ANALYZING FIREFIGHTER INJURIES AT VACANT AND ABANDONED BUILDING FIRES IN FLINT, MICHIGAN BEFORE AND AFTER IMPLEMENTATION OF A RISK

MANAGEMENT POLICY

By Andrew Graves

Capstone Project In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of: Master of Public Administration Eastern Michigan University

Committee Members: James Ivers, Ph.D. Joseph Ohren, Ph.D.

December 2012 Ypsilanti, Michigan

Table of Contents Abstract... vi Acknowledgementsvii List of Figures. iv List of Tables....... v SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION... 1 Introduction. 1 Statement of the Problem. 2 Background.. 3 Purpose. 5 Research Questions.. 6 Defining Vacant and Abandoned9 SECTION 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.. 10 Firefighting and Abandoned Buildings.. 10 The Effect of Abandoned Properties on a Community.. 15 Summary 19 SECTION 3: METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN. 20 Introduction 20 Research Design.21 Data Collection and Analysis.22 SECTION 4: FINDINGS - EXCEL ANALYSIS 25 Structure Fire Volume and Firefighting Tactics 25 Civilian Life Safety and Preservation of Property. 29 ii

Firefighter Injuries at Vacant and Abandoned Building Fires... 30 Complete Work Restriction and Light Duty Restriction... 32 Burn Injuries.. 37 Projected Injuries... 41 SECTION 5: FINDINGS - SPSS ANALYSIS 43 Introduction 43 Vacant and Abandoned Building Fires.. 43 Firefighter Injuries. 44 Firefighting Tactics and Firefighter Injuries.. 45 Comparison of Complete Work Restriction Hours and Costs... 47 Comparison of Light Duty Restriction Hours and Costs... 50 Comparison of Total Costs 51 Burn Injuries.. 52 Firefighting Tactics 53 Post-Fire Property Status... 56 Summary 59 SECTION 6: FINDINGS - GIS ANALYSIS.. 59 Introduction 59 GIS Maps... 60 Pre-Policy Fires.. 61 Post Policy Fires.62 Total Fires.. 63 Pre-Policy Injuries..64 Post-Policy Injuries 65 Total Injuries.. 66 iii

Summary 67 SECTION 7: CONCLUSION.. 67 Conclusion and Answers to Research Questions... 67 Recommendations for Future Study.. 70 SECTION 8: REFERENCES...72 SECTION 9: APPENDICES... 74 Appendix A: Glossary of Terms.. 74 Appendix B: Sample of MI-OSHA 300 Log of Work-Related Injuries Form 75 Appendix C: Sample of Excel Spreadsheet. 76

LIST OF FIGURES 1. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Vacant / Abandoned and Occupied Building Fires, 2002 - 2012.. 26 Pre-Policy Tactics at Vacant and Abandoned Building Fires 27 Post-Policy Tactics at Vacant and Abandoned Building Fires.. 27 Percentage of Offensive Attacks at Vacant and Abandoned Building Fires. 28 Percentage of Defensive Operations at Vacant and Abandoned Building Fires28 Post-Fire Property Status, 2002 - 2012.. 30 Rate of Firefighter Injury at Vacant and Abandoned Building Fires.31 Total Cost of Injury-Related Work Restriction..33 Cost of Injury-Related Light Duty Restriction.. 34 Cost of Injury-Related Complete Work Restriction.. 34 Cost of Burn-Related Complete Work Restriction 39 Cost of Burn-Related Light Duty Restriction 39 Total Cost of Burn-Related Work Restriction... 40 Histogram of Pre-Policy Firefighting Tactics 54 iv

14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Histogram of Post-Policy Firefighting Tactics.. 55 Histogram of Post-Fire Property Status, Pre-Policy.. 57 Histogram of Post-Fire Property Status, Post-Policy.58 Pre-Policy Fire Density GIS Map.. 61 Post-Policy Fire Density GIS Map.... 62 Total Fire Density GIS Map...63 Pre-Policy Injuries and Fire Density GIS Map.. 64 Post-Policy Injuries and Fire Density GIS Map.... 65 Total Injuries and Fire Density GIS Map...66

LIST OF TABLES 1. 2. Table of Injury Types and Costs 36 Table of Projected Injury Types and Costs42

Abstract Fires in vacant and abandoned buildings are frequently the sites of firefighter injuries. Reducing risk to firefighters during vacant and abandoned building fires was the focus of a 2007 City of Flint Fire Department policy. Many departments across the United States have enacted similar policies. There is a lack of research to determine if such policies are actually effective in reducing firefighter injuries. This study examines quantitative data collected from City of Flint records. The study focuses on a ten-year period from August 2002 to August 2012. The frequency and cost of injuries has been calculated during this period. Data from the five-year period preceding the policy and the five-year period after the policy has been compared and contrasted. This analysis shows that the City of Flints risk management policy has successfully led to a reduction in the frequency, severity, and cost of firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned building fires.

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Acknowledgments A special thank you to my wife, Sabrina, and my daughters, Emily and Erica. Their patience, love, understanding, and support have been wonderful throughout my graduate school experience and the writing of this capstone. Thank you to Dr. James Ivers and Dr. Joseph Ohren, the professors for my capstone committee and frequent teachers throughout the MPA program. It has been a pleasure working with you. This capstone would not have been possible without the 2007 policy implemented by the Flint Fire Department after my initial study of this issue. Thank you to retired Fire Chief Richard Dicks, retired Assistant Chief Dandre Williams, Dwyna Dunlap, and Alicia Alfaro for assisting me in the project that became the impetus for this capstone study.

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Introduction

Abandoned building fires have become a significant problem for fire departments across the country. Abandoned buildings present a ready target for arsonists and a hazardous environment for firefighters. Abandoned buildings have a minimal value to the community even before they are damaged by fire. Abandoned buildings are havens for crime, blight, and vandalism that reduce the value of nearby properties. Firefighters frequently suffer injuries at abandoned building fires. Many fire departments have addressed this problem through local policies. Norman (2004) expresses concerns that this problem is only addressed at a local level. There has been little discussion at the state or national level to inform other fire departments of abandoned building fire issues that are addressed at the local level. Flint, Michigan is plagued by frequent fires in vacant and abandoned buildings. Annual FBI crime statistics gave the city the dubious distinction of being ranked number one in per capita arson for cities over 100,000 in population in 2010 and 2011 (Harris, 2012). A high rate of firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned building fires was identified in a 2007 study that examined fires occurring in Flint over a one-year period. The rate of firefighter injury at abandoned building fires in Flint far exceeded the national average cited by Ahrens (2007). The Flint Fire Department responded to the study by creating and implementing a policy to manage firefighter risk at vacant and abandoned building fires.

Statement of the Problem Fire departments experience a high rate of firefighter injury at vacant and abandoned building fires. In order to reduce firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned building fires, risk management policies should be implemented by fire departments. A risk versus reward analysis should be conducted by incident commanders prior to committing firefighters to interior operations at vacant and abandoned building fires.

Many fire departments have addressed vacant and abandoned building fires at the local level. There is a great body of research linking vacant and abandoned building fires to a high rate of firefighter injury. However, there is very little research to determine the effectiveness of local fire department vacant and abandoned building policies.

Without a risk management policy for vacant and abandoned buildings, fire departments will continue to expose firefighters to unnecessary risks and incur a high rate of injury. Adopting risk management policies for vacant and abandoned building fires will reduce firefighter injuries and improve departmental efficiency.

This research project examines the effectiveness of the 2007 Flint Fire Department risk management policy for vacant and abandoned buildings. The findings of this study show a sharp decrease in the both the frequency and severity of firefighter injuries after the policy was implemented.

Background Flint, Michigan is an urban city covering a 34.1 square mile area located 70 miles north of Detroit. The city was incorporated in 1855. Flint began an ascent from modest beginnings to become a major hub of the automotive industry in the early 1900s. Flint became the home of the Buick Motor Company, General Motors, AC Spark Plug, and several other automotive companies. It was a major site of Chevrolet automobile manufacturing. The citys population grew to a peak level of near 200,000 in 1960. The citys automotive factories once employed 80,000 people. In the late 1960s, a pattern of downturn began. Manufacturing jobs moved away from Flint and the city began experiencing economic pressure amidst declining population and tax base. Many automotive factories were closed and eventually demolished. The General Motors workforce dwindled to an estimated 8,000 employees by the late 2000s. The citys population decreased nearly in half, with the 2010 Census finding 102,434 residents. Population loss directly impacts a municipalitys revenue. Zook (2009) found that property tax decreased 24% and income tax decreased 36% in East Cleveland, Ohio following a decade of population loss. The Flint Fire Department protects the city. The Department has seen a similar pattern of change mirroring the citys growth and decay. In the 1970s, the Department staffed 10 fire stations with nearly 300 fire suppression personnel. The diminishing tax base caused numerous layoffs, station closings, and staffing reductions through attrition. Today, the Department staffs four fire stations with 86 fire suppression personnel, 39 funded by a federal grant due to expire in 2014. The city is currently seeking a public safety millage to retain the federally funded staff in case the grant expires. Without the millage or an extension of federal funding, the Department will likely see further reductions in staffing and services. 3

Structure fire call volume has steadily increased over the last several decades. Department records show that it responded to 369 structure fire calls in 1970. In 2011, the Department responded to 945 structure fire calls. One of the most significant factors in the sharp increase in fire volume is the dramatic rise in the number of abandoned buildings. The population exodus from Flint has left behind thousands of vacant and abandoned buildings; 2010 US Census data showed that Flint was second only to hurricane-ravaged New Orleans in population loss since 2000. Abandoned buildings present a readily available, unguarded target for arsonists. Flint has seen vacant and abandoned building fires rise from 35% of total structure fires in 2003 to 60% of total structure fires in 2012. Abandoned buildings are a drain on community resources and services. Accordino (2002) describes a steadily worsening pattern when population loss occurs. Neighborhoods transition from owner-based homes to landlord-based rental occupancies. Less valuable properties are eventually abandoned, resulting in mortgage foreclosure and / or property tax default. The abandoned buildings still demand police, fire, and code enforcement services while providing little or no tax revenue to the community. Rule (2001) argues that abandoned buildings have no value unless they are repaired to an inhabitable condition or demolished. Griswold and Norris (2007) found that a demolition program targeting abandoned buildings in Flint increased the property tax base by over $112 million. Abandoned building fires represent a significant hazard to firefighters. Abandoned buildings are neglected and commonly in a state of disrepair. Exposure to the elements, vandalism, looting, and recurring fires cause structural hazards and instability. Fires in abandoned buildings are often intentionally set using accelerants. The lack of legal occupants

and incendiary ignition create more advanced, more dangerous conditions for firefighters than would be typically be found in an accidental occupied building fire. Ahrens (2007) found that vacant and abandoned buildings were the source of 6% of national fire calls, but were the source of 13% of firefighter injuries. Graves (2007) found that in Flint, 62% of firefighter injuries over a one-year period occurred at vacant and abandoned buildings. As a result of the Graves study, Flint implemented a policy to reduce firefighter risk at vacant and abandoned building fires.

Purpose The purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness of a 2007 City of Flint Fire Department policy on vacant and abandoned building fires. Advocating for the more frequent use of defensive operations (See Glossary, Appendix A) at vacant and abandoned buildings has been very controversial within the fire service. Critics within the fire service argue that defensive operations cause undue risk of injury or death to civilians who may be trapped in a burning vacant or abandoned building. Critics cite that there is no way to know if a burning building is truly vacant unless firefighters immediately search it. Advocates within the fire service argue that defensive operations balance the risk that firefighters are exposed to against the minimal chances of civilians being in a burning vacant or abandoned building. Advocates cite that all buildings are searched for potential victims, but in the vacant or abandoned building, searches take place after the fire has been largely controlled and risk concerns addressed. There has been discussion at the national level regarding minimizing firefighter risks at vacant and abandoned buildings. Notably, the National Institution for Occupational Safety and

Health released a safety alert to the fire service in 2009. The alert issues recommendations on firefighter risk management at unoccupied buildings. However, at the local level, many fire departments have not addressed vacant and abandoned building fires through policy change. Norman (2007) expressed concerns that policy change at the local level is typically borne from tragedy. This study furthers the knowledge on the subject of firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned building fires. Based on this case study of Flint, Michigan, it is hoped that information gained within this locality can be used to foster discussion of this issue among fire service professionals and public administrators at the local, state, and national level.

Research Questions The goal of this study is to collect and analyze data on fires and firefighter injuries in Flint to assess the effectiveness of the 2007 risk management policy. The study utilizes quantitative analysis to determine if any measurable changes have occurred in Department injuries and operations after the policy was implemented. The following research questions serve to guide the analysis:

1.

Did the 2007 risk management policy have any measurable effect on the frequency of firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned building fires?

This question is a primary focus of this study. In 2007, the Graves study found that Flints rate of firefighter injury greatly exceeded the national average. That study found that the Departments rate of injury was 11.7 injuries per 100 vacant building fires. Ahrens (2007),

writing for the National Fire Protection Association, found that the national average rate of firefighter injury at vacant buildings was 3.7 injuries per 100 fires.

2.

Did the 2007 risk management policy have any measurable effect on the severity of firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned building fires?

This question is also a primary focus of this study. The 2007 Graves study found that vacant and abandoned building fires constituted 40% of Department fire call volume and that vacant and abandoned building fires caused 62% of firefighter injuries. The study found that 21 injuries at vacant or abandoned building fires caused 3,112 hours lost to injury compensation time. Correspondingly, 13 injuries at occupied buildings caused 768 hours lost to injury compensation time. This study assesses fifteen categories of firefighter injuries to compare and contrast severity before and after the policy.

3.

Did the 2007 risk management policy have any measurable effect on the cost to the City for firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned building fires?

This question is also a primary focus of this study. The City incurred a high rate of cost from injuries at vacant and abandoned building fires in the 2007 study. In this study, the hours an injured employee spent on complete work restriction and light duty restriction have been collected from city records. Quantitative analysis will examine whether costs related to injury have changed after the policy was implemented. The issue of cost is of interest beyond the fire

service; municipal risk managers, budget officials, and workers compensation officials have a considerable interest in this question. Collection of injury cost data did not include overtime costs that may have been incurred due to a firefighter injury. Records of daily staffing levels and overtime costs are not complete or available for the period of this study. An attempt to recreate daily staffing levels and potential overtime costs would be likely be purely speculative. The Citys medical costs for care and treatment of an injured employee were also not assessed in the study. The City utilizes a third party claims service, Eagle Claims Management, to process workers compensation costs. For this study, contact was made with Tonya Fisher, the Citys agent at Eagle Claims. In order to obtain the Citys medical costs, Ms. Fisher advised that a written release would need to be obtained from the City and each individual employee subject to inquiry. For the 10-year timeframe of this study, obtaining releases from 155 employees who suffered an injury would be incomplete and overly burdening on time needed to complete this project.

4.

Did the 2007 risk management policy have any measurable effect on firefighting strategies used at vacant and abandoned building fires?

The goal of the policy was to reduce firefighter injuries by altering firefighting strategies at vacant and abandoned building fires. Using internal fire records, the firefighting strategy used at each vacant and abandoned building fire during the study period was quantified. The analysis is designed to determine if there has been any measurable change in firefighting strategies, and whether there is a correlation between a change in firefighting strategies and firefighter injuries.

The implementation of the policy was a cultural change for the Department. Prior to the policy, all buildings were treated the same regardless of state of occupancy. There was some initial resistance to this cultural change. The research aims to answer whether a six-page policy and three one-hour training sessions can affect decades of existing Department culture.

5.

What has happened to vacant and abandoned properties in Flint after a fire incident?

The two primary goals of firefighting are saving lives and preserving property. Firefighters take personal risk upon themselves to accomplish those two goals. Risks are taken by firefighters to preserve property with the unspoken expectation that a property owner will benefit from that risk and effort. In Flint, there is a high frequency of fires in vacant and abandoned buildings. Utilizing City property tax records and site visitations, vacant and abandoned properties that burned during the study period were assessed. The status of property affected by fire was quantified, and the analysis is designed to examine whether vacant and abandoned buildings that burn are repaired and re-occupied or if they are demolished. This question is important to answer since it will help guide fire incident commanders in risk management decisions at vacant and abandoned building fires.

Defining Vacant and Abandoned Properties Fire data has been collected from the Citys National Fire Incident Reporting System (NFIRS) records. The NFIRS system allows buildings to be classified by code number as under construction, occupied, idle and not routinely used, under major renovation, vacant and secured,

vacant and unsecured, being demolished, other, or undetermined. There is no specific classification to identify an abandoned building. There is no widely accepted standard way to identify an abandoned building among NFIRS users. Fires in abandoned buildings are most often classified by reporting officers in Flint as vacant and secured or vacant and unsecured. The 2007 City of Flint policy defines vacant buildings as a property that has an owner but no permanent occupants, with reasonable efforts being made to preserve its value and condition. (City of Flint, 2007) The 2007 City of Flint policy defines abandoned buildings as a property that has no legal occupants and is neglected with no efforts made to preserve its value or condition. (City of Flint, 2007). Within the fire service, use of the term vacant most commonly means both vacant and abandoned buildings. Abandoned buildings are the prime focus of this study. However, there is no certain way to know if a property was actually vacant or abandoned under the 2007 policy definitions as both categories are classified under the same two vacant codes within NFIRS.

Literature Review

Firefighting and Abandoned Buildings The building is your enemy. Know your enemy (Brannigan, 2007, p. 11). This quote is well known to firefighters across the United States and the world. Brannigan wrote his treatise on building construction to warn firefighters of the danger of structural collapse. First published in 1971, his work emphasized a thorough knowledge of building design and construction in order to improve firefighter safety. Today, his lesson can be applied to a scourge of unsafe structures

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plaguing communities: the abandoned building. A byproduct of economic downturn, population loss, collapse of the housing market and other factors, abandoned buildings present a unique challenge to firefighters. Dunn writes that the abandoned building presents more significant hazards to firefighters than occupied buildings. He warns that complacency among firefighters in their approach to abandoned building fires can have deadly consequences. Dunn argues that firefighters have not sufficiently recognized that abandoned buildings are a specific hazard. A retired New York City Deputy Chief, Dunn states that [t]he lesson firefighters in the Northeast and Midwest learned 25 years ago was that the vacant building is a killer (Dunn, 2000, p. 20). Successful risk management requires identifying workplace hazards as a first step. Dunn points out that abandoned buildings are frequently the site of multiple fire incidents. With each successive incident, the buildings structural integrity is further compromised. Ahrens (2009) surveyed vacant and abandoned building fires occurring nationally between 2002 and 2006. He found that 4,500 firefighters suffered injuries at vacant and abandoned buildings during the period. Nationally, vacant and abandoned buildings represented 6% of total structure fires, yet caused 13% of total firefighter injuries, and 15 firefighters were fatally injured. Ahrens also found that 57% of fires in unsecured vacant and abandoned buildings were intentionally set. Abandoned buildings are subject to decay, may not comply with building codes, and are often vandalized. Vandalism can expose a buildings structural framing and void spaces, leading to rapid fire spread into load-bearing components. Ahrens recommends that fire departments partner with local housing organizations to help identify abandoned properties.

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Karter (2012) studied firefighter injuries occurring nationally between 2005 and 2009. Karter utilized NFIRS data that is the same format as utilized by this researcher. He identified 33,950 firefighter injuries during that period; 27,170 of these injuries, 81%, occurred at properties that were occupied, and 4,635 injuries, 13%, occurred at vacant properties. Karter and Ahrens found a national injury rate that is consistent between two separate studies. Norman writes that the most dangerous building for firefighting is the vacant or abandoned building. He states that the rate of firefighter fatality is five times higher for vacant and abandoned buildings than occupied buildings. Norman mentions that the Fire Department of New York City changed its policy towards vacant and abandoned buildings. However, he warns that [a]ll it took was an attitude adjustment brought about by a number of tragedies. Dont you pay for the same lessons (Norman, 2007, p. 381). The life hazard at a vacant or abandoned building fire is almost always exclusively to the firefighters called to respond to it. Norman laments that the lesson of vacant and abandoned buildings has only been learned at the local level. He writes [t]he real shame is that the lesson has only been learned locally, for it is still common in some areas for casualties to occur in buildings that are in such poor condition that they were barely standing prior to the fire and shouldnt have been entered in the first place (Norman, 2007, p. 11). The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) issues standards for many facets of firefighting. NFPA 1500 addresses firefighter occupational safety and health. It was the first standard to directly address risk management for firefighters operating at building fires. NFPA 1500 applies to all buildings, whether occupied, vacant, or abandoned. The standard recommends that all fire departments utilize the following rules of engagement:

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1. 2. 3. 4.

What is the survival profile of any victims in the involved compartment? We will not risk our lives at all for a building or lives that are already lost. We may only risk our lives a little, in a calculated manner, to save savable property. We may risk our lives a lot, in a calculated manner, to save savable lives (NFPA, 2002).

The standard suggests that when there is no savable life or property involved, the implementation of defensive strategies is the appropriate choice. At fires in vacant and abandoned buildings, the chance of firefighters encountering a savable life or savable property is minimal. Rule discusses a particularly tragic fire that occurred in Worcester, Massachusetts in 1999. In this incident, firefighters responded to a fire in an abandoned cold storage warehouse. Firefighters received reports that two homeless people may have still been in the building. Six firefighters were killed as a result of searching for the homeless persons. The homeless persons were later found safely away from the building and were charged with arson. Rule states that the conditions in Worcester at this fire are a nationwide phenomenon. The tragedy of Worcester could have happened anywhere. He writes that [n]othing good comes from vacant buildings unless they are renovated to code or demolished (Rule, 2000). Vacant and abandoned buildings pose a direct threat to the safety of firefighters. Rule argues that fire departments must manage that risk by having plans and policies in place to address vacant and abandoned buildings. Jones (2001) advocates fire prevention as the best practice for reducing vacant and abandoned building fires. Communities should seek to properly secure access to abandoned buildings. Locking or boarding up entryways prevents trespassing and the potential for arson. Once secured, a community should focus on rehabilitation of viable properties and demolition of properties that are not salvageable. 13

Jones suggests that fire companies keep a list of abandoned properties that are located within their response districts. Abandoned buildings should be clearly marked with an identifying label. This label, painted on the buildings exterior, would identify whether an abandoned building is safe for firefighters to enter. An X label would indicate that no interior firefighting operations can be conducted unless there is a confirmed citizen life in jeopardy. A / label would indicate that interior operations can be conducted with extreme caution. Jones echoes Dunn and Norman, stating [t]he most important concept that firefighters and command officers must understand when responding to fires involving vacant and abandoned buildings is that the buildings themselves are inherently dangerous (Jones, 2001). Graves studied firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned buildings in Flint, Michigan. Examining a one-year period of fires, Graves found that vacant and abandoned buildings accounted for 40% of fire call volume. Vacant and abandoned buildings were the source of 62% of total firefighter injuries in Flint, far exceeding the 13% finding of Ahrens and the 14% finding of Karter. Flints vacant and abandoned building fire volume of 40% greatly exceeded the 6% found by Karter in a national study of data from 2005 through 2009. Ahrens also found a national average of 6% vacant and abandoned building fire volume in a national study examining data between 2003 through 2006. Vacant and abandoned building fires in Flint resulted in 3,112 hours lost due to firefighter injury in the timeframe of the 2007 Graves study. In contrast, occupied buildings resulted in 768 hours lost due to firefighter injury. Exposing firefighters to the risk of vacant and abandoned buildings did not yield a significant preservation of property. During the period surveyed, firefighters made 136 offensive attacks (See Glossary, Appendix A) at vacant and

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abandoned building fires. All but five of those properties were still abandoned or had been demolished at the time of the study. Graves advocates that firefighters utilize risk management procedures published in National Fire Protection Association industry standards. Fires in vacant and abandoned properties must be treated differently than fires in occupied buildings. He argues that fires in vacant and abandoned buildings are a uniquely dangerous hazard that is waiting to injure and kill firefighters (Graves, 2007, p. 40).

The Effect of Abandoned Properties on a Community Communities experiencing growth in abandoned properties follow a consistent pattern that has been identified in the literature. As people move out of a community, their former homes are left behind. A transition occurs from an owner-based occupancy to a renter-based occupancy. As a neighborhood continues to deteriorate, rent amounts that can be demanded by landlords decrease. Valuable properties are acquired and lower valued properties end up abandoned. Accordino argues that because there is more housing than households, at the end of the housing chain lies a vast pool of dwellings for which there is little demand (Accordino, 2002, p. 302). A house that has no owner falls into disrepair. Mortgage obligations are left unmet, resulting in default or foreclosure. Property tax obligations are not paid, also leading to a loss of ownership. Abandoned buildings represent a net loss to a community. They present a need for services from police, fire, and code enforcement departments while providing little or no revenue to the community via taxes. Griswold and Norris (2007) published a study on the effect of vacant buildings on the property values of neighboring houses in Flint, Michigan. The automotive industry and post-

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World War Two economy propelled Flint to become one of the most prosperous cities in the United States. In the late 1960s, the growth slowed and began to decline. Flints population eroded from a high of nearly 200,000 in 1960 to just over 100,000 today. The Genesee County Land Bank (GCLB) began a program of acquiring abandoned housing property in 2002. The GCLB obtains title to properties via auction. Viable properties are rehabilitated and returned to the property tax base. Dilapidated properties are demolished. Griswold and Norris study measured the effectiveness of the GCLBs demolition program. They found that an abandoned property has a negative effect on any other property located within 1,500 feet. During the 2002 2005 period of study, the GCLB demolished 434 houses which had a 1,500 foot field of effect on 26,197 other properties. The GCLB spent $3.5 million on demolition efforts. Griswold and Norris regression study found that the GCLBs demolition program increased property values on 26,197 affected properties by a total of $112,528,793. The studys findings suggest that a communitys tax base is improved when abandoned buildings are demolished. Rule (2000) also found a connection between the local tax base and abandoned buildings. Vacant buildings represent a minimal tax revenue base and demolition should not be delayed by the perception that the tax base will erode. Instead, he argues that the land is more valuable for economic development if it's vacant than if a dilapidated structure sits there (Rule, 2000). The City of Flint has an active demolition program. Inspectors visit vacant and abandoned buildings in response to citizen complaints. Inspectors are also notified by the Fire Department of any fire involving a vacant or abandoned building. The Citys inspectors utilize a simple formula to evaluate a structure for demolition. The formula specifies that [w]hen the cost

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to repair exceeds the current market value of a structure, the decision is made to proceed with demolition (City of Flint, 2009, p. 1). Zook examined abandoned properties and their effect on East Cleveland, Ohio. He argues that [a]n abandoned building is in and of itself a safety hazard. This hazard must be reduced, if possible (Zook, 2009, p. 6). Abandoned buildings cause a decrease in property values and reduce the tax base. Local government revenues are affected by a diminishing tax base, straining the ability to provide government services. The property tax base of East Cleveland decreased 24% between 2000 and 2008 as the city suffered population loss and property abandonment. Income taxes fell 36% during the same period. Between 2006 and 2009, 61% of East Clevelands firefighter injuries occurred during operations at vacant building fires. Ley (2010) studied vacant building fires in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. He mentioned that a spike in arson rates typically follows a wave of foreclosures. Milwaukee, like numerous cities, has suffered from the current and ongoing foreclosure crisis. Milwaukee has had a series of policies developed to address vacant buildings. The first policy, implemented in 1967, focused on elimination of blighted buildings. A 1989 policy focused on boarding up unsecured abandoned buildings. Ordinances were adopted in 2001 to tighten restrictions on vacant and abandoned buildings. Milwaukee has seen a progressive decrease in frequency of abandoned building fires. Peaking at 758 incidents in 1968, vacant building fires dropped below 100 for the first time in 2002. Hollander (2008) studied land use changes associated with population loss in Flint, Michigan. He argues that population loss is a widespread problem for major cities. Shrinking of cities is an alternative strategy Hollander examines.

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Through calculation of housing unit density in three Flint neighborhoods, Hollander found that individual neighborhoods react to population loss differently. Hollander suggests that census data, updated every ten years, is not sufficient to measure population changes that happen on a much faster scale. Hollander ties population loss to neighborhood stability. Neighborhoods that do not downsize in accordance with population loss see a rise in number of abandoned buildings. The neighborhood then further deteriorates as abandoned structures may drag down neighborhoods by serving as havens for criminal activity (Hollander, 2010, p. 137). Demand for housing in deteriorating neighborhoods falls to the point that many homeowners simply abandon their properties. In addition to becoming havens for crime, abandoned buildings become targets for arson. Two of the three neighborhoods Hollander studied reacted to population loss by changing from high-density to low-density neighborhoods. Dilapidated housing stock was removed. Land formerly occupied by dilapidated housing was acquired by neighboring property owners to expand their individual lots. Block clubs and community groups also acquired empty land to use for gardens and parks. These two neighborhoods experienced lower crime rates and higher levels of community involvement. The third neighborhood examined did not react quickly to population loss. It remains high-density, unstable, and with a prevalence of abandoned houses. High crime rates and a prevalence of landlord-tenant occupancies are present. Hollanders study found that reduction of housing density in concurrence with population loss led to more stable, safer, and more satisfactory neighborhoods. Hirokawa and Gonzales (2010) assessed methods used by cities to regulate vacant property. The study analyzed cities that had identified a correlation between vacant property and

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the onset of blight. They argue that the public cost of vacant property is persistent and unaffordable. City policies and ordinances are a means of controlling the public cost of vacant property. A primary aim of many vacant building ordinances is to identify and track vacant property. A property owner is required by these ordinances to register the vacant property with their local government. A registration fee is paid, with funds assisting in paying for inspection and code enforcement. Ordinances require property owners to maintain vacant buildings or face fines and penalties. Some ordinances require the property owner to carry general liability insurance on the vacant property. Ordinances on vacant buildings are a regulatory tool that strikes an appropriate balance between the rights of property owners and the needs of the public welfare (Hirokawa and Gonzales, 2010, p 637).

Summary Vacant and abandoned buildings are a significant problem to fire departments and communities across the country. The value of an abandoned building within its community has changed. An abandoned building formerly represented a potentially repairable structure. The downturn in the housing market and depopulation trends in urban centers has caused abandoned buildings to now primarily represent a drain on tight budget resources and danger to firefighters. Abandoned buildings are havens for crime and reduce property values of neighboring occupied properties. Fire departments, either individually or as a whole in the fire service, should proactively address abandoned buildings within their community. Risk management procedures are

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advocated for fire operations at abandoned buildings throughout the literature. Systems to identify and mark abandoned buildings with visible warnings to firefighters have been implemented in some communities. The NFPA has created national standards for operations at abandoned buildings. Local fire departments are encouraged to adopt these standards to improve fireground efficiency and firefighter safety. Communities can enhance their neighborhoods by proactively and aggressively responding to abandoned buildings. Griswold and Norris found dramatic improvements in property values in Flint, Michigan after blighted, abandoned buildings were demolished. There is an agreement in the literature that abandoned buildings reduce the property tax base. Ordinances and policies to track abandoned homes are effective. Hollander identified that prompt community reaction to depopulation can prevent blight during the transition from high-density housing to low-density housing. Demolition of abandoned housing stock should be conducted to improve property values, reduce blight, reduce crime and arson, and enhance the quality of life in urban neighborhoods.

Methodology and Research Design

Introduction This study examines firefighter injury rates and frequency at vacant and abandoned building fires before and after implementation of the vacant and abandoned building policy. The Department began implementation of its vacant and abandoned building policy on August 28, 2007. The study examines a 10-year period of structure fires from August 27, 2002 through August 27, 2012.

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A limitation of this study is that it is a case study. The study examines a limited population within one fire department. Fire departments in urban environments are similar. The results of the study, while sampling a limited population, may be generalized to the broader population of other urban fire departments.

Research Design This project utilizes a pre-test / post-test group research model design. This research model was the best option for this project based on available data. The research examines two population groups. The pre-test group, Group A, existed chronologically before the post-test group, Group B. There is a relationship existing between Group A and Group B. Both groups are samples of the same population performing during separate time periods. Group A and Group B are interdependent and could not exist without each other. Data from both groups were easily and reasonably measurable. Group B was subjected to a treatment, in this case, the 2007 risk management policy. The population of the study is firefighters working for the City of Flint Fire Department. The study surveys structure fires and firefighter injuries occurring between August 27, 2002 and August 27, 2012. The pre-test group, Group A, is structure fires and firefighter injuries occurring between August 27, 2002 and August 27, 2007. The post-test group, Group B, is structure fires and firefighter injuries occurring between August 28, 2007 and August 27, 2012. The study examines what happened to the groups before and after the treatment.

21

There is a research theory existing between the two groups that the treatment policy caused measurable changes. The model theory in this case is that there is a measurable change in injuries between the two groups. The relationship between the groups has been controlled for all other foreseeable factors.

Data Collection and Analysis For this study, data were collected from the City's New World Systems AEGIS Fire Records software. Upon conclusion of a structure fire incident, the reporting officer enters data about the fire incident into the records system. The data were reviewed and compiled into an Excel database. Data were recorded into Excel about the following subject areas: The date of the incident The time the incident occurred The internal Department run number for the incident The street address or intersection of the incident Whether the affected structure was vacant or occupied What firefighting strategy and tactics were utilized at the incident: An offensive fire attack at a vacant building A defensive fire operation at a vacant building A transitional fire operation at a vacant building An incipient stage fire at a vacant building Fire affecting only the exterior of a vacant building Fire occurred at an occupied building

Whether the incident occurred before or after the 2007 policy 22

Whether a firefighter injury occurred during the incident The number of firefighter(s) injured during the incident The rank of the injured firefighter(s) The hourly pay rate of the injured firefighter(s)

Injury data were collected from the City's Employee Health Clinic. The Clinic records data about firefighter injuries on the MI-OSHA 300 Log of Work-Related Injuries and Illnesses Form. Data were recorded from these forms into Excel in the following areas: The type of injury suffered by the firefighter(s) The number of 8-hour days the firefighter was on complete work restriction and unable to work The number of 8-hour days the firefighter was on a light duty work assignment The total cost of complete work restriction time The total cost of light duty work assignment time The combined total cost of complete work restriction and light duty time

The cost of injuries was calculated by multiplying the affected employee's hourly pay rate by the total number of hours on work restriction or light duty. Injuries were separated into one of fifteen different categories depending on the nature of the injury. The City's property tax website (http://cityofflint.com/propertytaxes/search.asp) was reviewed between August 29, 2012 and September 4, 2012. The City lists the current status of properties on this website. For each property classified as vacant by the reporting officer, the property tax records were reviewed. The status of the property was entered into Excel as follows: The affected property has been demolished The affected property is currently on the City's Demolition List 23

The affected property is posted as not inhabitable until repaired to code The affected property still contains an improved structure

The property status review comprised 2,095 separate properties; 213 properties were listed as improved. To determine the status of improved properties, site visits were conducted at each of the 213 improved properties between August 29, 2012 and September 4, 2012. The properties were visually inspected from the street or sidewalk. Properties listed as 'improved' in the database were re-categorized in Excel as follows after site visits: The affected property is currently occupied by residents The affected property is currently vacant and reasonably maintained The affected property is currently abandoned and dilapidated

During site visits, assumptions were made to determine if the property was vacant or abandoned. Properties that showed any reasonable sign of recently being cared for were listed as vacant. Properties that were found unsecured, boarded up, lacking energy utility connections, or in a visible state of dilapidated disrepair were listed as abandoned. Within the Excel database are 2,578 fire incidents at 2,095 separate vacant or abandoned properties. Many properties were the site of multiple responses. One example of multiple responses is 1921 Burns. Firefighters responded to this abandoned building for fire incidents on fifteen separate occasions. This structure has been demolished. Within the property status section of the database, 1921 Burns is recorded as demolished only once so as not to skew final statistics on property status. Each building that received multiple responses was classified to show a property status once. Other property status entries for that property were left blank. An exception to this procedure is occupied houses that burned once, were subsequently vacated, and then burned

24

again as a vacant structure. Those were classified once as an occupied structure and once as a vacant structure. Multiple occupancy structures like apartment buildings and trailer parks were classified individually for each incident. A limitation of the property review is that the status of properties is dynamic and can change. The property status listed in the database is a snapshot of time reflecting data collected between August 29, 2012 and September 4, 2012. Structures listed for demolition will eventually be demolished. Structures listed as posted may be either repaired and reoccupied or demolished. Properties that have had structures demolished may at some time in the future have a new structure built upon them. The property status information is intended to illustrate what happened to a vacant or abandoned property within the 10-year timeframe of the study. The Excel database was converted for use with SPSS. Alphabetical data was reclassified as numerical data. Variables were added to represent all data over the ten-year period. Separate variables were added to split the total data into pre-policy and post-policy sections. A variety of statistical analyses were conducted on the data.

Findings - Excel Analysis

Structure Fire Volume and Firefighting Tactics Analysis of the data in Excel shows distinctive changes between the pre-policy and postpolicy periods. The City of Flint Fire Department responded to 5,233 working fires during the 10-year survey period. 2,578 working fires occurred in vacant or abandoned buildings; 2,655 working fires occurred in occupied buildings. There was a marked increase in vacant and abandoned building fires in the post-policy period; 1,623 vacant and abandoned building fires occurred in the post-policy period compared to 955 in the pre-policy period, a 70% increase. 25

Vacant and abandoned building fires represented 41% of total structure fires in the prepolicy period. Vacant and abandoned building fires increased to 56% of total structure fires in the post-policy period. Vacant and abandoned building fires at their lowest annual frequency represented 35% of total structure fires in 2003. Vacant and abandoned building fires at their highest annual frequency represented 63% of total structure fires in 2010. The following chart depicts vacant, abandoned, and occupied building fires during the survey period.

Vacant / Abandoned and Occupied Building Fires, 2002 - 2012

500 400

300
200 100 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Vacant / Abandoned Occupied

Firefighting tactics utilized at vacant and abandoned buildings changed in the post-policy period. Offensive attacks at vacant and abandoned buildings decreased from 68% to 45%. Defensive operations increased from 15% to 30%. Transitional operations (See Glossary, Appendix A) increased from 3% to 10%. Structure fires at which incipient or exterior fire conditions were found were essentially unchanged between pre- and post-policy periods. The charts below illustrate the change in firefighting tactics at vacant building fires before and after the policy.

26

Pre-Policy Tactics at Vacant and Abandoned Building Fires

4% 10%

3%

15%
68%

Offensive

Defensive

Incipient

Exterior

Transitional

Post-Policy Tactics at Vacant and Abandoned Building Fires

10% 5% 10% 45%

30%

Offensive

Defensive

Incipient

Exterior

Transitional

Offensive attacks have decreased from being the primary strategy of choice. An examination of tactics over the 10-year study period shows a steady change in firefighting strategy. In 2003, offensive attacks were used 77% of the time at vacant and abandoned building fires. By 2012, offensive attacks decreased to 33% at vacant and abandoned building fires. The

27

year 2012 was the first in which defensive strategies were the most frequently used strategy at vacant and abandoned buildings. The following charts illustrate the changes in firefighting tactics over the 10-year survey period.

Percentage of Offensive Attacks at Vacant and Abandoned Buildings 2002 - 2012

90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 77% 77% 63% 52% 67% 60% 57% 48% 46% 38% 33%

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Percentage of Defensive Operations at Vacant and Abandoned Building Fires 2002 - 2012

40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0%

37% 31% 30% 21% 13% 8% 13% 19% 20% 23% 26%

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

28

Civilian Life Safety and Preservation of Property The two primary goals of firefighting are saving lives and preserving property. A review of fire records finds that the chances of a civilian being injured or killed during a vacant or abandoned building fire in Flint are exceedingly minimal. In the survey period, there were 2,578 working fires at vacant and abandoned buildings. There were four documented records of a civilian injury or fatality at a vacant or abandoned building fire during the ten years studied. These four cases represent 0.16% of all vacant and abandoned building fires. At the remaining 99.84% of vacant and abandoned building fires occurring in the study period, the life hazard risk is exclusively to the firefighters that respond. Firefighters responded to 2,578 separate fire incidents at 2,095 vacant or abandoned properties. A review of City property tax records and site visits to these properties found that: 1,352 properties have been demolished (64.5%) 412 properties are currently on the active City demolition list (19.7%) 118 properties are posted as uninhabitable until brought up to code (5.6%) 77 properties were found in a dilapidated, abandoned condition (3.7%) 113 properties were found in a reasonably maintained vacant condition (5.4%) 23 properties were found to be occupied (1.1%)

The following chart depicts the status of a vacant or abandoned property experiencing a fire during the study period.

29

Post-Fire Property Status 2002 - 2012

1600 1400 1200 1000 800 1352

600
400 200 0 Demolished

412 118 Demolition List Posted 77 Abandoned 113 Vacant 23 Occupied

Fires in vacant or abandoned buildings represent a minimal chance of preserving a viable property. During the study period, 93.5% of vacant buildings suffering a fire incident were not repaired or rehabilitated. The findings of this study emphasize that fire command officers should utilize NFPA 1500 recommendations on risk versus reward when committing firefighters to interior operations at abandoned buildings. Over the 10-year period of this study, an abandoned building fire represented a 0.16% chance of a civilian involvement and a 6.5% chance of a property being preserved.

Firefighter Injuries at Vacant and Abandoned Building Fires During the 10-year survey period, a total of 155 firefighters suffered injuries at vacant or abandoned building fires. The number of firefighter injuries was nearly evenly split before and after the policy; 76 injuries occurred in the pre-policy period, and 79 injuries occurred in the post-policy period. At first glance, this would appear to indicate that the policy was not effective 30

in reducing firefighter injuries. A closer examination reveals that there has been a notable change in the frequency and severity of firefighter injuries The National Fire Protection Association reports that the national average for firefighter injuries is 3.7 per 100 vacant building fires. In Flint, the rate of injury during the survey period is represented in the following chart.

Rate of Firefighter Injury per 100 Vacant and Abandoned Building Fires
12 10 8 6 6 4 2 0 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 3.6 7.5 6.4 10.5

9.6 7.8 5.6 4 4.5 4.2

There has been a decrease in the rate of firefighter injuries. With the exception of the 4month portion of 2002 within the survey, the lowest rates of injury were encountered in the postpolicy period. During policy implementation, there was some initial resistance to increasing defensive operations by some firefighters and command officers. Over time, the acceptance of the change to defensive measures being the best tactical option has been successful. As evidenced in the above chart, injury rates remained high through 2008 and then have shown a stable pattern of reduction. It should be noted that while the number of injuries remained consistent in the pre- and post-policy periods, the number of vacant and abandoned building fires did not. There were 76 injuries at 955 vacant and abandoned building fires before the policy, an injury rate of 8.0 per 31

100 vacant and abandoned building fires. There were 79 injuries at 1,623 vacant and abandoned building fires after the policy, an injury rate of 4.9 per 100 vacant and abandoned building fires.

Complete Work Restriction and Light Duty Restriction Firefighter injuries result in two types of injury-related time off duty. The two types are complete work restriction and light duty restriction. Firefighters on complete work restriction are not able to work in any form. Firefighters on light duty restriction may work in a reduced capacity but may not engage in firefighting activities. Light duty work restriction involves administrative or clerical assignments until the injured firefighter has recovered completely and is restored to firefighting duties. The cost of firefighter injuries has been calculated utilizing information from the Citys Employee Health Clinic. Data from the Employee Health Clinics OSHA 300 Log of JobRelated Injuries and Illness forms were collected. The number of eight-hour days on complete work restriction and light duty restriction is entered on the OSHA 300 form. The injured employees hourly salary was multiplied by the number of hours listed as being on complete or light duty restriction. The results were tabulated for complete work restriction hours, light duty restriction hours, and total hours for each injury. In the 10-year survey period, 155 firefighter injuries at vacant building fires resulted in a cost of $374,272 for complete and light duty restriction hours. In the pre-policy period, 76 injuries cost a total of $236,905 for complete and light duty restriction. In the post-policy period, 79 injuries cost a total of $137,367 for complete and light duty restriction. The average pre-policy cost of complete and light duty restriction was $3,117 per injury. The average post-policy cost of complete and light duty restriction was $1,739 per injury. The

32

post-policy period saw a reduction of $1,379 in the average total cost per injury. The following chart depicts pre-policy and post-policy total costs.

Total Cost of Injury-Related Work Restriction

36%

64%

Pre-Policy

Post-Policy

The City incurred a total cost of $235,301 for light duty restriction hours. In the prepolicy period, light duty restriction cost a total of $121,482 or $1,598 per injury. In the postpolicy period, light duty restriction cost a total of $113,819 or $1,441 per injury. The post-policy period saw a reduction of $157 in the average cost of light duty restriction per injury. The chart below depicts pre-policy and post-policy light duty costs.

33

Cost of Injury-Related Light Duty Restriction

48%

52%

Pre-Policy

Post-Policy

The City incurred a total cost of $138,971 for complete work restriction hours. In the prepolicy period, complete work restriction cost a total of $115,423 or $1,519 per injury. In the post-policy period, complete work restriction cost a total of $23,548 or $298 per injury. The post-policy period saw a reduction in the cost of complete work restriction of $91,875. The average cost of complete work restriction decreased by $1,221 in the post-policy period. The chart below depicts pre-policy and post-policy complete work restriction costs.

Cost of Injury-Related Complete Work Restriction

16%

84%

Pre-Policy

Post-Policy

34

Injuries in the post-policy period were less frequent and less severe than in the pre-policy period. The drastic reduction in the cost of complete work restriction time while structure fire volume dramatically increased illustrates the effectiveness of the policy. Firefighter injuries were classified into 15 measurable categories, including abdominal strains, back strains, burns, cardiac conditions, contusions, debris in eye, dental injuries, electric shock, extremity strains, fractures, heat exhaustion, lacerations, multiple injuries, puncture wounds, and smoke inhalation. The following table details pre-policy and post-policy injuries and costs by injury category. In each paired column, green indicates the lower cost or value. Yellow indicates no change in cost or value, while red indicates a higher cost or value.

35

Injury Type

Number, PrePolicy
5 6 24 0 7 1 0 2 19 0 2 1 6 3 1 76

Number, PostPolicy
0 7 10 1 7 3 1 1 27 1 6 8 3 2 2 79

Average Cost, PrePolicy

$710 $3,400 $2,272 $0 $45 $217 $0 $0 $5,845 $0 $79 $797 $7,380 $0 $1,593 $3,071

Average Cost, PostPolicy

$0 $1,221 $656 $2,608 $941 $145 $994 $0 $3,273 $1,988 $26 $177 $5,740 $0 $1,231 $1,739

Total Cost, PrePolicy

$3,550 $20,400 $54,533 $0 $318 $217 $0 $0 $111,058 $0 $159 $797 $44,280 $0 $1,593 $236,905

Total Cost, PostPolicy

$0 $8,546 $6,564 $2,608 $6,592 $435 $994 $0 $88,377 $1,988 $159 $1,420 $17,219 $0 $2,462 $137,367

Abdominal Strain Back Strain Burn Cardiac Contusion Debris In Eye Dental Electric Shock Extremity Strain Fracture Heat Exhaustion Laceration Multiple Puncture Smoke Inhalation Totals

36

The average cost per injury decreased in nine categories. There was no change in average cost per injury in two categories, and there was an increase in average cost per injury in four categories. The four categories that showed increases were cardiac conditions, contusions, dental injuries, and fractures. There was a total of one cardiac condition, one dental injury, and one fracture in the post-policy period. There were no cardiac conditions, dental injuries, or fractures in the pre-policy period. The rarity of and singular occurrences of cardiac conditions, dental injuries, and fractures suggests that they are likely statistical outliers. The only category of injury that has notably increased in post-policy cost is contusions. There were fourteen total contusions in the survey period. Seven contusions occurred before the policy and seven occurred after the policy. In the post-policy period, three contusions resulted in no time lost due to injury. Of the $6,592 in contusion total costs, $5,709 (86%) of the total was caused by two separate contusion injuries.

Burn Injuries Given the nature of firefighting, firefighter burn injuries are worthy of specific attention. Thirty-four burn injuries occurred in the survey period, and 24 burn injuries (71%) occurred in the pre-policy period. In the pre-policy period, 24 burns resulted in 168 days lost on complete work restriction. Pre-policy burns resulted in 171 days lost on light duty restriction. Every burn in the pre-policy period caused some form of injury-related time off. Burn costs in the pre-policy period were $54,533; $29,193 for complete work restriction and $25,340 for light duty restriction. The average burn in the pre-policy period resulted in 7 days on complete work restriction at a cost of $1,216. The average burn in the pre-policy period resulted

37

in 7.125 days on light duty restriction at a cost of $1,056. In the pre-policy period, there were two instances in which more than one firefighter was burned at the same incident. In the post-policy period, burn injuries have sharply decreased. Just 10 burns occurred in the post-policy period. The total cost of time lost to burn injuries was drastically reduced in the post-policy period. In the post-policy period, 10 burns resulted in nine days lost on complete work restriction. Post-policy burns resulted in 32 days lost due to light duty restriction. One of these burn injuries resulted in 8 days on complete work restriction and 9 days on light duty restriction. Three post-policy burn injuries resulted in zero time lost to complete or light duty restriction. Burn costs in the post-policy period totaled $6,564. Post-policy burns resulted in costs of $1,434 for complete work restriction and $5,130 for light duty restriction. The average burn in the post-policy period resulted 0.9 days of complete work restriction at a cost of $143. The average post-policy burn resulted in 3.2 days of light duty restriction at a cost of $513. There were no instances of multiple firefighters being burned at the same incident during the postpolicy period. The cost of complete work restriction, cost of light duty restriction, and total costs for burn injuries is depicted in the following three charts.

38

Cost of Burn-Related Complete Work Restriction

5%

95%

Pre-Policy

Post-Policy

Cost of Burn-Related Light Duty Restriction

17%

83%

Pre-Policy

Post-Policy

39

Total Cost of Burn-Related Work Restriction

11%

89%

Pre-Policy

Post-Policy

The cost of burn injuries decreased by a total of $47,969 in the post-policy period. A firefighter suffering a burn in the post-policy period spent 6.1 fewer days on complete work restriction and 3.925 fewer days on light duty restriction average. The cost of complete work restriction decreased by $1,073 per burn injury, on average. The cost of light duty restriction decreased by $542 per burn injury, on average. The most severe pre-policy burn resulted in a cost of $12,109 for complete and light duty restrictions. The most severe post-policy burn resulted in a cost of $2,709 for complete and light duty restrictions. Burn injuries decreased as firefighters adjusted to using defensive and transitional operations at vacant and abandoned buildings. Prior to the policy, all structures received offensive attacks whether occupied, vacant, or abandoned. The only exceptions to this method were fully involved vacant and abandoned buildings, or buildings with obviously hazardous structural instability. Firefighters were repeatedly exposed to avoidable risks during offensive attacks that resulted in more frequent and more serious burns in the pre-policy period.

40

Offensive attacks present the highest level of risk of injury for firefighters. The policy directs firefighters to only use offensive attacks for minimal to moderate fire conditions, or if there is a confirmed civilian life in jeopardy at a vacant or abandoned building. Offensive attacks decreased at vacant and abandoned buildings from 648 (68%) pre-policy to 721 (45%) postpolicy. The frequency of burn injury dropped from 1 in 40 vacant and abandoned building fires pre-policy to 1 in 161 vacant and abandoned building fires post-policy.

Projected Injuries For this section, pre-policy injuries and costs have been projected into the post-policy period. Based on the actual pre-policy rates and severity of injuries, this model estimates what likely would have happened if the risk management policy had never been implemented. In this model, an assumption was made that injury rates and costs remained constant and unchanged for each injury category in the post-policy period. For each injury category, a pre-policy injury rate was calculated. The pre-policy injury rate was then projected into post-policy data. The result was an estimated rate of injury for each category in the post-policy period. The actual average cost of pre-policy injuries was then multiplied by the estimated rate of injury for each category. The total of actual average costs multiplied by the estimated rate of post-policy injuries was used to extrapolate an estimated projection of injuries and costs had the 2007 risk management policy never occurred. The following table details projected post-policy injuries and costs by injury category under this model. In each paired column, green indicates the lower cost or value. Yellow indicates no change in cost or value, while red indicates the higher cost or value.

41

Injury Type

Actual Number, PostPolicy

0 7 10 1 7 3 1 1 27 1 6 8 3 2 2 79

Projected Number, PostPolicy

8.4 10.1 40.4 1 11.8 1.7 1 3.4 32 1 3.4 1.7 10.1 5.1 1.7 129.6

Actual Total Cost, PrePolicy

$3,500 $20,400 $54,533 $2,608 $319 $217 $994 $0 $111,058 $1,988 $159 $797 $44,280 $0 $1,593 $236,905

Projected Total Cost, PostPolicy

$5,976 $34,342 $91,795 $2,608 $542 $365 $994 $0 $186,954 $1,988 $269 $1,342 $74,543 $0 $2,682 $404,400

Actual Total Cost, PostPolicy

$0 $8,546 $6,564 $2,608 $6,592 $434 $994 $0 $88,377 $1,988 $159 $1,420 $17,219 $0 $2,463 $137,367

Projected Cost Savings, PostPolicy

$5,976 $25,796 $85,231 $0 $6,050 $69 $0 $0 $98,577 $0 $110 $78 $57,234 $0 $219 $267,033

Abdominal Strain Back Strain Burn Cardiac Contusion Debris In Eye Dental Electric Shock Extremity Strain Fracture Heat Exhaustion Laceration Multiple Puncture Smoke Inhalation Totals

42

Findings - SPSS Analysis

Introduction The Excel database used in this study was converted for use with SPSS. Excel fields were re-classified as needed to convert alphabetical data into numerical data. Fields converted to numerical data included property status, if property was vacant or abandoned, firefighting tactics, the pre-policy and post-policy period, injury type, and the rank of injured firefighter. The SPSS database first lists all categories chronologically over the 10-year study period. The database then split all categories into pre-policy and post-policy sections. SPSS was then used to find frequencies, descriptives, and test for statistical relationships within the data.

Vacant and Abandoned Building Fires Structure fires were categorized as abandoned in SPSS using 1 to indicate the property was vacant or abandoned and 0 to indicate the property was occupied. The mean of the prepolicy vacant and abandoned category was .41 for 2329 fire incidents. The mean of the postpolicy vacant and abandoned category was .56 for 2904 fire incidents. Vacant and abandoned building fires increased in the post-policy period.

Descriptive Statistics N PreVacant PostVacant Valid N (listwise) 2329 2904 2329 Minimum 0 0 Maximum 1 1 Mean .41 .56 Std. Deviation .492 .497

A paired samples T-test was conducted to compare the frequency of abandoned building fires in the pre-policy and post-policy period. The paired samples T-test resulted in a Sig. (243

tailed) value of .000, indicating a statistically significant difference between the pre-policy period and the post-policy period.

Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Pair 1 PreVacant PostVacant -.138 .694 .014 -.166 Upper -.110 -9.586 2328 .000 t df Sig. (2tailed)

Firefighter Injuries In the pre-policy period, there were 67 vacant or abandoned building fire incidents that resulted in firefighter injury. A total of 76 firefighters were injured, and 62 incidents injured a single firefighter. Two separate incidents injured two firefighters each. Two separate incidents injured three firefighters each. One incident resulted in four firefighter injuries. The mean of prepolicy injuries is .03. In the post-policy period, there were 78 vacant or abandoned building fire incidents that resulted in firefighter injury. A total of 79 firefighters were injured, and 77 incidents injured a single firefighter. One incident injured two firefighters. There were no occasions of more than two firefighters being injured at a single incident in the post-policy period. The mean of postpolicy injuries is the same value as pre-policy injuries, .03. A paired samples T-test was conducted to compare pre-policy and post-policy injuries. The paired samples T-test resulted in a Sig. (2-tailed) value of .429, indicating no statistically significant difference between the pre-policy and post-policy number of injuries.

44

Firefighting Tactics and Firefighter Injuries A crosstab was conducted using pre-policy firefighting tactics and pre-policy types of injury. The hypothesis for this crosstab is that a relationship exists between the policy change in firefighting tactics and types of injury. A change in firefighting tactics should produce a corresponding change in firefighter injuries. The crosstab resulted in an Asymp. Sig. value of .013, indicating that a statistical relationship exists between the variables. The Phi value was .894, indicating a very high strength of relationship between the variables. The Cramers V value was .516, indicating a medium strength of relationship. The null hypothesis is rejected.
Chi-Square Tests Value Pearson Chi-Square Likelihood Ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases 53.593
a

df 33 33 1

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) .013 .816 .089

25.626 2.893 67

a. 45 cells (93.8%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .01. Symmetric Measures Value Phi Nominal by Nominal Cramer's V N of Valid Cases .516 67 .013 .894 Approx. Sig. .013

a. Not assuming the null hypothesis. b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis.

A crosstab was conducted using post-policy firefighting tactics and post-policy types of injury. The hypothesis for this crosstab is that a relationship exists between the policy change and post-policy tactics and injury. The crosstab resulted in an Asymp. Sig. value of .977, indicating no statistical relationship exists between the variables. The null hypothesis is accepted. Crosstab analysis of tactics and types of injuries has shown a statistical relationship only between pre-policy variables that were tested. Post-policy variables that were tested did not show 45

a statistical relationship. Based on the results of crosstab analysis, there is a very strong probability that the change in injuries in response to a change in tactics is not coincidental. It is reasonable to conclude that the policy change in firefighting tactics caused the resulting change in injuries. A crosstab was conducted using pre-policy tactics and pre-policy injury occurrences. The hypothesis for this crosstab is that a relationship exists between the policy change and pre-policy tactics and injury occurrences. The crosstab resulted in an Asymp. Sig. value of .000, indicating that a statistical relationship exists between the variables. The Phi value and Cramers V value was .231, indicating a low strength and direction of relationship. The null hypothesis is rejected.
Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymp. Sig. (2sided) Pearson Chi-Square Likelihood Ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases 124.204
a

5 5 1

.000 .000 .000

132.923 118.858 2320

a. 4 cells (33.3%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is .84.

Symmetric Measures Value Phi Nominal by Nominal Cramer's V N of Valid Cases a. Not assuming the null hypothesis. b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis. .231 2320 .000 .231 Approx. Sig. .000

A crosstab was conducted using post-policy tactics and post-policy injury occurrences. The hypothesis for this crosstab is that a relationship exists between the policy change and postpolicy tactics and injuries. The crosstab resulted in an Asymp. Sig. value of .000, indicating that 46

a statistical relationship exists between the variables. The Phi and Cramers V values were .169, indicating a very low strength and direction of relationship. The null hypothesis is rejected.

Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymp. Sig. (2sided) Pearson Chi-Square Likelihood Ratio Linear-by-Linear Association N of Valid Cases 83.283
a

5 5 1

.000 .000 .000

95.479 69.073 2903

a. 3 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 2.26.

Symmetric Measures Value Phi Nominal by Nominal Cramer's V N of Valid Cases a. Not assuming the null hypothesis. b. Using the asymptotic standard error assuming the null hypothesis. .169 2903 .000 .169 Approx. Sig. .000

Pre-policy and post-policy tactics both showed a statistical relationship with occurrences of injury. Pre-policy injury rates showed a slightly higher strength and direction of statistical relationship.

Comparison of Complete Work Restriction Hours and Costs As detailed in the Excel findings, a firefighter on complete work restriction is unable to work due to injury. In the pre-policy period, firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned buildings resulted in $121,170 in costs for complete work restriction hours. In the post-policy period, firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned buildings resulted in $17,053 in costs for complete work restriction hours. Post-policy injuries resulted in $104,117 lower costs for 47

complete work restriction hours. The mean of the cost of pre-policy complete work restriction hours is $1,594. The mean of the cost of post-policy complete work restriction hours is $215. There was a substantial decrease of $1,379 in the mean cost of complete work restriction hours per post-policy injury.

Descriptive Statistics N PreRestrictedCost PostRestrictedCost Valid N (listwise) 76 79 5 Minimum $0.00 $0.00 Maximum $33,342.55 $3,823.87 Sum $121,170.16 $17,053.12 Mean $1,594.3442 $215.8623 Std. Deviation $4,382.34220 $613.26260

A paired samples T-test was conducted to compare pre-policy and post-policy complete work restriction costs. The paired samples T-test resulted in a Sig. (2-tailed) value of .003, indicating a statistically significant difference between complete work restriction costs in the prepolicy and post-policy period. The results of the paired samples T-test indicate a strong probability that the difference in pre-policy and post-policy complete work restriction costs is not coincidental.
Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Pre-Policy: Cost of Complete Pair 1 Restriction Days Post-Policy: Number of Days of Complete Work Restriction 52.23690 836.11282 17.32528 18.26232 86.21148 3.015 2328 .003 Upper t df Sig. (2tailed)

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155 firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned building fires resulted in 791 days of complete work restriction time, and 653 restricted duty days resulted from injuries suffered in the pre-policy period. There were 138 restricted duty days that resulted from injuries in the postpolicy period. The mean of pre-policy complete work restriction days is 9.12. The mean of postpolicy complete work restriction days is 1.75. A post-policy injury resulted in an average of 7.37 fewer days on complete work restriction.
Descriptive Statistics N PreRestrictedDays PostRestrictedDays Valid N (listwise) 76 79 5 Minimum 0 0 Maximum 177 43 Sum 693 138 Mean 9.12 1.75 Std. Deviation 24.085 5.904

A paired samples T-test was conducted to compare pre-policy complete work restriction days and post-policy complete work restriction days. The paired samples T-test resulted in a Sig. (2-sided) value of .015, indicating a statistically significant difference between pre-policy and post-policy complete work restriction days. The results of the paired samples T-test indicate a very strong probability that the policy change caused the resulting decrease in complete work restriction days.

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Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Pre-Policy: Number of Days on Pair 1 Complete Duty Restriction - PostPolicy: Number of Days of Complete Work Restriction .239 4.756 .099 .046 .432 2.427 2328 .015 Upper t df Sig. (2tailed)

Comparison of Light Duty Restriction Hours and Costs As detailed in Excel findings, a firefighter on a light duty assignment may work but may not perform firefighting activities. In the pre-policy period, firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned buildings resulted in $121,482 in costs for light duty hours. In the post-policy period, firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned buildings resulted in $113,819 in costs for light duty hours. The mean of the cost of pre-policy light duty hours was $51.22. The mean of the cost of post-policy light-duty hours was $36.88. There was a reduction of $14.34 in the mean cost of light duty hours per post-policy injury.
Descriptive Statistics N PreLDCost PostLDCost Valid N (listwise) 2329 2904 2329 Minimum $0.00 $0.00 Maximum $28,714.18 $28,519.71 Mean $51.2202 $36.8885 Std. Deviation $839.78244 $697.37751

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A paired sample T-test was conducted to compare pre-policy and post-policy light duty costs. The paired samples T-test resulted in a Sig. (2-tailed) value of .810, indicating no statistically significant difference between pre-policy and post-policy light duty costs. There were 155 firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned building fires that resulted in 1,435 days of light duty time, and 741 light duty days resulted from injuries suffered in the prepolicy period. There were 694 light duty days that resulted from injuries in the post-policy period. The mean of pre-policy restricted duty days is .32. The mean of post-policy restricted duty days is .23. There was a slight reduction in light duty costs in the post-policy period. A paired samples T-test was conducted to compare pre-policy and post-policy light duty days. The paired samples T-test resulted in a Sig. (2-tailed) value of .844, indicating no statistically significant difference between pre-policy and post-policy light duty days. A crosstab was conducted using pre-policy light duty days and post-policy light duty days. The hypothesis for this crosstab is that a relationship exists between the policy change and light duty days. The crosstab resulted in an Asymp. Sig. value of .353, indicating that no statistical relationship exists between the variables. The null hypothesis is accepted.

Comparison of Total Costs There were 155 firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned buildings that resulted in $374,272 in combined restricted and light duty costs. Pre-policy injuries resulted in $236,905 in total costs. Post-policy injuries resulted in $137,367 in total costs. The mean of total pre-policy total injury costs is $3,197. The mean of post-policy total injury costs is $1,709. There was a substantial decrease of $1,488 in the mean total cost per injury in the post-policy period.

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Descriptive Statistics N Pre-Policy: Total Cost Of Injury Post-Policy: Total Cost Of Injury Valid N (listwise) 76 Minimum $0.00 Maximum $33,907.68 Sum $242,959.57 Mean $3,196.8364 Std. Deviation $6,402.22550

79 5

$0.00

$28,679.04

$134,977.25

$1,708.5728

$4,259.24342

A paired samples T-test was conducted to compare pre-policy and post-policy total costs. The paired samples T-test resulted in a Sig. (2-tailed) value of .371, indicating no statistically significant difference between pre-policy and post-policy total costs. A crosstab was conducted using pre-policy total costs and post-policy total costs. The hypothesis for this crosstab is that a relationship exists between the policy change and total costs. The crosstab resulted in an Asymp. Sig. value of .353, indicating that no statistical relationship exists between the variables. The null hypothesis is accepted.

Burn Injuries The cost and frequency of burn injuries decreased substantially in the post-policy period. The frequencies of pre-policy and post-policy burn injuries and costs are depicted in the following table:
Statistics
Valid Missing Pre-Policy: Total Cost Of Burn Injuries 24 5212 $2,272.2054 $1,513.6150 $637.31 $2,652.69824 $54,532.93 Post-Policy: Total Cost of Burn Injuries 10 5226 $656.4250 $557.6450 $0.00 $797.16333 $6,564.25

Mean Median Mode Std. Deviation Sum

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The mean, median, mode, and sum of pre-policy burn injuries exceeds the post-policy values in each of those categories. A paired samples T-test was conducted to compare pre-policy and post-policy total burn costs. The paired samples T-test resulted in a Sig. (2-tailed) value of .083, indicating no statistical relationship between the variables. A crosstab was conducted using pre-policy and post-policy total burn costs. The hypothesis for this crosstab is that a relationship exists between the policy change and burn costs. The crosstab resulted in an Asymp. Sig. value of .277, indicating no statistical relationship between the variables. The null hypothesis is accepted. A paired samples T-test was conducted to compare pre-policy and post-policy complete work restriction costs from burns. The paired samples T-test resulted in a Sig. (2-tailed) value of .124, indicating no statistical relationship between the variables. A paired samples T-test was conducted to compare pre-policy and post-policy light duty costs from burns. The paired samples T-test resulted in a Sig. (2-tailed) value of .551, indicating no statistical relationship between the variables.

Firefighting Tactics The firefighting tactics utilized at vacant and abandoned building fires changed notably in the post-policy period. In the pre-policy period, offensive attacks were utilized at 649 (68%) of 955 working fires at vacant and abandoned building fires. The following histogram depicts prepolicy firefighting tactics at vacant and abandoned building fires; 1 represents offensive attacks, 2 represents defensive operations, 3 represents transitional operations, 4 represents incipient conditions, and 5 represents exterior fire conditions.

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In the post-policy period, offensive attacks were utilized at 721 (45%) of 1,623 working fires at vacant and abandoned buildings. The following histogram depicts post-policy firefighting tactics at vacant and abandoned building fires; 1 represents offensive attacks, 2 represents defensive operations, 3 represents transitional operations, 4 represents incipient conditions, and 5 represents exterior fire conditions.

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A paired samples T-test was conducted to compare pre-policy tactics and post-policy tactics. The paired samples T-test resulted in a Sig. (2-tailed) value of .000, indicating a statistically significant difference between pre-policy and post-policy firefighting tactics. The results of the paired samples T-test indicate a very strong probability that the policy change caused the resulting change in firefighting tactics.

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Mean

Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Std. Std. Error 95% Confidence Deviation Mean Interval of the Difference Lower Upper

df

Sig. (2tailed)

Pair 1

Pre-Policy: What Firefighting Tactics Were Utilized? Post-Policy: What Firefighting Tactics Were Utilized?

-.254

1.646

.072

-.395

-.113

-3.543

527

.000

Post-Fire Property Status The status of vacant and abandoned buildings after a fire incident shows a change in the pre-policy and post-policy period. As detailed in the Excel Findings section, 64.5% of vacant and abandoned buildings were demolished after a fire incident over the 10-year study period. The frequency of demolition is higher in the pre-policy period. In the pre-policy period, 791 vacant or abandoned buildings were involved in a fire incident(s); 623, or 79%, of these buildings have been demolished, 38 buildings, or 5%, are on the Citys demolition list, 22 buildings, or 3%, are listed by the City as Posted and uninhabitable, 34 buildings, or 4%, were found in a dilapidated, still abandoned condition. 57 buildings, or 7%, were found in a reasonably maintained vacant condition, 17 buildings, or 2% were found to be occupied. A fire at a vacant or abandoned building in the pre-policy period resulted in a salvaged or repaired property in just 9% of incidents. The following histogram depicts post-policy property status. In the histogram, 1 represents a demolished building, 2 represents a building on the demolition list, 3 represents a

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Posted property, 4 represents an abandoned condition, 5 represents a reasonably maintained vacant condition, and 6 represents an occupied building.

In the post-policy period, 1,304 vacant or abandoned buildings were involved in a fire incident(s); 729, or 56%, of these buildings have been demolished, 374 buildings, or 29%, are on the Citys demolition list, 96 buildings, or 7%, are listed by the City as Posted and uninhabitable, 43 buildings, or 3%, were found in a dilapidated, still abandoned condition, 56 buildings, or 4%, were found in a reasonably maintained vacant condition, 6 buildings, or 0.5%,

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were found to be occupied. A fire at a vacant or abandoned property in the post-policy period resulted in a salvaged or repaired property in just 4.5% of incidents. The following histogram depicts post-policy property status. In the histogram, 1 represents a demolished building, 2 represents a building on the demolition list, 3 represents a Posted property, 4 represents an abandoned condition, 5 represents a reasonably maintained vacant condition, and 6 represents an occupied building.

A paired samples T-test was conducted to compare pre-policy and post-policy property status. The paired samples T-test resulted in a Sig. (2-tailed) value of .220, indicating no statistically significant difference between pre-policy and post-policy property status. 58

A crosstab was conducted using pre-policy property status and post-policy property status. The hypothesis for this crosstab is that a relationship exists between the policy change and property status. The crosstab resulted in an Asymp. Sig. value of .833, indicating that no statistical relationship exists between the variables. The null hypothesis is accepted.

Summary SPSS analysis has shown that relationships of statistical significance exist between the policy change and resulting changes in firefighting tactics, types of injuries, injury occurrences, and complete work restriction costs. The results of crosstabs and paired samples T-tests indicate with very strong probability that these changes were not coincidental and resulted in response to the implementation of the abandoned building policy. It is reasonable to conclude that communities similar to Flint that implement a similar policy would have similar results.

Findings - GIS Analysis

Introduction The database of fire information was geocoded to produce latitude and longitude coordinates for each incident. The coordinates were input into ArcGIS software for projection onto GIS base maps. For point data maps, the World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984 coordinate reference system was used for GIS projection. For density maps, the North American Datum (NAD) 1983 Michigan State Plane Coordinate System South Zone 2113 reference system was used for GIS projection.

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GIS Maps The following six maps project fires and injuries onto a map of the Flint area. The first three maps show fire density in the pre-policy, post-policy, and total study periods. The second three maps project firefighter injuries in the pre-policy, post-policy, and total study periods. Special Note: There is a high density of fires shown on the maps in the downtown area. It can be located and identified at the intersection of the two major highways and the word Flint on the maps. This location is where ArcGIS software projected all fire incidents that could only be classified as an intersection. 176 incidents could not be identified with an actual street address and were classified in NFIRS as an intersection. 87 fire incidents were classified as intersections in the pre-policy period. 89 intersection incidents were classified as intersections in the postpolicy period. The graphic display of these incidents as depicted on the density maps is inaccurate and should be disregarded.

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Pre-Policy Fires In the pre-policy period, there were 955 working fires in vacant and abandoned buildings. Green indicates low fire density, yellow indicates medium fire density, and red indicates high fire density. Fire stations are indicated as red circles.

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Post-Policy Fires In the post-policy period, there were 1,623 working fires in vacant and abandoned buildings. Green indicates low fire density, yellow indicates medium fire density, and red indicates high fire density. Fire stations are indicated as red circles.

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Total Fires In the ten year period of study, there were 2,578 working fires in vacant and abandoned buildings. Green indicates low fire density, yellow indicates medium fire density, and red indicates high fire density. Fire stations are indicated as red circles.

Fire volume is concentrated into several large areas within the City. The north side and east side of the City showed the highest volume of fire density. Fires in the pre-policy and postpolicy period occurred in similar areas. Volume increased significantly in the post policy-period.

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Pre-Policy Injuries In the pre-policy period, there were 76 firefighter injuries during fires in vacant and abandoned buildings. Injuries are depicted as small dark circles. Green indicates low fire density, yellow indicates medium fire density, and red indicates high fire density. Fire stations are indicated as red circles.

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Post-Policy Injuries In the pre-policy period, there were 79 firefighter injuries during fires in vacant and abandoned buildings. Injuries are depicted as small dark circles. Green indicates low fire density, yellow indicates medium fire density, and red indicates high fire density. Fire stations are indicated as red circles.

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Total Firefighter Injuries In the ten year period of study, there were 155 firefighter injuries during fires in vacant and abandoned buildings. Injuries are depicted as small dark circles. Green indicates low fire density, yellow indicates medium fire density, and red indicates high fire density. Fire stations are indicated as red circles.

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Summary There is a direct correlation between firefighter injuries and the density of abandoned building fires. In the pre-policy and post-policy periods, firefighter injuries are geographically concentrated within areas that show a high frequency of abandoned building fires. In the pre-policy period map, just four out of 76 injuries occurred outside of areas showing a medium to high density of fires. In the post-policy period map, just four out of 79 injuries occurred outside of areas showing a medium to high density of fires. In the total study period map, just two out of 155 injuries occurred outside areas showing a medium to high density of fires. Injuries that occurred at locations classified only as intersections are depicted as occurring in the downtown area (see special note above). Seven injuries occurred at locations classified as intersection. Four occurred in the pre-policy period and three occurred in the postpolicy period. The graphic display of these seven injuries is inaccurate and should be disregarded.

Conclusion

Conclusion and Answers to Research Questions This study has shown a direct correlation between the 2007 policy and a reduction in firefighter injuries. Risk management policies are an effective tool for fire departments confronted with fires in abandoned buildings. The research questions of this study are answered as follows.

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1.

Did the 2007 risk management policy have any measurable effect on the frequency of firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned building fires?

Yes. Fires increased from 955 in the pre-policy period to 1,623 in the post-policy period. The rate of injury decreased from 8.0 per 100 incidents in the pre-policy period to 4.9 per 100 incidents in the post-policy period. Vacant and abandoned building fires occurred more frequently and injuries occurred less frequently in the post-policy period.

2.

Did the 2007 risk management policy have any measurable effect on the severity of firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned building fires?

3.

Did the 2007 risk management policy have any measurable effect on the cost to the City for firefighter injuries at vacant and abandoned building fires?

Yes. The severity and cost of injuries was reduced in the post-policy period. 76 prepolicy injuries resulted in total costs of $236,905 while 79 post-policy injuries resulted in total costs of $137,367. The cost of complete work restriction time was reduced from $115,422 in the pre-policy period to $23,548 in the post-policy period. Pre-policy injuries resulted in 653 days on complete work restriction. Post-policy injuries resulted in 139 days on complete work restriction. The severity of injuries was reduced sharply in the post-policy period and resulted in 514 fewer days of complete work restriction. A pre-policy injury resulted in an average of 8.6 days of complete work restriction and 9.8 days of light duty restriction at a cost of $3,117 per injury. A post-policy injury resulted in an

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average of 1.8 days of complete work restriction and 8.8 days of light duty restriction at a cost of $1,739 per injury. Burn injuries were reduced from 24 in the pre-policy period to 10 in the post-policy period. Burn injuries resulted in costs of $54,533 in the pre-policy period while burn injuries resulted in costs of $6,564 in the post-policy period. A pre-policy burn injury resulted in an average of 7 days of complete work restriction and 7.125 days of light duty restriction. A postpolicy burn injury resulted in an average of 0.9 days of complete work restriction and 3.2 days of light duty restriction.

4.

Did the 2007 risk management policy have any measurable effect on firefighting strategies used at vacant and abandoned building fires?

Yes. Firefighting strategies changed in response to the requirements of the 2007 policy. An emphasis on defensive operations and transitional attacks was recommended for vacant and abandoned building fires. Offensive attacks decreased on an annual basis from a high of 77% to a low of 33% over the time span of the study. Offensive attacks were used at 68% of pre-policy fires and 45% of post-policy fires. Defensive operations increased on an annual basis from a low of 8% to a high of 37% over the time span of the study. Defensive operations were used at 15% of pre-policy fires and 30% of post-policy fires. Transitional attacks were used at 3% of pre-policy fires and 10% of post-policy fires.

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5.

What has happened to vacant and abandoned properties in Flint after a fire incident?

A vacant or abandoned house fire in Flint represents a minimal opportunity for firefighter actions to result in saving a salvageable, viable property of value. Firefighters responded to 2,578 fires that affected 2,095 properties. Only 136 of those properties (6.5%) were found to be repaired and occupied by residents or in a reasonably maintained vacant condition. The overwhelming majority of vacant and abandoned buildings that burned were either demolished (93.5%), are condemned and awaiting demolition, or are currently uninhabitable due to building code violations. Risk management policies should be considered and implemented in any locality faced with fires in vacant and abandoned buildings. This study has shown the 2007 policy to be effective in improving fire department operations and reducing injuries and their related costs. Firefighting is inherently dangerous and injuries will never be completely prevented. A risk management policy for vacant and abandoned buildings can greatly reduce that inherent danger and create a safer environment for firefighting operations.

Recommendations for Future Study This case study examines events occurring in Flint, Michigan. Further research to replicate this study using other model municipalities may be fruitful. This study was limited to ten years. Revisiting the study five years from now and examining a twenty year period of Flint incidents may be valuable. A study that examined injuries in localities with risk management policies and in localities without such policies would also be a good research option.

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The medical cost to the City for firefighter injuries was not available for this study. The calculations of complete work restriction and light duty time do show conclusive changes in the pre-policy and post-policy periods. Obtaining costs of treatment, surgery, rehabilitation, prescriptions, and other specific details would yield a more accurate picture of total costs. This study utilizes the pay scale of the most recent contract between the City of Flint and Flint Firefighters Union Local 352. It was ratified in October 2007 and included a significant hourly pay rate increase. All costs have been standardized and projected using this pay scale. No attempt was made to adjust costs for inflation or other economic factor. Further research using both contractual pay scales that were in effect during the study timeframe and inflationary adjustments would yield a more accurate result.

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References Accordino, John. 2000. Addressing the Vacant and Abandoned Property Problem. Journal of Urban Affairs. doi: 10.1111/0735-2166.00058 Ahrens, Marty. 2009. Vacant Building Fires. Massachusetts: National Fire Protection Association. Brannigan, Francis. 2009. Brannigans Building Construction For The Fire Service. Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett Learning. City of Flint. 2012. Building & Safety Posting & Demolition Procedure. Accessed November 12, 2012. http://cityofflint.com/propertytaxes/bsiProcedure.htm Dunn, Vincent. 2000. Vacant Building Fires. Firehouse. Graves, Andrew. 2007. Vacant Structure Fires and Firefighter Injuries in the City of Flint. Accessed October 31, 2012. http://cityofflint.com/Fire/pdf/FFD%20Injuries%20at%20Vacant%20Structure%20Fires. pdf. Griswold, Nigel and Norris, Patricia. 2007. The Impacts of Tax-Foreclosed Properties and Land Bank Programs on Residential Housing Values in Flint, Michigan. Masters Thesis. Michigan State University. Harris, David. 2012. Flint Holds On To Dubious Title of the Arson Capital of the Nation. The Flint Journal. June 13, 2012. Hirokawa, Keith and Gonzales, Ira. 2010. Regulating Vacant Property. Research Paper. Albany Law School. Hollander, Justin. 2010. Moving Toward a Shrinking Cities Metric: Analyzing Land Use Changes Associated with Depopulation in Flint, Michigan. Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research. Jones, Jon. 2001. No Empty Threat. Fire Chief. November 1. Karter, Michael. 2012. Patterns of Firefighter Fireground Injuries. Massachusetts: National Fire Protection Association. Ley, James. 2008. Reducing Vacant Building Fires In Milwaukee. Accessed November 12, 2012. http://www.usfa.fema.gov/pdf/efop/efo43237.pdf National Fire Protection Association. 2012. NFPA 1500: Standard on Firefighter Occupational Safety and Health Program. Massachusetts: National Fire Protection Association. 72

Norman, John. 2005. Fire Officers Handbook of Tactics. Oklahoma: Pennwell Books. Rule, Charles. 2000. Did the Worcester Six Die In Vain? Thats Up To Us. Fire Chief, March 1. Zook, Douglas. 2009. Reducing the Risks of Abandoned Buildings in East Cleveland, Ohio. Accessed October 31, 2012. http://www.usfa.fema.gov/pdf/efop/efo44006.pdf

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Appendices

Appendix A: Glossary of Terms Abandoned Building: A property that has no legal occupants and is neglected with no efforts made to preserve its value or condition. Defensive Operation: Fire extinguishment tactics that are conducted only from the exterior of the affected building. The incident commander may consider conceding the building as lost and allow it to burn while preventing fire from spreading to neighboring properties. Offensive Attack: A rapid entry into the burning building made by firefighters to locate and extinguish the seat of the fire.

Transitional Attack: A firefighting strategy that blends an offensive and defensive operation. In most cases of a transitional attack, firefighters control fire from the exterior while additional personnel and equipment are being deployed. The operation then transitions to an offensive, interior attack. Occasionally, an offensive attack will be conducted and fire conditions worsen or structural stability concerns arise. Crews would then transition to a defensive, exterior operation. Vacant Building: A property that has an owner but no permanent occupants, with reasonable efforts being made to preserve its value and condition.

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Appendix B: Sample of MI-OSHA 300 Log of Work-Related Illnesses and Injuries Form

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Appendix C: Sample of Excel Database

Excel database available to researchers upon request to agraves826@comcast.net

The City of Flint Fire Department Abandoned Building Policy is available online at: http://cityofflint.com/fire/pdf/FFD%20Abandoned%20Building%20Policy.pdf

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