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Biodiversity and Conservation

by Dr Barbara Corker

Contents
What is Biodiversity? Losses of Biodiversity Why Conserve Biodiversity? Ex Situ Conservation In Situ Conservation Conservation at the National Level International Conservation Overview

What is Biodiversity? Biodiversity is a modern term which simply means " the variety of life on earth". This variety can be meas red on several different levels. Genetic ! variation between individ als of the same species. This incl des "enetic variation between individ als in a sin"le pop lation # as well as variations between different pop lations of the same species. $enetic differences can now be meas red sin" increasin"ly sophisticated techni% es. These differences are the raw material of evol tion. Species ! species diversity is the variety of species in a "iven re"ion or area. This can either be determined by co ntin" the n mber of different species present# or by determinin" ta&onomic diversity. Ta&onomic diversity is more precise and considers the relationship of species to each other. It can be meas red by co ntin" the n mber of different ta&a 'the main cate"ories of classification( present. )or e&ample# a pond containin" three species of snails and two fish# is more diverse than a pond containin" five species of snails# even tho "h they both contain the same n mber of species. *i"h species biodiversity is not always necessarily a "ood thin". )or e&ample# a habitat may have hi"h species biodiversity beca se many common and widespread species are invadin" it at the e&pense of species restricted to that habitat.

Ecosystem ! Comm nities of plants and animals# to"ether with the physical characteristics of their environment 'e.". "eolo"y# soil and climate( interlin+ to"ether as an ecolo"ical system# or ,ecosystem,. -cosystem diversity is more diffic lt to meas re beca se there are rarely clear bo ndaries between different ecosystems and they "rade into one another. *owever# if consistent criteria are chosen to define the limits of an ecosystem# then their n mber and distrib tion can also be meas red.

*ow many species are there?

-stimates of "lobal species diversity vary enormo sly beca se it is so diffic lt to " ess how many species there may be in less well e&plored habitats s ch as nto ched rain forest. .ain forest areas which have been sampled have shown s ch ama/in" biodiversity 'nineteen trees sampled in 0anama were fo nd to contain 1#233 different beetle species alone4( that the mind bo""les over how many species there mi"ht remain to be discovered in ne&plored rain forest areas and microhabitats. $lobal species estimates ran"e from 2 million to 133 million species. Ten million is probably nearer the mar+. Only 1.5 million species have been named. Of these# appro&imately 263#333 are plants and 763#333 are insects. New species are contin ally bein" discovered every year. The n mber of species present in little!+nown ecosystems s ch as the soil beneath o r feet and the deep sea can only be " essed at. It has been estimated that the deep sea floor may contain as many as a million ndescribed new species. To p t it simply# we really have absol tely no idea how many species there are4

Losses of Biodiversity
-&tinction is a fact of life. 8pecies have been evolvin" and dyin" o t ever since the ori"in of life. One only has to loo+ at the fossil record to appreciate this. 'It has been estimated that s rvivin" species constit te abo t 19 of the species that have ever lived.( *owever# species are now becomin" e&tinct at an alarmin" rate# almost entirely as a direct res lt of h man activities. 0revio s mass e&tinctions evident in the "eolo"ical record are tho "ht to have been bro "ht abo t mainly by massive climatic or environmental shifts. :ass e&tinctions as a direct conse% ence of the activities of a sin"le species are nprecedented in "eolo"ical history. The loss of species in tropical ecosystems s ch as the rain forests# is e&tremely well!p blicised and of "reat concern. *owever# e% ally worryin" is the loss of habitat and species closer to home in Britain. This is ar" ably on a comparable scale# "iven the m ch smaller area involved. 0redictions and estimates of f t re species losses abo nd. One s ch estimate calc lates that a

% arter of all species on earth are li+ely to be e&tinct# or on the way to e&tinction within ;3 years. <nother predicts that within 133 years# three % arters of all species will either be e&tinct# or in pop lations so small that they can be described as "the livin" dead". It m st be emphasised that these are only predictions. :ost predictions are based on comp ter models and as s ch# need to be ta+en with a very "enero s pinch of salt. )or a start# we really have no idea how many species there are on which to base o r initial premise. There are also so many variables involved that it is almost impossible to predict what will happen with any de"ree of acc racy. 8ome species act ally benefit from h man activities# while many others are adversely affected. Nevertheless# it is indisp table that if the h man pop lation contin es to soar# then the ever increasin" competition with wildlife for space and reso rces will ens re that habitats and their constit ent species will lose o t. It is diffic lt to appreciate the scale of h man pop lation increases over the last two cent ries. =espite the horrendo s combined mortality rates of two World Wars# *itler# 8talin# ma>or fl pandemics and <ids# there has been no dampenin" effect on risin" pop lation levels. In 1?63# the world pop lation was 2.5 billion. @ st over 63 years later# the world pop lation has almost tripled# reachin" A.6 billion. In the BC alone# the pop lation increases by the e% ivalent of a new city every year. Correspondin" demands for a hi"her standard of livin" for all# f rther e&acerbates the problem. It has been estimated that if everyone in the world lived at the BC standard of livin" 'and why sho ld people elsewhere be denied this ri"ht( then we wo ld either need another three worlds to s pply the necessary reso rces or alternatively# wo ld need to red ce the world pop lation to 2 billion. The only possible concl sion is that nless h man pop lations are s bstantially red ced# it is inevitable that biodiversity will s ffer f rther ma>or losses. 8ome species are more v lnerable to e&tinction than others. These incl deD

Species at the top of food chains, such as large carnivores. Lar"e carnivores s ally re% ire fairly e&tensive territories in order to provide them with s fficient prey. <s h man pop lations increasin"ly encroach on wild areas and as habitats shrin+ in e&tent# the n mber of carnivores which can be accommodated in the area also decreases.

These animals may also pose a threat to people# as pop lations e&pand into wilder areas inhabited by lar"e carnivores. 0rotective meas res# incl din" elimination of offendin" animals in the area# f rther red ces n mbers. Endemic local species species found only in one geographical area! "ith a very limited distribution. These are very v lnerable to local habitat dist rbance or h man development. Species "ith chronically small populations.

If pop lations become too small# then simply findin" a mate# or interbreedin"# can become serio s problems.

#igratory species 8pecies which need s itable habitats to feed and rest in widely spaced locations 'which are often traditional and ,wired, into behavio r patterns( are very v lnerable to loss of these ,way stations,. Species "ith e$ceptionally comple$ life cycles If completion of a partic lar lifecycle re% ires several different elements to be in place at very specific times# then the species is v lnerable if there is disr ption of any sin"le element in the cycle. Specialist species with very narrow re% irements s ch as a sin"le specific food so rce# e.". a partic lar plant species.

Loss of an individ al species can have vario s different effects on the remainin" species in an ecosystem. These effects depend pon the how important the species is in the ecosystem. 8ome species can be removed witho t apparent effect# while removal of others may have enormo s effects on the remainin" species. 8pecies s ch as these are termed " keystone" species.

%hy Conserve Biodiversity&

Ecological 'easons Individ al species and ecosystems have evolved over millions of years into a comple& interdependence. This can be viewed as bein" a+in to a vast >i"saw p //le of inter!loc+in" pieces. If yo remove eno "h of the +ey pieces on which the framewor+ is based then the whole pict re may be in dan"er of collapsin". We have no idea how many +ey ,pieces, we can afford to lose before this mi"ht happen# nor even in many cases# which are the +ey pieces. The ecolo"ical ar" ments for conservin" biodiversity are therefore based on the premise that we need to preserve biodiversity in order to maintain o r own life s pport systems. Two lin+ed iss es which are c rrently of "reat ecolo"ical concern incl de world! wide deforestation and "lobal climate chan"e. )orests not only harbo r ntold n mbers of different species# b t also play a critical role in re" latin" climate. The destr ction of forest# partic larly by b rnin"# res lts in "reat increases in the amo nt of carbon in the atmosphere. This happens for two reasons. )irstly# there is a "reat red ction in the amo nt of carbon dio&ide ta+en in by plants for photosynthesis and secondly# b rnin" releases h "e % antities of carbon dio&ide into the atmosphere. 'The 1??7 fires in IndonesiaEs rain forests are said to have added as m ch carbon to the atmosphere as all the coal# oil and "asoline b rned that year in western - rope.( This is si"nificant beca se carbon

dio&ide is one of the main "reenho se "ases implicated in the c rrent "lobal warmin" trend. 'Climate Chan"e Information( <vera"e "lobal temperat res have been showin" a steadily increasin" trend. 8now and ice cover have decreased# deep ocean temperat res have increased and "lobal sea levels have risen by 133 ! 233 mm over the last cent ry. If c rrent trends contin e# scientists predict that the earth co ld be on avera"e 1oC warmer by 2326 and ;oC warmer by 2133. These chan"es# while small# co ld have drastic effects. <s an e&ample# avera"e temperat res in the last Ice <"e were only 6oC colder than c rrent temperat res. .isin" sea levels which co ld drown many of o r ma>or cities# e&treme weather conditions res ltin" in dro "ht# floodin" and h rricanes# to"ether with chan"es in the distrib tion of disease!bearin" or"anisms are all predicted effects of climate chan"e. )orests also affect rainfall patterns thro "h transpiration losses and protect the watershed of vast areas. =eforestation therefore res lts in local chan"es in the amo nt and distrib tion of rainfall. It often also res lts in erosion and loss of soil and often to floodin". =evastatin" floodin" in many re"ions of China over the past few years has been lar"ely attrib ted to deforestation. These are only some of the ecolo"ical effects of deforestation. The effects described translate directly into economic effects on h man pop lations.
Economic 'easons

-nvironmental disasters s ch as floods# forest fires and h rricanes indirectly or directly ca sed by h man activities# all have dire economic conse% ences for the re"ions afflicted. Clean! p bills can r n into the billions# not to mention the toll of h man misery involved. 8 sceptible re"ions are often also in the less!developed and poorer nations to be"in with. -rosion and desertification# often as a res lt of deforestation# red ce the ability of people to "row crops and to feed themselves. This leads to economic dependence on other nations. Non!s stainable e&traction of reso rces 'e.". hardwood timber( will event ally lead to the collapse of the ind stry involved# with all the attendant economic losses. It sho ld be noted that even if ,s stainable, methods are sed# for e&ample when harvested forest areas are replanted# these areas are in no way an ecolo"ical s bstit te for the established habitats which they have replaced. Lar"e!scale habitat and biodiversity losses mean that species with potentially "reat economic importance may become e&tinct before they are even discovered. The vast# lar"ely ntapped reso rce of medicines and sef l chemicals contained in wild species may disappear forever. The wealth of species contained in tropical rain forests may harbo r ntold n mbers of chemically or medically sef l species. :any marine species defend themselves chemically and this also represents a rich potential so rce of new economically important medicines. <dditionally# the wild relatives of o r c ltivated crop plants provide an inval able reservoir of "enetic material to aid in the

prod ction of new varieties of crops. If all these are lost# then o r crop plants also become more v lnerable to e&tinction. There is an ecolo"ical caveat here of co rse. Whenever a wild species is proved to be economically or socially sef l# this a tomatically translates into f rther loss of nat ral habitat. This arises either thro "h lar"e!scale c ltivation of the species concerned or its ind strial prod ctionF harvestin". Both re% ire space# inevitably provided at the e&pense of nat ral habitats. 0erhaps the rain forests and the seas sho ld be allowed to +eep their secrets. Ethical 'easons =o we have the ri"ht to decide which species sho ld s rvive and which sho ld die o t? =o we have the ri"ht to ca se a mass e&tinction? :ost people wo ld instinctively answer ,No4,. *owever# we have to realise that most biodiversity losses are now arisin" as a res lt of nat ral competition between h mans and all other species for limited space and reso rces. If we want the l & ry of ethics# we need to red ce o r pop lations. (esthetic 'easons

:ost people wo ld a"ree that areas of ve"etation# with all their attendant life forms# are inherently more attractive than b rnt# scarred landscapes# or acres of concrete and b ildin"s. Who wo ldn,t prefer to see b tterflies dancin" above colo red flowers# rather than an ind strial comple& belchin" smo+e? * man well!bein" is ine&tricably lin+ed to the nat ral world. In the western world# h "e n mbers of people confined to lar"e rban areas derive "reat pleas re from visitin" the co ntryside. The ability to do so is re"arded not so m ch as a need# b t as a ri"ht. National "overnments m st therefore > ""le the conflictin" re% irements for more ho sin"# ind stry and hi"her standards of livin" with demands for co ntryside for recreational p rposes.

)o" do "e Conserve Biodiversity& There are two main ways to conserve biodiversity. These are termed ex situ (i.e. out of the natural habitat) and in situ (within the natural habitat)

E$ Situ Conservation ! out of the natural habitat

Species*based!

+oos ! These may involve captive breedin" pro"rammes# (,uaria ! research# p blic information and ed cation -lant Collections ! breedin" pro"rammes and seed stora"e

+..S In the past# /oos were mainly display facilities for the p rpose of p blic en>oyment and ed cation. <s lar"e n mbers of the species traditionally on display have become rarer in the wild# many /oos have ta+en on the additional role of b ildin" p n mbers thro "h captive breedin" pro"rammes. <ltho "h comparatively far more invertebrates than vertebrates face e&tinction# most captive breedin" pro"rammes in /oos foc s on vertebrates. Threats to vertebrate e&tinction tend to be well p blicised 'e.". =ormo se# 0anda(. 0eople find it easier to relate to and have sympathy with animals which are more similar to o rselves# partic larly if they are c te and c ddly 'at least in appearance# if not in fact4(. Not many visitors to /oos are li+ely to "et e&cited over the prospect of the /oo ,savin", a tiny beetle# which they can barely see# let alone spiders or other invertebrates which often invite horror rather than wonder. Gertebrates therefore serve as a foc s for p blic interest. This can help to "enerate financial s pport for conservation and e&tend p blic ed cation to other iss es. This is a very important consideration# as conservation costs money and needs to be f nded from somewhere. The foc s on vertebrates is not solely pra"matic. :any of the most threatened vertebrates are lar"e top carnivores# which the world stands to lose in disproportionate n mbers. 8 ch species re% ire e&tensive ran"es to provide s fficient prey to s stain them. In many cases# whole habitats for these predators have all b t disappeared. 8ome biased e&pendit re on their s rvival may therefore be > stified. 8everal species are now solely represented by animals in captivity. Captive breedin" pro"rammes are in place for n mero s species. <t least 1H species have been reintrod ced into the wild followin" s ch pro"rams. In many cases the species was act ally e&tinct in the wild at the time of reintrod ction '<rabian Ory&# 0ere =avid =eer# <merican Bison(. In some cases# all remainin" individ als of a species# whose n mbers are too low for s rvival in the wild# have been capt red and the species has then been reintrod ced after captive breedin" 'California Condor(. The role of /oos in conservation is limited both by space and by e&pense. <t pop lation si/es of ro "hly 133!163 individ als per species# it has been estimated that world /oos co ld s stain ro "hly

?33 species. 0op lations of this si/e are > st lar"e eno "h to avoid inbreedin" effects. *owever# /oos are now shiftin" their emphasis from lon"!term holdin" of species# to ret rnin" animals to the wild after only a few "enerations. This frees p space for the conservation of other species. $enetic mana"ement of captive pop lations via st d records is essential to ens re "enetic diversity is preserved as far as possible. There are now a variety of international comp terised st d record systems which catalo" e "enealo"ical data on individ al animals in /oos aro nd the world. :atin" can therefore be arran"ed by comp ter# to ens re that "enetic diversity is preserved and in!breedin" minimised 'always ass min" the animals involved are prepared to co!operate(. .esearch has led to "reat advances in technolo"ies for captive breedin". This incl des techni% es s ch as artificial insemination# embryo transfer and lon"!term cryo"enic 'fro/en( stora"e of embryos. These techni% es are all val able beca se they allow new "enetic lines to be introd ced witho t havin" to transport the ad lts to new locations. Therefore the animals are not even re% ired to co! operate any lon"er. *owever# f rther research is vital. The s ccess of /oos in maintainin" pop lations of endan"ered species is limited. Only 2A of 275 species of rare mammals in captivity are maintainin" self!s stainin" pop lations 'World .eso rces Instit te(. 'eintroduction of species to the "ild poses several different problems.

Diseases The introd ction of new diseases to the habitat# which can decimate e&istin" wild pop lations. <lternatively# the loss of resistance to local diseases in captive!bred pop lations. Behaviour Behavio r of captive!bred species is also a problem. 8ome behavio r is "enetically determined and innate# b t m ch has to be learned from other ad lts of the species# or by e&perience. Captive!bred pop lations lac+ the in situ learnin" of their wild relatives and are therefore at a h "e disadvanta"e in the wild. In one case of reintrod ction# a n mber of mon+eys starved beca se they had no concept of havin" to search for food to eat ! it had always been s pplied to them in captivity. In the ne&t attempt# the captive mon+eys were ta "ht that they had to loo+ for food# by hidin" it in their ca"es# rather than > st s pplyin" it. Genetic 'aces .eintrod ced pop lations may be of an entirely different "enetic ma+e! p to ori"inal pop lations. This may mean that there are si"nificant differences in reprod ction habits and timin"# as well as differences in "eneral ecolo"y. .eintrod ction of individ als of a species into an area where the species has previo sly become e&tinct# is in many cases > st li+e introd cin" a forei"ner. The Lar"e Copper B tterfly is a "ood e&ample of this. <ltho "h e&tinct in Britain# it persists in continental - rope. There have been over a do/en attempts to re! establish it in Britain over the last cent ry# b t none have been s ccessf l. This is probably d e to the differin" ecolo"y of the introd ced races. .eplacement of e&tinct pop lations by reintrod ction from other areas may not therefore be an option.

)abitat The habitat m st be there for reintrod ction to ta+e place. In many cases# so m ch habitat has been destroyed# that areas m st first be restored to allow captive pop lations to be reintrod ced. 8 itable e&istin" habitats will also ' nless the species is e&tinct in the wild( s ally already contain wild members of the species. In this case# it is li+ely that within the habitat# there are already as many individ als as the habitat can s pport. The introd ction of new individ als will only lead to stress and tension as individ als fi"ht for limited territory and reso rces s ch as food. In this case# nothin" positive has been accomplished by reintrod ction# it has merely increased the stress on the species. It may even in some cases res lt in a decrease in n mbers. In contrast# the provision of additional restored habitat nearby can allow wild pop lations to e&pand into it witho t the need for reintrod ction.

(/0('1( The role of a% aria has lar"ely been as display and ed cational facilities. *owever# they are ass min" new importance in captive breedin" pro"rammes. $rowin" threats to freshwater species in partic lar# are leadin" to the development of ex situ breedin" pro"rammes. The World Conservation Bnion 'IBCN( is c rrently developin" captive breedin" pro"rammes for endan"ered fish. Initially this will cover those from La+e Gictoria in <frica# the desert fishes of N. <merica and <ppalachian stream fishes. Nat ral habitats will be restored as part of the pro"ramme. :arine# as well as freshwater species are also the s b>ect of captive breedin" pro"rammes. )or e&ample# The National :arine <% ari m# in 8o th West -n"land# is playin" an important role in the

conservation of sea horse species thro "h their captive breedin" pro"ramme. -L(23 C.LLEC31.2S 0op lations of plant species are m ch easier than animals to maintain artificially. They need less care and their re% irements for partic lar habitat conditions can be provided more readily. It is also m ch easier to breed and propa"ate plant species in captivity. There are ro "hly 1#633 botanic "ardens world!wide# holdin" ;6#333 plant species 'more than 169 of the worldEs flora(. The .oyal Botanic $ardens of -n"land 'Cew $ardens( contains an estimated 26#333 species. IBCN classifies 2#733 of these as rare# threatened or endan"ered. :any botanic "ardens ho se collections of partic lar ta&a which are of ma>or conservation val e. There is however# a "eneral "eo"raphic imbalance. Only 2;3 of the worldEs 1#633 "ardens are in the tropics. Considerin" the "reater species richness of the tropics# this is an imbalance that needs to be addressed.

< more serio s problem with ex situ collections involves "aps in covera"e of important species# partic larly those of si"nificant val e in tropical co ntries. One of the most serio s "aps is in the area of crops of re"ional importance# which are not widely traded on world mar+ets. These often have recalcitrant seeds ' ns ited to lon"!term stora"e( and are poorly represented in botanic collections. Wild crop relatives are also nder!represented. These are a potential so rce of "enes conferrin" resistance to diseases# pests and parasites and as s ch are a vital "ene ban+ for commercial crops. 0lant "enetic diversity can also be preserved ex situ thro "h the se of seed ban+s. 8eeds are small b t to "h and have evolved to s rvive all manner of adverse conditions and a host of attac+ers. 8eeds can be divided into two main types# orthodo& and recalcitrant. Orthodo& seeds can be dried and stored at temperat res of !23oC. <lmost all species in a temperate flora can be stored in this way. 8 rprisin"ly# many tropical seeds are also orthodo&. .ecalcitrant seeds# in contrast# die when dried and fro/en in this manner. <corns of oa+s are recalcitrant and it is believed that so are the seeds of most tropical rain forest trees. The res lt of storin" seeds nder fro/en conditions is to slow down the rate at which they lose their ability to "erminate. 8eeds of crop plants s ch as mai/e and barley co ld probably s rvive tho sands of years in s ch conditions# b t for most plants# cent ries is probably the norm. This ma+es seed ban+in" an attractive conservation option# partic larly when all others have failed. It offers an ins rance techni% e for other methods of conservation. <ll of the ex situ conservation methods disc ssed have their role to play in modern conservation. $enerally# they are more e&pensive to maintain and sho ld be re"arded as complementary to in situ conservation methods. )or e&ample they may be the only option where in situ conservation is no lon"er possible.

1n Situ Conservation * "ithin the natural habitat

)abitat or species*based!

-rotected sites, or 'eserves In situ conservation maintains not only the "enetic diversity of species# b t also the evol tionary adaptations that enable them to adapt contin ally to shiftin" environmental conditions# s ch as chan"es in pest pop lations or climate. In situ conservation also ens res that alon" with tar"et species# a host of other interlin+ed species are also preserved as a by!prod ct. It is "enerally cheaper than ex situ methods 'altho "h not cheap(. It may often be the only conservation option# for e&ample for species with recalcitrant seeds. In situ conservation meas res involve desi"natin" specific areas as protected sites. 0rotection may be offered at vario s levels# from complete protection and restriction of access# thro "h vario s levels of permitted h man se. In practice# complete protection is rarely necessary or advisable in a terrestrial conte&t. * man bein"s have been a ma>or part of the landscape for many tho sands of years. Over the co rse of that time# h man c lt res have emer"ed and adapted to the local environment# discoverin"# sin" and alterin" biotic reso rces. :any areas that now appear Inat ralE bear the hallmar+s of millennia of h man infl ence. Other species have evolved alon" with that infl ence and in many cases re% ire the dist rbance provided by h mans to provide the necessary conditions for their s rvival. In other words# it is rarely advisable to rele"ate the co ntryside to the stat s of a m se m piece. This applies partic larly in the less economically developed areas of the world# where in many cases# the livelihood of the local people depends on sin" the nat ral reso rces available to them. 0rohibitin" the se of s ch reso rces in protected areas means that e&pensive enforcement meas res s ally have to be p t in place. It is far better to involve local people in conservation and to find creative ways for them to ma+e a s stainable livin" while still protectin" val able habitats or species. The biosphere reserve concept has been developed thro "h the :an and Biosphere ':<B( 0ro"ramme of the Bnited Nations -d cational# 8cientific and C lt ral Or"anisation 'BN-8CO(. Biosphere reserves are an attempt to reconcile the problems of conservin" biodiversity and biolo"ical reso rces# with s stainable se of nat ral reso rces for people. They form an international networ+ of sites# nominated by national "overnments# b t desi"nated by BN-8CO. The first reserves were nominated as lon" a"o as 1?7A. By 2331# a networ+ of ;?; reserves in ?5 co ntries had been developed.
:ore on Biosphere reserves here.

:arine conservation areas la" behind terrestrial ones. 0rotected areas have e&isted on land for over a cent ry# b t there is no tradition of mana"in" marine areas for conservation. The only c rrent stat tory marine reserve in -n"land is L ndy Island. This harbo rs a h "e variety of marine life d e to the diversity of nderwater habitats present there.

:arine reserves may be vital tools in preservin" species!rich areas s ch as tropical coral reefs# which are bein" devastated by non!s stainable fishin" methods in many areas. The rationale of s ch reserves is not to loc+ away fish from fishermen# b t rather to create ref "es inside which pop lations can b ild p and spill over to repop late ad>acent areas. :arine .eserves need to be caref lly desi"ned to ta+e into acco nt# movement patterns# dispersal rates and pop lation dynamics of partic lar tar"et species. )or e&ample# it wo ld be pointless havin" a reserve where the resident species re" larly travelled to non!protected areas. It wo ld also be pointless protectin" the habitat of an ad lt# b t ne"lectin" the "eo"raphically different breedin" "ro nds and habitats of > veniles# or vice versa. 8 ch factors sho ld also be ta+en into consideration in the desi"n of terrestrial reserves. Management of Nature Reserves Nat re reserves are s ally desi"nated to protect a partic lar species # assembla"e of species# or specific habitats. <s s ch they can rarely be left in isolation to mana"e themselves. :ana"ement is necessary in order to prevent nat ral processes s ch as s ccession from ta+in" place. 8 ch res ltin" chan"es in habitat may mean the loss of partic lar species for which the reserve was ori"inally desi"nated. 8 ccession is a nat ral process which will tend to replace partic lar species with different ones. This is often as a res lt of ecolo"ical chan"e ind ced by the or"anisms themselves. In former times# while an area of a partic lar habitat mi"ht be lost thro "h s ccession 's ch as a wetland dryin" o t and event ally becomin" a woodland(# there wo ld always be other wetland habitats at an earlier sta"e of the s ccession process elsewhere. These wo ld act as species reservoirs. With the drastic loss of area of nat ral habitat occ rrin" world!wide# this is often no lon"er the case. The decision therefore has to be made to halt s ccession at a partic lar sta"e in order to preserve the species associated with it. -&amples of this incl de wild flower meadows# wetlands and heathlands. 'ES3.'(31.2 .estoration attempts to brin" land modified by h man se bac+ to its ori"inal state. Beca se determinin" the ori"inal nat ral state is often diffic lt and beca se ecosystems contin ally chan"e# this is rarely a realistic "oal. Chan"es may also in some cases be irreversible# so that restoration to an ori"inal condition is not an option. )or these reasons# restoration is often limited to the appro&imate recreation of habitat. .estoration does not necessarily re% ire intervention. Left to nat ral processes# many ecosystems will ret rn to their ori"inal condition provided pop lations of the ori"inal species still e&ist nearby. This may however be a len"thy process. In Bra/ilEs caatin"a forest# nat ral recovery of slash and b rn a"ric lt ral sites ta+es more than a cent ry. 8ites cleared by b lldo/er may ta+e a tho sand or more years to recover. Intervention may be sed to speed p the process. It becomes vital where an ecosystem will never recover nat rally# either beca se it has been physically transformed# or

beca se species cannot mi"rate to repop late the area. .estoration may rely heavily pon species maintained by ex situ methods and is an e&ample of the complementary nat re of in situ and ex situ techni% es. 'EC.4E'5 .6 3)'E(3E2ED S-EC1ES The recovery of threatened species "enerally hin"es on providin" s itable habitat and conditions in which they can thrive. :ost biodiversity losses can be directly attrib ted to habitat loss# so provision of habitat is often the +ey re% irement for recovery of a species. The dormo se ' Muscardinus avellanarius(is a "ood e&ample of this. =ormice are the s b>ect of a species recovery pro"ram sponsored by -n"lish Nat re. They thrive in decid o s woodland and over"rown hed"erows. They are arboreal and re% ire networ+s of interlin+in" low branches to provide aerial hi"hways to food so rces 'e.". ha/el n ts and honeys c+le(. In former times# the practice of coppicin" woodland 'c ttin" trees near to "ro nd level and then allowin" them to re"enerate n mero s shoots( provided ideal conditions for dormice. *owever# coppicin" is little practised these days# with the res lt that lar"e areas of former habitat have become ns itable for dormice. .ecovery therefore hin"es on providin" s itable areas for the species. =ormice also s ffer from competition with an introd ced species# the "rey s% irrel. Both species compete for the food reso rce of ha/el n ts. 123'.D0CED S-EC1ES The vast ma>ority of e&otic introd ced species die o t beca se they are ns ited to local conditions. < few however# appear to be s perbly adapted to partic lar local conditions and will tend to o t! compete native species. .e" latory policies are necessary to c rb the introd ction of e&otic species and "enetic reso rces# as the conse% ences can be disastro s. Introd ced species can wipe o t inn merable other local species. Between 1?A7 and 1?72# an <frican cichlid fish introd ced into a la+e in 0anama wiped o t A of the H previo sly common fish species# drastically red ced pop lations of a seventh and affected a% atic invertebrates# al"ae and fish!eatin" birds p and down the food chain. In Britain# partic larly in the west# rhododendron has ta+en over lar"e areas# virt ally eliminatin" native plants and their associated fa nas. This one species alone has decimated tens of tho sands of acres. $rey s% irrels introd ced from <merica have also all b t replaced native red s% irrel pop lations. -ven introd cin" the same species can present ha/ards thro "h the mi&in" of "enetic stoc+s. )ish pop lations can be contaminated by interbreedin" with introd ced varieties. The "enetic inte"rity of native British .ed =eer is now also threatened thro "h hybridisation with introd ced 8i+a =eer. 0 re .ed =eer may in the end be confined to isolated islands in 8cotland.

GE2E31C #.D161C(31.2 * mans now have the technolo"y to alter life on earth in a totally ni% e way. $enetic en"ineerin" can involve the transfer of "enetic material between widely separated ta&onomic "ro ps. e.". $enes from a fish have been introd ced into tomatoes. -ntirely new species can intentionally or nintentionally be prod ced. There is no " arantee that all the res lts will be beneficial or can even be controlled. LEG(L -'.3EC31.2

Nat re reserves need to be properly protected from the adverse res lts of h man activity. This mi"ht be indirect# as in for e&ample# habitat de"radation thro "h poll tion bro "ht abo t by activities elsewhere. <lternatively# it may involve direct dama"e# as in na thori/ed e&traction of reso rces from the reserve. 8 ch protection re% ires the presence of a le"al framewor+ which can be effectively enforced.

Conservation at the 2ational Level

National "overnments are vital to the preservation of biodiversity thro "h the passin" of laws re% irin" protection of species and habitats. If national laws do not protect species# then there is little hope of preservin" them. *owever# it is not eno "h > st to have laws# there m st also be the will and the reso rces to enforce them. -ven in economically developed nations# the necessary reso rces to properly enforce laws are not always made available. In nder!developed nations# even the most basic reso rces for enforcement may be lac+in". In addition# national laws may not in the end translate into local action# in which case they do not accomplish m ch. In democratic nations# national laws are also driven to a lar"e e&tent by p blic opinion. They may in some cases be drafted more as a response to emotion than by act al scientific need. 8everal international conventions e&ist for the preservation of biodiversity. These incl de s ch conventions as the .amsar Convention '1?7A( which provides for the conservation of internationally important wetlands and the Bern Convention '1?7?( which re% ires the protection of endan"ered and v lnerable species of flora and fa na in - rope and their habitats. There are many others. 8i"natory

nations to these conventions m st ratify national laws to ens re compliance with the conventions. In Britain# the main piece of le"islation coverin" conservation is the Wildlife and Co ntryside <ct 1?H1 and 1?H6# which implements precedin" -B conventions. It protects both species and sites of BC importance. -nforcement of conservation directives is the responsibility of the -nvironment <"ency# a "overnment or"anisation. -n"lish Nat re# a "overnment f nded watchdo"# is also responsible for the promotion of the conservation of -n"landEs wildlife. In addition to the enforcement of laws# the -nvironment <"ency is also responsible for data collection and monitorin". -nvironmental monitorin" and biodiversity s rveys are important beca se they provide information on the condition of ecosystems and the chan"es that are ta+in" place within them. They therefore provide the scientific information on which to base environmental policy decisions. 8imilarly# assessments of the environmental impact of lar"e development pro>ects are vital before relevant a thorities can either "rant permission to proceed# or re% ire that chan"es be made to development desi"ns.

International Conservation
8pecies and ecosystems are seldom neatly confined within national bo ndaries. :any species roam across co ntless national borders and the oceans are owned by none. Trade in endan"ered species 'or parts thereof( is international and poll tion prod ced on one side of the world may wind p affectin" re"ions on the other side of the "lobe. Biodiversity conservation is th s an international problem re% irin" international sol tions. The role of international conservation or"anisations is a vital one# partic larly in terms of bro+erin" international a"reements between "overnments concerned with protectin" their national interests. The most far!reachin" a"reement on biodiversity in recent years is the Convention on Biodiversity# si"ned by 16A nations at the Bnited Nations Conference on -nvironment and =evelopment ' the -arth 8 mmit ( in .io in 1??2. :any others have si"ned since# and as they ratify the convention# "overnments accept responsibility for safe" ardin" biodiversity in their nations. :any international conservation or"anisations incl din" W.I ' World .eso rces Instit te ( and IBCN ' The World Conservation Bnion ( contrib ted to the form lation of the doc ments si"ned at the convention. The BC was one of the first co ntries to follow p its commitment nder the Convention on Biodiversity. Biodiversity: The UK Action Plan was p blished in @an ary 1??5. < BC Biodiversity 8teerin" $ro p was appointed # which p blished a report entitled Meeting the Rio Challenge in 1??6. The report contains action plans for over 133 endan"ered species and 15 +ey habitats# to"ether with a commitment to prod ce f rther plans. The 8teerin" $ro p proposed the se of a standard methodolo"y for the prod ction of local biodiversity action plans. These wo ld be based pon the priorities of the BC plan# b t wo ld be s pplemented by local priorities. <ction 0lans see+ to apply principles of b siness plannin" to a strate"ic view of the environment. They identify ob>ectives# set % antified tar"ets and define the actions needed to reach those tar"ets.

The ature o! "evon # A Biodiversity Action Plan is =evonEs response to this national biodiversity plannin" process. This re"ional process is "oin" on thro "ho t -n"land. The s m of all the re"ional Biodiversity <ction 0lans sho ld add p to the f ll BC Biodiversity <ction 0lan. International conservation or"anisations play an important role in the wide p blicisin" of environmental information. IBCN was responsible for the idea of compilin" lists of threatened species as a means of drawin" attention to the pli"ht of species faced with e&tinction. These lists became +nown as .ed =ata Boo+s ' .=Bs (. In these# species are placed into one of several cate"ories which ran"e from Ie&tinctE to Iv lnerableE or IrareE# dependin" on the de"ree of threat to their e&istence. The first internationally applicable .=B was p blished in 1??A. The IredE stands for Idan"erE and the concept has since been adopted by many different co ntries# incl din" Britain. .=Bs point the way for "overnment a"encies char"ed with environmental protection# as well as for non!"overnmental or"anisations ' N$Os ( concerned abo t maintainin" diversity. Or"anisations s ch as WW)# fo nded in 1?A1 by 8ir 0eter 8cott# the eminent nat ralist# are hi"hly effective in p blicisin" the pli"ht of endan"ered species world!wide. They also play a lar"e role in raisin" charitable f nds towards pro>ects concerned with savin" wildlife in vario s areas of the "lobe. :any s ch conservation or"anisations pay for the basic reso rces needed by nder!developed co ntries to enforce their laws. This can be as basic as providin" a means of transport and salaries for enforcement officers. *owever# how effective these campai"ns and pro>ects are in the lon" r n remains to be seen. Loss of habitat is still the most pressin" problem. In some areas# biodiversity is serio sly threatened as a res lt of trade in endan"ered species. The international trade in wildlife is estimated to be worth J12 billion a year. Bp to a % arter of that trade is almost certainly ille"al. The main piece of le"islation limitin" trade in endan"ered species is CIT-8 'the Convention on International Trade in -ndan"ered 8pecies(. This is a BN convention which came into effect in 1?76. CIT-8 prohibits commercial trade in endan"ered species of plants and animals. Le"itimate international trade in species which are not now threatened# b t which may become so if trade is not controlled# is allowed via a permit system. .esponsibility for implementin" it lies with si"natory nations. :any of the problems involved in protectin" habitats and species arise beca se local people either need to se the reso rces available in sensitive habitats to provide the necessities for s bsistence or s rvival# or traditionally have always done so. BN-8CO 'Bnited Nations -d cational# 8cientific and C lt ral Or"anisation(# thro "h its ,:an and the Biosphere, pro"ramme# has set p a n mber of Internationally reco"nised biosphere reserves in an attempt to address this problem.

.vervie"
The world has a vast ran"e of different species which are all ine&tricably lin+ed. The eminent nat ralist and television presenter# 8ir =avid <ttenboro "h# s mmed this p neatly when he said "The inter#de$endence o! s$ecies evolved over %illions o! years and under$ins the co%$lex diversity o! li!e &hich exists on this $lanet."

We can only " ess at many of the interactions ta+in" place within habitats. While we have come a lon" way in o r +nowled"e of the nat ral world# we need to reco"nise that we are still f ndamentally i"norant. With reco"nition of this i"norance comes the nderstandin" that we need to preserve whole habitats intact# so that the comple&ity of interactions remains# whether we nderstand them or not. The fate of the entire planet is now dependent pon a sin"le species ! h mans. This is nprecedented in the -arthEs 5.7 billion year history. Bltimately# conservation of biodiversity will hin"e pon the control of h man pop lations. Contin ally e&pandin" h man n mbers have led to an escalatin" competition with wildlife for the space re% ired to ho se everyone# as well as to prod ce eno "h food to feed them. Increasin" standards of livin" also re% ire that f rther nat ral areas and reso rces are "iven over to s stainin" western lifestyles and associated demands. We are interferin" with biodiversity on a "reat many levels# from the molec lar '"enetic modification(# all the way thro "h habitats and possibly "lobal climate chan"e as well. *owever# the many predictions made abo t species and habitats losses need to be caref lly e&amined in each case and not > st ta+en at face val e. :any are based on comp ter sim lations and emotions can "et in the way of clear practical thin+in". <nyone concerned abo t conservation needs to % estion whether the inn merable strate"ies and policies in place are act ally bein" delivered. International conventions and national laws are in the end only ideas on pieces of paper. These m st be translated into concrete action in local sit ations for anythin" to be tr ly accomplished. On the pl s side# it is possible to restore some habitats which have been lost or de"raded. This is not to imply that it is permissible to destroy habitats in the first place. This ca ses the local e&tinction of all the species in the habitat and it can ta+e h ndreds of years for comple& ecosystems to become re! established. The species which have recolonised the restored habitat will also not necessarily be of the same "enetic ma+e! p as the ori"inal inhabitants. *owever# restoration does mean that action can be ta+en to repair dama"e. The nat ral world "iven half a chance is ama/in"ly resilient. <ll it needs is space and time.