UNIT 3 DC MACHINES

Structure
3.1 3.2 Introduction
Objectives

DC Machines

Principles of Electromechanical Energy Conversion

3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 Basics of Electromagnetism Generation of Electromotive Force (EMF) or Voltage Torque Developed in DC Machine

3.3

Construction of DC Machine
3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 Field System Armature Commutator Armature Windings

3.4

Effect of Armature Current

3.4.1 3.4.2 Armature Reaction Commutation

3.5

Characteristics of DC Generator
3.5.1 3.5.2 Separately Excited DC Generator Self Excited DC Generators

3.6

DC Motor
3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 3.6.5 Back EMF Speed Regulation Power Equation and Torque Power Flow and Losses Motor Current and Voltage Equations

3.7

Characteristics of DC Motors
3.7.1 3.7.2 3.7.3 DC Series Motor DC Shunt Motor DC Compound Motors

3.8

Starting, Speed Control and Application sof DC Motors

3.8.1 3.8.2 3.8.3 Starting of DC Motors Speed Control Applications

3.9

Summary

3.10 Answers to SAQs

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Rotating electrical machines are electromechanical energy conversion devices. When these devices change electrical energy into mechanical then the device is said to function as a motor and when the device converts mechanical energy into electrical, it is said to act as a generator. In this unit, we will get an understanding of construction and working of DC machines. Further, we will discuss different excitation schemes used in DC machines.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to identify and list the various components of energy loss, 51

Electrical Technology

give an elementary description of DC armature winding and the commutator, explain the various excitation schemes used in DC machines, calculate induced emf and terminal voltage of DC generators, know characteristics and applications of DC generators, calculate torque and speed of DC motors, describe characteristics, starting and speed control of DC motors, and know applications of DC motors.

3.2 PRINCIPLES OF ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION

3.2.1 Basics of Electromagnetism
In DC machines, there is an electromechanical energy conversion. In DC motor, the input is electrical energy and the output is mechanical energy. In a DC generator, it is viceversa. An electromechanical conversion device interrelates electric and magnetic fields on one hand and mechanical force and motion on the other. For energy conversion, the principle of energy conservation is applicable. In DC machines, the input power is converted into output power and some heat loss. Thus, PInput = POutput + PLoss . . . (3.1) DC machine contains one or more than one magnetic circuit depending on the number of poles. Before discussing magnetic circuit of a DC machine, let us recall the basic laws of magnetic circuits. In any magnetic circuit, the magnetomotive force (MMF) depends on number of turns in coil N and the current I flowing through it, i.e. MMF = N . I (AT) (3.2) The intensity of magnetic force H is given by H=N.I/l = (3.3) where l is length of magnetic path. This MMF sets a flux in the magnetic materials. There is a reluctance (S), which opposes the setting of flux. The reluctance is similar to resistance in electrical circuits and depends on the length l, area A and permeability of magnetic path, i.e.
S= l A

...

MMF = (AT/m) l

...

...

(3.4) or (3.5) where o is absolute permeability, and r is relative permeability. 52

S= l o r A

...

The relative permeability of a magnetic material can be obtained by plotting its B H curve. The relative permeability is the ratio of flux density B and magnetic field intensity H of material. It can be determined by taking ratio of B and H in linear region of B H curve. But actually the value of permeability depends on the value of flux density (B) as shown in Figure 3.1. It is known as permeability curve.

DC Machines

Permeability

Figure 3.1 : Permeability Curve

A DC machine has magnetic circuits which are not exactly in parallel and the flux passes through poles, air gap, armature teeth and magnetic core. The magnetic materials used for different parts have different permeability. This type of magnetic circuit is known as composite circuit. So, the total MMF required to setup the flux in this magnetic circuit is Total MMF = H p l p + H g lg + H t lt + H c lc + H y l y where Hp and lp are field intensity and length of path, respectively, for the poles. . . . (3.6)

Hg and lg are field intensity and length of path, respectively, for air gap.
Similarly t, c and y refer to teeth, coils and yoke or magnetic core, respectively, of DC machine.

3.2.2 Generation of Electromotive Force (EMF) or Voltage

EMF induced in rotating machines is dynamically induced emf. According to Faradays law of dynamically induced emf, if a conductor having length l is moving in a magnetic field of flux density B, with a velocity v m/s and as angle between B and direction of motions then induced emf e is given by

e = B l v sin
(3.7)

...

The direction of induced emf can be determined by Flemings right hand rule for emf. The induced emf can also be calculated by taking statically induced emf relations like Faradays law. The induced emf in a conductor is directly proportional to rate of change of flux linked with conductor

e=
(3.8)

d dt

...

Consider a DC machine having the following :

P = Number of poles, N = Speed of rotation of armature in RPM, Zt = Number of total conductors in armature,
53

Electrical Technology

= Flux per pole in Webers, and A = Number of parallel paths of armature conductors.
The number of parallel paths depends on type of armature winding. For Wave wound armature For Lap wound armature

A=2 A=P

Now, the flux linked with a conductor in one revolution d = . P . Time taken in one revolution = dt = 60 sec onds. N

So emf induced per conductor in one revolution

e= (3.9) The average emf induced in DC machine is always equal to emf across each parallel path. So average emf across each parallel path eav = e No. of conductors in parallel path
= P N Zt volts 60 A

d P . P N = = 60 dt 60 N

...

...

(3.10) For Wave wound armature eav = (3.11) for Lap wound armature eav = (3.12) In case of generator the average emf is known as generated emf (eg) and in case of motor it is known as back emf (eb). P N Zt N Zt = volts 60 P 60 ... P N Zt volts and 60 2 ...

3.2.3 Torque Developed in DC Machine

When a conductor carrying current is placed at right angles to an uniform magnetic field, a force is setup between the conductor and magnetic field, given by F = B l Ia . . . (3.13) here B is flux density, l is length of conductor and Ia is current carried by conductor. The direction of force can be obtained by Flemings Left hand rule. In DC motors, when the current carrying coil of armature is placed in uniform flux then a torque is developed. Average force on any conductor is given by

I Fav = Bav a l newtons A (3.14)

...

where Bav is average flux density and A is number of parallel paths. For an armature of diameter D, average torque contributed by each conductor is
I D Tav = Fav armature radius = Bav a l 2 A

...

54

(3.15)

Total Torque due to all conductors,

I D T = Tav Zt = Zt Bav l = a Nm 2 A

DC Machines

...

(3.16) But (3.17)

Bav =

Pf Dl

...

1 P T = 2 . A Z t f I a Nm T = Ka f I a ...

(3.18) where P Zt Ka = 2 A

3.3 CONSTRUCTION OF DC MACHINE

Construction-wise both DC generator and DC motor are same. A DC machine has four essential parts : (a) (b) (c) (d) Field System Armature Commutator Carbon Brushes

3.3.1 Field System

In DC machines, the field magnets provide uniform magnetic field surrounding the armature. Generally, electromagnets are preferred in DC machines in place of permanent magnets. The field magnet consists of four parts (a) (b) (c) Yoke or Frame Pole Cores and Pole Shoes Magnetic Coils

The Yoke or Frame

(a) (b) (c)

Generally, cylindrical yoke is used in DC machines. Material of yoke possess high permeability and it provides the path to the flux. It is made of forged or cast steel or iron. Cast steel has very good magnetic properties. The yoke provides mechanical protection to the internal parts of a DC machine.

Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

Pole core has circular section and it carries the field magnets. The pole shoes are attached to pole core and act as support to the field coils. It also spreads out the flux uniformly over the armature periphery. Usually pole cores are made of iron and casted with yoke. The pole shoes are formed by laminated sheets of steel and bolted to the pole cores.
Magnetic Coils

55

Electrical Technology

To set up the flux in magnetic circuit of DC machine the magnetomotive force or MMF is required. An electromagnet is formed by field or magnetic coils, which are supported by the pole core. The magnetic flux produced by MMF is developed in these magnetic coils.
Typical Magnetic Flux Lines N S Field Windings Pole Shoes

Yoke

S Slotted Armature

Figure 3.2 : Sectional View of Field System

In series field machines, the field coil is made of thick wire of copper with less turns. For a shunt field coil, many turns of fine wire are used. After proper winding of coils these are dipped in insulating varnish to provide mechanical strength and better insulating properties.

3.3.2 Armature
Armature is the drum shaped rotating part of DC machine. The armature conductors are fixed at the upper surface of drum in slots. There is a small air gap between armature and pole shoes of field magnets to avoid any rubbing in DC machine. This air gap should be kept minimum. Usually armature is made of 0.3 mm to 0.6 mm thick laminated stampings of high grade steel to reduce hysteresis and eddy current losses. On the outer periphery the slots are formed by die cut or punch as shown in Figure 3.3. Also some air ducts are provided for proper ventilation.
Key Way Slot Tooth

Ventilating Ducts

Figure 3.3 : Armature Lamination

The armature conductors carry the current and are insulated using several layers of paper or mica insulation. Figure 3.4(a) depicts a slot containing two coil sides, each consisting of a single conductor. Two sides of one coil are housed approximately one pole pitch apart. One side occupies top layer and another side occupies the bottom layer of the respective slots. In a multiturn coil, each coil side consists of as many conductors as the number of turns in the coil. 56

Sectional View

DC Machines

Slot Wedge

Top Coil Side

Bottom Coil Side

Insulation

Overhang

Active Length or Length of Armature Core

Conductors Start of Coil Finish of Coil

(a) Coil Sides in Slot

(b) Coil Viewed From Top

Figure 3.4 : Arrangements of Coils in Slots

3.3.3 Commutator
Commuator is an essential part of DC machines. It is placed between armature and the external circuit. The armature coils are connected with the commutator, which in turn gets connected to external circuit through carbon brushes sliding on commutator. Its serves the following purpose : (i) (ii) (iii) It completes electrical circuit by connecting the rotating armature coils and stationary electrical circuit. In generating action it works as a rectifier which converts the generated AC voltage into DC voltage. In motoring action it reverses the direction of DC current to maintain the torque in same direction.

Commutator is made of wedge shaped segments of drop forged and hard drawn copper. A thin sheet of mica is used to separate or laminate the segments from each other. It has cylindrical shape and approximately same diameter as armature. The winding ends of armature are directly soldered to the commulator segments.

Slotted Armature

Mica

Shaft

Segments

Figure 3.5 : The Commutator

3.3.4 Armature Windings

Many different types of armature windings are employed in dc machines depending on requirements. The most common of these is the simplex lap, though the simplex wave is used in high voltage machines. (More elaborate windings, referred to as duplex and multiplex are also sometimes used). In this section, we will confine ourselves to a description of the simplex lap winding and refer in passing to the simplex wave.

57

Electrical Technology

Discussion of armature windings is greatly facilitated by using armature winding diagrams. Figure 3.6 is the armature winding diagram of a two-pole dc machine having 8 slots, 8 coils and 8 commutator segments operating in generator made. The diagram is a conventionalized representation of the cylindrical armature surface assuming that it is cut along an axial line and unrolled flat on to a plane. The 8 slots will then appear at equal distances from each other. Each slot has a top coil side and a bottom coil side. In the Figure 3.6, the top coil sides in the active length of the armature are represented by firm straight lines numbered 1 to 8 corresponding to the 8 slots. The bottom coil sides are indicated by dotted straight lines close to the firm lines. Since the machine is meant for two poles, there are 4 slots per pole. A coil whose top and bottom layers are 4 slot pitches is said to be a full-pitched coil. We will use full pitch coils. In this case, if the top layer of a coil is in slot number x, the bottom layer will be in slot number (x + 4). The triangular connections at the top are meant to indicate the interconnection of coil sides and belong to the overhang of the winding on the side away from the commutator. Thus, the firm line in slot 1 is connected to the broken line in slot 5 to represent coil number 1 etc. In an armature meant for four or more poles, top coil sides in slots 5, 6, 7 and 8 would in fact be connected to bottom coil sides in slots 9, 10, 11 and 12. Since our armature is for two poles and has only 8 slots, these coil sides would be connected to the bottom layers in slots 1, 2, 3 and 4. Thus, each side of a coil falls under separate poles. The segmented rectangular strip at the bottom represents the commutator. As seen from Figure 3.5. The representation in Figure 3.6 is the developed view of an equivalent commutator having the same diameter as the armature. In a lap winding, the ends of a coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments. Thus each commutator segment will be connected to top coil side of one coil and to the bottom coil side of a different coil. We will adopt the convention that the segment number is the same as that of the slot to whose top layer it is connected. In a lap-winding, the ends of coil 1 will be connected across segments 1 and 2, etc. The same type of diagram is used even for multiturn coils).
Flux Directions S-pole Domain N-pole Domain

Slot 8

Velocity

Commutator

Figure 3.6 : Winding Diagram

3.4 EFFECT OF ARMATURE CURRENT

3.4.1 Armature Reaction
The distribution of flux under main poles is affected by magnetic field set up by the armature current; as a result the flux distribution or flux wave shape in air gap is distorted and demagnetised. This phenomenon is known as armature reaction. 58

Slot 1

When the field is energized and there is no current in armature, the flux distribution is rectangular in space along armature periphery with axis of magnetisation through the centre of poles. When a armature carries current then there is some MMF due to number of turns in slots and it works as an electromagnet. The axis of magnetization differs for the various coils so the resulting axis of magnetization for the complete winding passes between active conductors and brushes are placed in interpolar region. In generating action, when the armature rotates in clockwise direction, the field produced by armature current acts opposite to the direction of rotation, so, in air gap flux is weakened under leading pole tips and strengthened under the trailing pole tips. This distorts the original rectangular flux wave shape leading to shift in resultant axis magnetisation and hence the brushes do not now fall on interpolar axis, thereby leading to poor commutation and speaking. The effect of armature MMF is summarized as The cross magnetising effect of armature reaction. Due to cross magnetizing effect DC machines have poor commutation.
Compensating Winding

DC Machines

In large capacity DC machines a compensating winding is used to neutralize effect of armature reaction. It maintains uniform flux distribution under pole faces. A copper winding is placed in the slots provided in pole shoes. It is connected in series with armature winding in such a way that the direction of current flowing through it is reverse of direction of armature current. This in effect neutralizes field produced by armature current and hence minimises cross-magnetising effect of armature reactions. The armature reaction is severe in large capacity and high speed machines. So compensating winding is used with inter poles arrangement.

3.4.2 Commutation
In DC machines, the EMF induced in each coil of armature alternates with a frequency NP corresponding to product of number of poles and speed f = . To obtain the direct 120 current in external circuit it is necessary to reverse periodically the connections of each armature coil with the external circuit. This reversal should take place at the instant when emf induced in coil is zero. For this purpose the commutator and carbon brushes are used. The reversal of current at this instant is affected by the following :
Variable Contact Resistance

The contact resistance between carbon brushes and commutator is not constant but largely depends on current density at contact surface. Also voltage drop across brush contact varies but this variation is very small compared to resistance variations.
Current Density under the Brush

When the brush thickness is less than one commutator segment, then reversal of current follows the simple linear law i.e. known as straight line commutation. A sparkles commutation is achieved by the following methods : (a) (b) (c) (d) By using high resistance carbon brush. By shifting carbon brushes in inter pole region. By using inter poles or commutation poles. By using equalizer rings.

59

Electrical Technology

3.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF DC GENERATOR

3.5.1 Separately Excited DC Generator
In separately excited DC generators, the field coils are excited by the external DC supply by using field regulating resistance. The open circuit characteristic or magnetizing characteristic is obtained by driving the machine at normal speed and varying the exciting current in steps from zero to maximum. Main circuit of machine is kept open and a voltmeter connected across the terminals. The excitation current is entirely independent of the load current in the armature. Equivalent circuit for mathematical calculations gives : Ia = I = Load current (3.19) V = Eg Ia Ra Voltage drop across Carbon brush Power Input = Eg Ia (3.20) Power Output = V . Ia (3.21)
If A FF Rheostat Ia I +

...

... ...

Load Eg Ra

FF

Figure 3.7 : Separately Excited DC Generator

Magnetizing Characteristic

Magnetizing characteristic or open circuit characteristic (OCC) is known as no load saturation curve which is obtained by method discussed above. The curve between the field current and armature terminal voltage is drawn when armature current is zero, i.e. at no load. Generally, it starts from zero but in self excited DC generator it has residual voltage and starts at slightly higher value. For DC generators, magnetizing curve is shown in Figure 3.8, its shape can be explained using theory of domain alignment.
Eg c b Self Excited Separately Excited

Residual Voltage O

a If

Figure 3.8 : Magnetic Characteristic

Internal Curve 60

Internal curve gives the relation between the emf actually generated in the armature and the armature current Ia. External Curve External curve also known as load curve is plotted between terminal voltage V and armature current Ia. For a separately excited DC generator these curves are shown in Figure 3.9.
Eg,V Eg Ideal (Generated emf)
Inter nal C urve Exte rna l Cu rve

DC Machines

Armature Reaction Drop Ohmic Drops (Ia Ra)

Ia

Figure 3.9 : Internal and External Curves for Separately Excited DC Generators

The internal curve is obtained by subtracting the drops due to armature reaction from generated emf (Eg). Also, it is a combination of external characteristic and Ia Ra drops. So, internal characteristic can be achieved by adding Ia Ra drops to external characteristic. Separately excited generators operate in stable condition with any excitation and generally used in laboratories.

3.5.2 Self Excited Generators

Self excited machines have their field winding connected in series or parallel with the armature or main circuit. These are classified as : (a) (b) (c) Series wound Shunt wound Compound wound (i) (ii) Long shunt compound Short shunt compound

To build up the voltage in self excited DC generators, following conditions should be met : (i) (ii) Presence of residual magnetism in pole curve, and Forward direction of rotation.

When the armature of a self excited DC generator rotates at rated speed, the voltage across terminals increases up to rated voltage. Initially, due to residual magnetism there is a small flux which induces small residual voltage, which increases the field current. Finally, terminal voltage reaches the rated value. If the direction of rotation is reversed then induced emf due to residual magnetism demagnetizes the residual flux so there is no voltage built up in self excited generators.

61

Electrical Technology

Eg , E, V

E Eg

Magnetic Characteristic And Armature Reaction Drop

Drops Due to Armature and Field V B

External Characteristic

O B

Ia Stable Operating Point

Figure 3.10 : Characteristics of Self Excited DC Generator

External characteristics can be obtained by subtracting armature and field winding resistances drops from internal characteristic. External characteristic shows that first voltage increases with increase in load current, at max value of load current it decreases. This is known as dropping region. Under dropping region terminal voltage may fall to zero. Usually, this type of generators are used for welding purpose. Critical load resistance is that resistance of load above which a series wound generator fails to built up the voltage. The slope at external curve represent critical load resistance.
Series Wound DC Generator

In series wound DC generator, the field winding is series connected with main circuit and it delivers load current same as armature current. The equivalent circuit of DC series generator is shown in Figure 3.11.
Rse Ia Ise IL

Eg R a

Figure 3.11 : Equivalent Circuit of DC Series Generator

If series field resistance is Rse then Ia = Ise = IL V = Eg Ia Ra Ia Rse voltage drop across carbon brush. (3.22) V = Eg Ia (Ra + Rse) voltage drop due to carbon brush. (3.23) Power Input = Eg . Ia (3.24) Power Output = V . Ia (3.25)
Characteristics of DC Series Generator

... ... ... ...

In a series wound dc generator the voltage cannot build up if the load terminals are open. To built up voltage first connect the load across output terminals of DC 62

generator and rotate the armature in forward direction. Due to residual magnetism, there is small voltage across armature, which results in a small current in field winding. This small current developes a flux in field and voltage across armature increases due to increase in flux. This loop continues till the saturation. Now, voltage across the armature is rated. This given by magnetizing characteristic. Due to armature reaction there is some voltage drop, by subtracting it from magnetic characteristic, internal characteristic can be obtained.
Shunt Wound Generator

DC Machines

If field winding of a DC generator is connected across the main circuit then its known as DC shunt generator. The resistance of shunt field is very high as compared to armature resistance. The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3.12.
If Ia Rsh Eg V Load IL

Ra

Figure 3.12 : Equivalent Circuit of DC Shunt Generator

Rsh is the shunt field resistance then field current I f = Here, Ia = IL + If

V . Rsh

Eg = V + Ia Ra + voltage drop due to carbon brush. Power Input = Eg . Ia Power Output = V . IL Voltage Built Up The emf induced by the armature winding due to its rotation through the residual magnetic flux sends a current in field winding. This current should be in such a direction as to tend to increase the magnetic flux. With proper connections and direction of rotation the magnetic field will be gradually strengthened and as a result the induced emf increases. This emf increases exciting current and so the voltage builds up until steady state conditions are obtained. Usually, shunt wound generators are connected with load after the rated voltage is built up. Generally the load resistance is less than field resistance otherwise the generator may fail to build up the rated voltage. On other land if field resistance is very high or more than critical field resistance then a dc generator fails to build up the voltage. The critical field resistance can be obtained by drawing the tangent at open circuit characteristic of DC shunt generator.
Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator

Magnetic characteristic is plotted between If and generated EMF. For a given magnetic flux, the emf generated varies in direct proportion to the speed of rotation. Then magnetization curve for various speeds plotted at the same scale gives different critical resistances at different speed. The shunt field resistance needs to be less than this critical value. Slopes OA, OB and OC give critical resistances at speeds N3, N2 and N1 respectively, here N3 > N2 > N1. 63

Electrical Technology

Eg A B

pe Slo

N3 N2 N1

If

Figure 3.13 : DC Shunt Generator Magnetic Characteristic at Different Speeds

Ideally, the terminal voltage of any dc shunt generator should be constant. But due to armature reaction, load voltage decreases with increasing load current. It further decreases due to Ia Ra drops.
Example 3.1

The emf induced in the armature of a 450 kW, 250 volt shunt generator is 258.8 volt, when the field current is 20.0 amp and the generator is supplying power to a load at rated terminal voltage. The armature circuit resistance is 0.005 ohm. Determine (i) load current, (ii) power generated, (iii) power output, and (iv) electrical efficiency. Neglect brush contact drop.
Solution

Let the load current be I amp Armature current = Load current + field current or Ia = I + 20

Induced emf = Terminal voltage + Ia Ra drop or or (i) (ii) 258.8 = 250 + (I + 20) 0.005 I = 8.7 = 1740 amp 0.005

Load current = 1740 amp Power generated = E . Ia = 258.8 (1740 + 20) watts = 455.488 kW

(iii)

Power output V . I = 250 1740 watts = 435 kW

(iv)

Electrical efficiency =

435 100 = 95.5% 455.488

SAQ 1
A 4 pole wave wound dc shunt generator delivers a load of 45 kW at a terminal voltage of 220 volts. Its armature has 150 single turn coils and has a resistance of 0.01 ohm. The air gap flux per pole is 0.02 weber. Shunt field resistance is 50 ohm. Calculate the speed at which it is being driven. Neglect brush contact drop. 64

DC Machines

DC Compound Generator

In compound generators the field winding is connected in series as well as parallel to the armature circuit. In long shunt generators, the shunt winding is connected across armature and series field but in short stunt it covers only armature winding. If the flux produced by series and shunt windings is additive, the dc generator is known as cumulative compound generator and if fluxes are deductive then it is known as differential compound generator. For a long shunt generator as shown in Figure 3.14, Ia = IL + If (3.26)
If = V Rsh

...

...

(3.27) V = E g I a ( Ra + Rse ) voltage drop due to carbon brush

...

(3.28) Input Power = Eg . Ia (3.29) Output Power = V . IL (3.30)

If Rse Ia Rsh Eg R a Load V IL

... ...

Figure 3.14 : Long Shunt DC Compound Generator

In a short shunt generator as shown in Figure 3.15,

Ise = IL Ia = IL + If

...

(3.31)
If = V + I se Rse Rsh

...

(3.32)
V = Eg Ia Ra IL Rse voltage drop due to carbon brush (3.33)

... ...
65

Power Input = Eg Ia (3.34)

Electrical Technology

Power Output = V . IL (3.35)

Ise If Ia Rse IL

...

Rsh

Eg R b Load

Figure 3.15 : Short Shunt DC Compound Generator

The degree of compounding depends on flux shared by series or shunt windings.

SAQ 2
(a) A long shunt compound generator delivers a load current of 50 A at 500 V and has armature, series-field and shunt field resistances of 0.05 , 0.03 and 250 respectively. Calculate the generated emf and the armature current. Allow 1.0 volt per brush for contact drop. Also draw the circuit diagram of this arrangement. (b) A 4 pole, lap wound, 11.5 kW, 230 volts, dc shunt generator has armature resistance of 0.2 ohm and field resistance of 100 ohms. Calculate (i) emf generated if the brush contact drop is one volt per brush, and (ii) flux per pole if the machine is driven at 1000 rpm and 1200 conductors are in the armature slots with generator supply rated load at rated voltage.

Characteristics of Compound Generators

Usually the series winding is arranged to assist the shunt winding and the terminal voltage variation with increasing load is determined by the relative strengths of two windings. Under suitable conditions terminal voltage may remain constant from no load to full load. By using relatively strong series windings the terminals voltage may increase with load. Its known as over compounded generator. If the shunt winding is strong then terminal voltage decreases with rise in load. It is under compound generator. If two fluxes are subtracting then the external curve goes down sharply, as shown in Figure 3.16.

66

V Over Compounded Flat Compounded Under Compounded Differential Compounded

DC Machines

IL

Figure 3.16 : Characteristics of Compound Generators

3.6 DC MOTOR
DC motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force acts on the conductor and conductor moves in the direction of force. When the DC machine is connected to DC supply a current passes through the armature winding. When conductors of armature winding carry outward current under north and incoming current under south pole then those conductors experience a force in clockwise direction according to flemings left hand rule. Due to this force, conductors move in clockwise direction. The direction of current is reversed by commutator, which causes the moving conductor coming under different pole to carry reverse current. This causes the force on the conductor to be again in the same direction as flux and current both change direction simultaneously. Thus armature conductors always experience force in same direction.

3.6.1 Back EMF

When the armature of a DC motor rotates, an emf is induced in armature conductors known as back emf which opposes the applied voltage.
Eb = ZNP volts 60 A

...

(3.36) If Ra is armature resistance then

V = Eb + I a Ra

...

(3.37) here Ia is armature current and V is applied voltage so (3.38) Back emf makes a dc motor self regulating. When speed is low then back emf will less and armature current will be large.
Ia = V Eb Ra

...

3.6.2 Speed Regulation

The back emf in armature is
Eb = P Z N 60 A

...

(3.39) 67

Electrical Technology

so (3.40)

N =

Eb 60 A PZ

...

since P, Z and A are constant for a machine then

N Eb V I a Ra

or (3.41)

...

For a shunt motor is constant then

N Eb or N V I a Ra

...

(3.42) For a series motor is proportional to Ia so (3.43) percentage speed regulation =

(3.44) here No is speed at no load in RPM and Nf is speed at full load in RPM. No N f Nf 100 ...
N Eb Ia

...

Example 3.2
A shunt generator delivers 50 kW at 250 volts and 400 rpm. The armature and field resistances are 0.02 and 50 ohms respectively. Calculate the speed of the machine running as a shunt motor and taking 50 kW input at 250 volts. Allow one volt per brush for contact drop.

Solution As Generator :
Line current I =
50 103 = 200 amp 250

Shunt field current I sh =

250 = 5 amp 50

Armature current I a = I + I sh = 200 + 5 = 205 amp

Armature drop = I a Ra = 205 0.02 = 4.1 volts Induced emf

E g = 250 + armature drop + brush contact drop E g = 250 + 4.1 + 2 1 [There are two brushes]

= 256.1 volts
As Motor :

Armature current I a = I I sh = 200 5 = 195 amp Armature drop = I a Ra = 195 0.02 = 3.9 volts Back emf
Eb = 250 armature drop brush contact drop

68

or

Eb = 250 3.9 2 1 = 244.1 volts

DC Machines

Since field current is constant

E g N1 and Eb N 2

where N1 and N2 are respectively the speeds of the machine as a generator and as a motor.
Eg Eb = E N N1 244.1 400 or N 2 = b 1 = = 381.257 rpm N2 Eg 256.1

SAQ 3
A shunt wound motor runs at 500 rpm from a 200 volt supply. Its armature resistance is 0.5 ohm and the shunt field resistance is 100 ohms and takes 32 amperes line current from the supply. What resistance must be reduced to 300 rpm, the armature and field currents remaining the same? Neglect brush drop.

3.6.3 Power Equation and Torque

The voltage equation for motor is
V = Eb + I a Ra

...

(3.45) By multiplying Ia in this equation by Ia we get

2 V I a = Eb I a + I a Ra

...

(3.46) It is a power equation, V Ia is input power, Eb I is power developed in armature and Ia2 Ra represents power losses in armature. So mechanical power developed by the motor is
2 Pm = Eb I a = V I a I a Ra

...

(3.47) or
Pm = input power losses

Differentiate the Eq. (3.47) with respect to Ia we get

dPm = V 2 I a Ra dI a

...

(3.48) For max power output or but (3.49) so

dPm = 0. dI a

V = 2 I a Ra
I a Ra = V Eb

...

V = 2 (V Eb )

69

Electrical Technology

or (3.50)

Eb =

V 2

...

In any motor mechanical power developed in armature is maximum when back emf is half of applied voltage.

3.6.4 Power Flow and Losses

Electrical Losses in Core/Iron Parts

In the iron part of machine some electrical losses occur in the form of hysteresis and eddy current losses. Hysteresis losses occur due to magnetic reversals caused by the rotating armature. Hysteresis losses are directly proportional to the number of magnetic reversal per second. hysteresis loss Pn = n (Bmax)x f V watts these losses occur in armature core and teeth of the dc machine. To reduce the hysteresis loss armature core is made of silicon steel. When armature core rotates in magnetic fields of poles which induce emf in armature core and yoke. Due to this induced emf eddy currents circulate in armature core, the eddy current losses mainly depend on thickness of material.
Pe = K Bmax f 2 V t2 watt

...

(3.51) To minimize eddy current losses the armature core is made of laminated stampings. Hysteresis and eddy current losses are known as core losses and are about 20% to 30% of full load losses.
Mechanical Losses

Due to friction of bearings, air friction or windage some losses occur in dc machines. These are known as mechanical losses. The brush friction losses are quite large. These losses are about 10% to 20% of full load losses.
Losses and Efficiency

In electrical machines, the efficiency is always less then one. It means that the output is less than the input. For any machine, efficiency = (3.52) In electrical machine input power is sum of output power and power loss i.e. Power (Input) = Power (Output) + Power loss So, efficiency =
Output Power Input Power Input Power Power loss Input Power Power loss Input Power Output Input

...

=1

...

(3.53) The various machine losses may be classified as electrical losses and mechanical losses.

70

Electrical Losses

DC Machines

In DC machines electrical losses occur in several parts of machine. The maximum electrical losses occur due to I2R losses because a large current flows through various machine windings. In addition to I2R losses there is brush contact loss at the contacts between the brushes and commutator. These losses are known as copper losses and amount to 40% to 60% of the full load losses. The power input of any DC machine is distributed as shown in Figure 3.17 below.
POWER INPUT

Total Losses

Useful Output

Copper Losses

Iron Losses

Mechanical Losses

Armature losses

Field Winding Eddy Losses Current Loss

Hysterisis Loss Friction Loss Windage Loss

Figure 3.17 : Power Input Distribution in DC Machine

Power Flow Analysis

In DC machines the sequence of energy conversion is necessary in analysis of the operation and characteristics of the machine.
Power Flow in DC Generator
Armature Copper Loss

DC Generator Mechanical Power Input from Turbine, Engine etc. Mechanical Power Converted to Electrical Power Output Power

Mechanical Power Loss and Hystirisis and Eddy Current Loss

Power Lost in Shunt Field

Figure 3.18 : Power Flow in DC Generator

Power Flow for DC Motor

DC Motor

Electrical Power Input

Power Converted In Mechanical Power

Output

Loss in Shunt Field Winding

Copper Losses in Armature

Core and Mechanical Losses

Figure 3.19 : Power Flow for DC Motor

Torque

In a DC motor, output power is converted to torque. If at a wheel of radius r metre, a force F acts on circumference then 71

Electrical Technology

Torque T = F . r (3.54) work done per revolution = F . 2 r joules work done per second = F . 2 r . n (3.55) here, n =
N and N is speed of rotation in RPM. 60

...

...

Figure 3.20

Now power developed, P = work done per second or or (3.56) where,

P = F r. 2 n P=T. T = Torque, and = angular velocity.

...

here (3.57)

= 2 n =

2 N 60

...

Power developed in armature is Eb . Ia So, (3.58) or (3.59) or

T = PZ N Ia 60 A
2 N 60

Eb Ia = T . Eb I a

...

T=

...

or (3.60) or (3.61)

T =

PZ I . I a = 0.159 Z P a 2 A A

...

T = 9.55

Eb I a N

...

Since Z, P and A are constant so

T Ia

. . (3.62) 72

For DC shunt motor is constant so T Ia and for dc series motor Ia, so T Ia2.
Example 3.3

DC Machines

A 125 V, dc shunt motor at its rated conditions develops 1 kW at 1800 rpm. Its line current is 10.67 A. The motor has a field resistance of 110 ohms and armature circuit resistance of 1.23 ohms. If the motor torque is increased by 20% determine (i) its probable new speed, and (ii) line current.
Solution

Shunt field current I sh =

125 V = = 1.136 amp Rsh 110

Under rated conditions I a1 = I I sh = 10.67 1.136 = 9.534 amp Torque Ia For a shunt motor, is constant
(3.63) T Ia

...

When the motor torque is increased by 20%, the new value of torque becomes 1.2 T and let the new value of armature current be Ia2. We have, 1.2 T Ia2 (3.64) Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i), we have
I 1 .2 T = a 2 or I a 2 = 9.534 1.2 = 11.44 amp T 9.534

...

Under rated conditions,

Eb1 = V I a1 Ra = 125 9.534 1.23

or

Eb1 = 113.27 volts

But back emf speed [ being constant]

(3.65)

E b1 N1

...

with increased torque

Eb 2 = V I a 2 Ra = 125 11.44 1.23

or

Eb 2 = 110.93

Let the new speed be N2, then Ebe N2 (3.66) Dividing Eqs. (3.66) by Eq. (3.65), we have 110.93 N 110.93 1800 = 2 or N 2 = = 1762.8 rpm 113.27 1800 113.27 New speed = 1762.8 rpm and New line current = Ia2 + Ish 73 ...

Electrical Technology

= 11.44 + 1.136 = 12.576 amp

Example 3.4

The flux per pole of a 4 pole, 220 volt dc series motor is 0.025 weber for a load current of 52 amperes. The armature is wave wound with 500 conductors. Calculate : (i) the gross torque, (ii) the speed, (iii) the output torque, and (iv) the efficiency. The corresponding iron, friction and windage losses total 860 watt. The armature and field resistances are 0.21 ohm and 0.15 ohm respectively.
Solution

(a)

P Gross torque T = 0.159 Z IA A

or

4 T = 0.159 0.025 500 52 2

= 206.7 N-m (b) Back emf

Eb = V I a ( Ra + Rse ) Eb = 220 52 (0.21 + 0.15) = 201.28 volts

But or or (c)

Eb =

ZN P 60 A

201.28 =

0.025 500 N 4 60 2

N = 483.072 rpm

Torque lost in friction windage etc.

T fw =

860 2 N 60

860 60 = 17 N-m 2 483.072

Output torque = T 17 = 206.7 17 = 189.7 N-m

(d)

Efficiency =

Output Eb I a 860 = Input V Ia 201.28 52 860 = 83.97% 220 52

SAQ 4
A dc series motor develops 30 kW and takes a current of 80 amp when running at 1200 rpm. Find the starting torque if at starting armature current is 120 Amperes. Magnetic circuit remains unsaturated.

74

3.6.5 Motor Current and Voltage Equations

Separately Excited DC Motor
Eb = V Ia Ra

DC Machines

...
E Rf

(3.67)
Ia = IL, If =

Power drawn from supply

P = V IL

...

(3.68) Mechanical power developed

Pm = Eb Ia = Ia (V Ia Ra)

...

(3.69) = V Ia Ia2 Ra
2 = V I L IL Ra = Powers drawn from supply

I2 R losses in armature (3.70)

+ IL If Ia A V AA FF Eb Ra Rf E F

...

Battery

Figure 3.21 : Separately Excited DC Motor

Series Wound DC Motor

Eb = V I a ( Ra + Rse )

...

(3.71) Power drawn from supply P = V Ia (3.72)

2 2 Pm = V I a I a Ra I a Rse

...

... ... ...

(3.73) or (3.74) (3.75)

Pm = I a (V I a ( Ra + Rse ) )

Pm = I a Eb

75

Electrical Technology

FF + IL

Ia A Eb Ra AA

RSE

Figure 3.22 : Series Wound DC Motor

Shunt Wound DC Motor

I L = I a + I sh
(3.76)
I sh = V Rsh

...

...

(3.77)

Eb = V I a Ra
(3.78)

...

P = V . IL
2 Pm = V . I L V I sh I a Ra

...

(3.79)
2 2 = V ( I L I sh ) I a Ra = V I a I a Ra

= I a (V I a Ra )
(3.80)

... ...

Pm = I a Eb
(3.81)
Ish Ia A Rsh AA FF Eb Ra V IL

e
Figure 3.23 : Shunt Wound DC Motor

Direction of rotation of DC motor can be reversed by reversing the direction of current either in armature or in field windings. If current through both windings will reverse, then direction of rotation will remain same.

3.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF DC MOTORS

To determine performance and stability of a dc motor following are drawn : 76

(a) (b) (c)

Torque Armature current : Electrical characteristics Torque Speed : Mechanical characteristics Speed Armature current : Speed characteristics

DC Machines

3.7.1 DC Series Motor

For series motors the flux is directly proportional to armature current. From speed equation, we get
N Eb V I a ( Ra + Rse ) =

. . . (3.82)

T Ia
2 T Ia

N
N

V ( Ra + Rse ) Ia
V k T ( Ra + Rse ) (in saturated region)

and

T Ia
N N V I a ( Ra + Rse ) k2 V T ( Ra + Rse ) (in saturated region) k2

A curve between armature current and speed will be rectangular hyperbola before saturation. Series DC motor have variable speed but on no load speed is dangerously high. To start a series DC motor, first we must put a mechanical loading on it.
Torque N N T

Ia

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.24 : DC Series Motor Characteristics (a) Torque-current Characteristics of Armature Current Speed Characteristics, and (b) Speed-torque Characteristics

It is suitable for gear drive because gear provides some load on account of frictional resistances. Before saturation, flux () is proportional to Ia, so torque (T) is proportional to Ia2 but after saturation flux is constant so torque is directly proportional to armature current. From torque current characteristic (Figure 3.24(a)) we see that the series motor develops high starting torque for heavy loads. So these are used for electric traction. From speed torque characteristic (Figure 3.24(b)) we see that the speed are sharply falls with increase in torque. So another application of DC series is in fans whose speed falls with load.

3.7.2 DC Shunt Motor

DC shunt motors are constant speed motors, there is only slight variation in speed from no load to full load. These are suitable for constant speed requirement. Torque-armature current characteristic is a straight line according to its speed torque characteristic, shunt motor is used for medium starting torque i.e. in pumps, fans, conveyors, shapers, milling etc. Here since is constant

77

Electrical Technology

N Eb = V I a Ra T Ia Ia N V R3 Ra T
No Load Speed

N Torque

Speed N

Ia

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.25 : DC Shunt Motor Characteristics (a) Torque-current Characteristics of Armature Current Speed Characteristics, and (b) Speed-torque Characteristics

3.7.3 DC Compound Motors

Differential compound motors are rarely used. Cumulative compound motors have combined characteristic of series and shunt motors. Shunt field provides constant speed and series field provides high starting torque. They are used in rolling mills, shearing machines, lifts, mine hoist, etc.
Speed
l tia ren e f Dif

Shunt
Co mm ula tive

Com mula tive

Torque Differential

Ia

Figure 3.26 : DC Compound Motor Characteristics

3.8 STARTING, SPEED CONTROL AND APPLICATIONS OF DC MOTORS

3.8.1 Starting of DC Motors
When the armature of a dc motor is at standstill, the back emf is zero as N = 0. PZ N Eb = 60 A . If a dc motor is connected directly to the supply then a heavy current
V Eb will flow through armature conductors I a = R because Ra is very small a (i.e. less than 1 ). This heavy current may damage the armature windings. Thus, for the protection of the motor against the flow of large current during starting period starters are used. Starter provides high resistance at the time of starting and removes this additional resistance when motor attains its normal speed. Starters are :

78

(a) (b) (c)

Two point starter used for DC series motors. Three point starter used for DC shunt and compound motors. Four point starter for DC shunt and compound motors when speed variation is achieved by flux control method.

DC Machines

Here we will discuss three-point starter only.

Three Point Starter

It consists of series starting resistance in several sections, connected on brass studs. A spiral spring is placed on starter arm to bring this arm to OFF position when holding coil is de-energised. Under normal running condition the arm is held at ON position by holding coil which is magnetized by field current. Operation To start motor, the starter arm is moved gradually from OFF position to ON position. At position A, total starting resistance is inserted in series with armature and field is directly connected across supply through Brass arc and holding coil, hereby magnetising the holding coil. On moving starter arm clockwise further the resistance decreases in steps. At ON position, starting resistance is totally out of circuit. The soft iron on starter arm latches with the magnetised holding coil and hence keeps the starter arm at ON position.
Starting Resistance C A D Holding Coil or No Volt Release ON Brass Arc

OFF Soft Iron Starter Arm

Spring

Overload Release

L F A

+ 220 VDC FF AA

Figure 3.27 : Three-point Starter

No Volt Release No volt release coil is an electromagnet which is series connected with the field winding. In the abnormal position (i.e. supply failure and field winding open) the holding coil is demagnetized and starter arm goes back to OFF position due to spring force. Over Load Release Coil To provide overload protection to motors overload release is used. This coil is connected in series with armature winding when motor draws heavy currents 79

Electrical Technology

then coil magnetises it to such an extent that it pulls lever and closes contact L of overload release coil. This short circuits the No volt release coil. The No volt release coil is demagnetized and releases the starting arm which goes back to OFF position.

3.8.2 Speed Control

Speed of any dc motor is directly proportional to back emf and inversely proportional to magnetic flux. i.e.
N Eb

so (3.83)

Eb = V I a Ra
N V I a Ra

...

Thus the speed of any DC motor can be controlled by adjusting the following : (a) (b) (c) Applied voltage across armature, V. Voltage drop across armature, Ia Ra. Flux per pole.

Speed Control of DC Shunt Motor

Field or Flux Control Method
+ I Ia A V Eb AA FF If F

Figure 3.28 : Field Control for DC Shunt Motor

Speed variation is accomplished by means of a variable resistance inserted in series with shunt field. By controlling field current the speed of DC shunt motor is controlled. This method is independent of load on the motor. Drawbacks of this system are : (i) (ii) (iii) Creeping speeds cannot be obtained. Top speeds are only obtained at reduced torque due to very weak field. At higher speeds very weak field increases armature current required for developing the desired torque.

SAQ 5
The speed of a 500 V shunt motor is raised from 700 rpm to 1000 rpm by field weakening, the total torque remaining unchanged. The armature and field resistance are 0.8 and 750 respectively, and the line current at lower speed is 12 amps. Calculate the additional shunt field resistance required, assuming the magnetic circuit to be unsaturated and neglecting all losses.

80

DC Machines

Armature Control Method

Speed variation of shunt motors by armature control requires applied voltage to change without altering the field current. So speed is adjusted by armature control method using : (a) (b) (c) Armature resistance control. Shunted armature control. Terminal voltage control impressed upon armature circuit.

Armature Resistance Control

Ia Ish

+ V A Eb AA

FF

Figure 3.29 : Armature Resistance Control

When a resistance is connected in series with armature it increases armature drop so voltage applied across armature is reduced. Thus, the speed is reduced, which is directly proportional to voltage drop, without altering shunt field current. In this method, large amount of power Ia2 R (R is resistance in series with armature) is wasted so this method is not used for long operation. Its used for short period in printing machines, hoists, cranes, fans and blowers.

Shunted Armature Method

I + V Series Resistance F Ish

Ia A Divider Eb AA FF

Figure 3.30 : Shunted Armature Control

Speed variation in armature resistance control method also depends on load current. This double dependence makes speed sensibly constant on rapidly changing loads. For more stable operation a divertor is used across armature. It is generally applied in low power rating machines.

Armature Voltage Control

Speed variation is obtained by using variable supply voltage which is provided by the adjustable electronic rectifier. This gives large speed range with good speed regulation and efficiency.

81

Electrical Technology

SAQ 6
The load torque and the loss torque of a dc shunt motor are constant and independent of speed. When the motor is connected directly to the 440 V supply and the speed is steady, the armature current is 20 A. The resistance of the armature is 1.5 . Find the resistance of a starter to limit the armature starting current to 40 A. The starter contact is to be held on the first active stud until the motor acquires a steady speed. The contact is then to be moved to the second stud and the initial current is to be limited to 40 A. Find the resistance between the first and second studs of the starter. Assume that the field flux is constant.

Ward Leonard Method

Speed control by means of an adjustable voltage generator connected across armature terminals of the motor is called Ward Leonard system.
R Y B G1

M1

R M2 A S G2 B Rheostat RS

Figure 3.31 : Ward Leonard Method

M1 is work motor powered by generator G1 which is driven by a synchronous or Induction motor M2 which gives constant speed drive to generator G1, and exciter G2 mounted on the same shaft as the generator. The field current for the work motor M1 and the generator G1 is obtained from exciter E. The Ward Leonard set starts the driving motor. Variable voltage across the terminals of the generator or across motor is obtained by varying the exciting current of the generator G1 by means of shunt regulator R. Switch S, at positions A and B, is used to reverse direction of voltage of G1 and hence rotation of M1. By controlling the field current of G1 through R, the armature voltage of M1 and hence its speed can be controlled.

Advantage
(a) (b) 82 Very fine speed control over whole range from zero to normal speed in both directions. Uniform acceleration can be obtained.

(c) (a) (b)

Speed regulation is good. Arrangement is costly due to three extra machines. Low overall efficiency of the system.

DC Machines

Disadvantage

Speed Control of DC Series Motor Armature Control

Armature Resistance Control Speed variation is obtained by varying armature voltage drops. The maximum range of speed control will be available on the load. This is most economical for constant torque drives.
F FF

+ V

Control Resistance Eb

AA

Figure 3.32 : DC Series Motor : Armature Resistance Control

Shunted Armature Control

This method gives slow speeds at light loads. There is speed control both by lowering armature voltage and flux variation. Armature voltage is varied by series rheostat R1 and flux is varied by rheostat R2.
F + R1 V R2 Eb AA FF I A

Figure 3.33 : DC Series Motor : Shunted Armature Control

Armature Voltage Control

Speed varies by varying supply voltage using adjustable electronic rectifiers.

Field Control Method

Field Divertor Flux can be reduced by shunting a portion of field winding. This method gives speeds above normal speed. This method is economical and provides speed control in range not exceeding 2 : 1.

83

Electrical Technology

FF

+ V Diverter Eb

AA

Figure 3.34 : Field Divertor Method

Tapped Field Control This is another method of increasing speed by reduced flux. It is obtained by reducing number of turns of field winding. This method is generally used in traction.
F FF I

A Eb
AA

Diverter

Figure 3.35 : Tapped Field Control

Paralleling Field Coil Method By regrouping the field coils in series or parallel the variable speed is obtained. It is used in electric traction.

3.8.3 Applications
DC Series Motors
(a) Electric Traction (b) (c) High starting torque and reduced torque at high speeds. Large tractive effort, so a number of motors in series. Power High , large Weight ratio Motors robust in construction.

Hoists, cranes, excavations, electric vehicles, streetcars, battery powered portable tools, automotive starter motors : all because of high starting torque. Drive fan load Torque requirement increases with the square of speed.

(d)

Battery Operated Vehicles Cars and other battery powered vehicles have traction characteristics. Speed control can be carried out by thyristers.

DC Shunt Motors
84 (a) Constant speed applications.

(b) (c)

Applications where a wide range of speed control is employed e.g. in lathes, in paper industry etc. As a separately excited motor when field winding is disconnected from armature and connected to an external voltage source.

DC Machines

DC Compound Motors
(a) Rolling Mills : To improve characteristic and have higher starting torque for the lower rolling motor of the twin-drive. Cummulative compound motors are better suited than shunt motors. In conjunction with flywheel, they can take sudden temporary loads and are ideal for rolling mills and coal-cutting machines. Punching Press. Milling Machine. Traction Motors : Only where supply voltage is likely to vary considerably. Hoisting and Lowering of Loads (along with regenerative braking). to (v) were for cumulatively compounded motor. Differential compound motors find only rare application as in research and experimental work.

(b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

Example 3.5
A DC generator has the following magnetization characteristics at 800 rpm.
Generated emf (V) Field Current (A) 27.5 1 53 2 75 3 88 4 95 5 106 6 112 7

If the machine is shunt excited, determine the induced emf for a field circuit resistance of 19 ohm. Calculate the load current for a terminal voltage of 76 volts. The armature resistance in 0.1 ohm. Neglect the armature reaction.

Solution
The magnetization characteristic at 800 rpm is plotted in Figure 3.36, the field resistance line OA for 19 is drawn as follow : Take any current say 3 amp, multiply it by 19 , we get 57 V. Locate point B (3 amp, 57 volts) and draw a line joining the origin (0, 0), and the point B. This gives 19 , resistance line. It cuts the induced emf corresponding to this point C is 100 volts. Hence the generator will develop 100 volts corresponding to field circuit resistance of 19 .

85

Electrical Technology
112 106 100 95 Generated e.m.f. (V) 88 75 B 53 52 27 20 10 1 2 3 4 5 Rsh If

I Ia Rse E Ra +

Field current (A)

Figure 3.36

Given terminal voltage = 76 volts Field current I f =

V 76 = = 4 amp Ra 19

Induced emf E corresponding to If = 4 amp from the given OCC is 88 volts. or Voltage drop in the armature Ia Ra = E V I a Ra = 88 76 = 12 volts
Ia = 12 12 = = 120 amp Ra 0.1

Load current I = Ia If = 120 4 = 116 amp.

3.9 SUMMARY
You learnt about principles of electromechanical energy conversion and calculations of emf and force or torque experienced by current carrying conductor. After a brief introduction to the constructional features of dc machine in Section 3.3, you learnt the calculations of emf for generators, torque and speed regulation for motor. After study of characteristics of generator and motors you were able to decide the applications of DC machines. You also learnt the starting and different speed control schemes for DC motors which are used for industrial purpose in Section 3.8.

3.10 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
Load current I =
W 45 103 2250 = = = 204.55 amp V 220 11

86

Field current I sh =

V 220 = = 4.4 amp Rsh 50

DC Machines

Armature current I a = I + I sh = 204.55 + 4.4 = 208.95 amp Armature drop I s Rs = 208.95 0.01 = 2.0895 volts Induced emf E = V + I a Ra = 220 + 2.0895 = 222.0895 volts But or E=
N =

Z N P 60 A
E 60 A 222.0895 60 2 = Z P 0.02 (150 2) 4

= 1110.45 rpm

SAQ 2
(a) The circuit diagram for the given system is shown in Figure 3.37.
A 120 110 100 Generated e.m.f. (V) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rf E B If + Ia Ra V

Field current (A)

Figure 3.37

Current in the shunt field

I sh =

500 = 2 amp 250

Armature current = I a = I + I sh or
I a = 50 + 2 = 52 amp

Voltage drop in the armature and series resistance = I a ( Ra + Rse ) = 52 (0.05 +0.03) = 4.16 volts Generated emf
E = Terminal voltage

+ I a ( Ra + Rse ) + brush drop

87

Electrical Technology

E = 500 + 4.16 + 2
= 506.16 volts (b) Load current I =
P 11.5 1000 = = 50 amp V 230
V 230 = = 2.3 amp Rsh 100

Field current I sh =

Armature current I a = I + I sh or
I a = 50 + 2.3 = 52.3 amp

Armature drop I a Ra = 52.3 0.2 = 10.46 v Brush drop = 1 2 = 2 volts Generated emf = 230 + 10.46 + 2 = 242.46 volts But
E=

Z N P 60 A

For lap wound generator A = P

E= Z N 60 E or = 60 ZN 60 242.46 = 0.012123 webers/pole 1200 1000

or

SAQ 3
Line current I = 32 amp Field current I sh =
V 200 = = 2 amp Rsh 100

Armature current I a = I I sh = 32 2 = 30 amp Back emf Eb1 = V I a Ra = 200 30 0.5 = 185 volts We know that back emf a flux per pole speed. It is given that field current is same, therefore, flux per pole remains constant Back emf speed
Eb1 N1

. . . (i)

Let R ohm be the external resistance to be added in the armature circuit to reduce the speed to N2 = 300 rmp. At this speed let the back emf be Eb2.

E b2 N 2

. . . (ii)

Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i), we have

Eb 2 300 = or Eb 2 = 111 volts 185 500

Since armature current remains same or or 88

Eb 2 = V I a ( Ra + R)

111 = 200 30 (0.5 + R)

R = 2.467

Required resistance to be added in the armature circuit = 2.467 .

DC Machines

SAQ 4
Output of dc series motor = Eb I a = 30 103 watts Output is also equal to or 2
T=
2 NT 1200 = 2 T 60 60

1200 T = 30 103 60 750 N-m

2 For a series motor with unsaturated field : T I a 2 T = k Ia

750 = k (80) 2

. . . (i)

At starting Ia = 120 amp. Hence torque at starting,

Ts = k (120)2

. . . (ii)

Dividing Eq. (ii) by Eq. (i) we get,

Ts 120 = 750 80
2

750 120 Ts = 80 750 3 Ts = 2 Ts = 9 750 4

2

Ts = 537.15 N-m.

SAQ 5
In the first case : I f1 = 500 2 = amp 750 3 2 34 = amp 3 3
34 0.8 3

I a1 = 12

Eb1 = V I a Ra = 500

or

Eb1 = 500

27.2 = 490.93 volts 3

89

Electrical Technology

Ish Ia 0.03 Eb

IL +

750

0.8

500 V

Let the new shunt field resistance be R. Hence in the second case, If2 = V 500 = R R

Let the new armature current be Ia2 Eb 2 = V I a 2 Ra = 500 I a 2 0.8 . . . (i)

As torque is the same in two cases T 1 I a1 2 I a 2 or 1 I a1 = 2 I a 2 . . . (ii)

Since saturation is neglected, hence flux is proportional to field current

1 I f 1 2 500 and 2 I f 2 3 R

Substituting the values in Eq. (ii) or 2 34 500 = Ia2 3 3 R

I a2 = 2 34 R = 15.1 R 10 3 3 3 500

Substituting in Eq. (i), we have Eb 2 = 500 0.0151 0.8 R

= 500 0.01208 R
Using the relation
N 2 Eb 2 1 = , we get N1 Eb1 2

2 1000 500 0.01208 R = 3 500 700 490.93 R or or or 10 (500 0.01208 R) 2 R = 7 490.93 3 500 R (500 0.01208 R) = 525996.42 0.01208 R2 500 R + 525996.42 = 0

Solving this equation, we get R = 1080.18 Hence additional shunt field resistance required = 1080.18 750

90

= 330.18

DC Machines

SAQ 6
Let the total resistance required (including armature resistance) in the armature circuit to limit armature current to 40 A be R R= 440 = 11 [as Eb = 0 at starting, i.e. N = 0] 40

External resistance to be inserted in the armature circuit R Ra = 11 1.5 = 9.5 With this resistance present in the armature circuit the back emf developed under steady speed. Eb = 440 I a R = 440 20 11 = 220 volts [Since T Ia for shunt motor and it remains constant due to constant load torque, Ia at steady state remains same, i.e. 20 A]. Let the resistance present between the first and the second stud be r . When this resistance is cut out by moving the arm to the second stud, the resistance remaining in the armature circuit = (R r)
V Eb 440 220 = 40 amp (given ) or ( R r) = = 5.5 Rr 40

r = R 5.5 = 11 5.5 = 5.5

91