
, 1 2
= ! = !
P
P
R
T
T
c s s
ave P
ave P
c
R
ave P
ave P
P
P
T
T
P
P
c
R
T
T
P
P
R
T
T
c
,
1
2
1
2
1
2
, 1
2
1
2
1
2
,
ln ln
ln ln
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
= ' =
=
345
constant

constant s
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
=
k
k
Pv
v
v
P
P
2
1
1
2
k
k
k
P
P
T
T
v
v
T
T
1
1
2
constant s
1
2
1
2
1
constant s
1
2
and
!
=
!
=
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
=
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
=
"
"
#
$
%
%
&
'
Combining the 1
st
and 2
nd
Isentropic relation, the 3
rd
Isentropic
relation is derived
Therefore the 3
rd
Isentropic
relation for ideal gas based on
2
nd
Tds Equation is
346
Variable Specific Heats
( ) pressure relative / exp = =
r
o
P R s
R s
R s
P
P
R
s s
P
P
P
P
R s s
o
o o o
o o
/ exp
/ exp
exp
ln
1
2
1
2 1 2
1
2
1
2
1 2
= !
"
=
= "
Isentropic relation of Variable Specific Heats provides an accurate
way of evaluating property changes of ideal gases during the
isentropic process. In the event that volume ratio is given instead of
pressure ratio, two dimensionless quantities shall be used to remedy
the deficiency, that is relative pressure P
r
and relative specific
volume, v
r
.
where
1
2
const s
1
2
r
r
P
P
P
P
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
=
347
Variable Specific Heats
volume specific relative / = =
r r
v P T
1 1
2 2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
2 2
1
1 1
/
/
r
r
r
r
P T
P T
P
P
T
T
P
P
T
T
v
v
T
v P
T
v P
= = = ! =
Using the ideal-gas relation and relative pressure P
r
, we define the
relative specific volume, v
r
.
where
1
2
const s
1
2
r
r
v
v
v
v
=
!
!
"
#
$
$
%
&
=
348
Isentropic Efficiency
s
a
T
w
w
= =
work turbine isentropic
work turbine actual
!
( )
( )
s
a
T
h h
h h
2 1
2 1
!
!
" #
The isentropic work is the maximum
possible work output that the adiabatic
turbine can produce. Therefore, the actual
work is less than the isentropic work and
since the desired output of a turbine is the
work produced, the isentropic efficiency of
a turbine is
For Turbines
Neglecting the kinetic and potential
energies, then the work output of an
adiabatic turbine simply becomes the
change in enthalpy.
349
a
s
T
w
w
= =
work compressor actual
work compressor isentropic
!
( )
( )
a
s
a
s
T
h h
P P v
w
w
1 2
1 2
!
!
" = #
Unlike turbine, the isentropic work is the minimum possible work output that
the adiabatic compressor requires. Therefore, the actual work is greater
than the isentropic work. The isentropic efficiency of a compressor is
For Compressors
Neglecting the kinetic and potential energies,
then the work input of an adiabatic
compressor is simply becomes the change in
enthalpy.
Similarly, for pumps
( )
( )
a
s
T
h h
h h
1 2
1 2
!
!
" #
350
2 /
2 /
exit nozzle at KE isentropic
exit nozzle at KE actual
2
2
2
2
s
a
T
V
V
= = !
( )
( )
s
a
T
h h
h h
1 2
1 2
!
!
" #
The isentropic kinetic energy at the nozzle exit is the maximum possible
kinetic energy at the nozzle exit. Therefore, the actual kinetic energy at the
nozzle exit is less than the isentropic kinetic energy. The isentropic
efficiency of a nozzle is defined as
For Nozzles
For steady-flow, no work, neglecting
potential energy and inlet kinetic energy,
the energy balance for the nozzle reduces
to
Then, the isentropic efficiency for nozzle
is
2
2
2
2 1
a
a
V
h h
+
=
End of Thermodynamics !
Fuhhhhh..
351

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