Filter Design 2

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Chapter:01
Filter: Filter can be considered can be considered as frequency
selective networks. A filter is required to separate an unwanted
signal from a mixture of wanted and unwanted signals.
The filter specification are generally given in terms
of cutoff frequencies, pass band (P.B) and stop band (s.b)
regions. P. B is the frequency band of wanted signal and S.B is
the frequency band of unwanted signal. An ideal filter should
pass the wanted signal with no attenuation and provide infinite
attenuation.
Depending upon the components used, filters can be
classified as:
1. passive filters: Filters which are the compotnet such as R,L,C
are the passive filters. The Gains of such filters are always
less than or equal to unity (i.e GS1). It is to be noted the L
and C are filter components, but R is not.
2. Active filters: The filters which use the components such as
transistors, op-amp etc are the active filters. The Gains of
such filters are always greater than or equal to unity. ( G 1)
Also, T(s) = T(jw) =
v2 ( jw)
v1 ( jw)
Then the voltage gain in db is given by ,

Av = 20log10
T ( jw) dB .(1)
Or in term of
given by,
Ap = 10 log10
power , the power gain is
p1
p2
Now, the voltage attenuation is given by ,

= 1/Av
= -20log T ( jw) dB.(2)
From equation 1 and 2 ,we can write,
T ( jw) = 100.05Av..(3)
-0.05
T ( jw) = 10
.(4)
Gain and Attenuation:

i/p
V1(t)
Filter
network
Types of filters: ( According to the function)

Filters are classified according to the functions they
are to perform. The pattern of PB and SB that give rise to the
most common filters as defined below:
o/p
V2(t)
Let us consider the filters network with i/p V1(t) having power
P1 and o/p V2(t) having power p2 as shown in fig1. Then the
transfer function is given by T(s) = V2(s)/V1(s)
Where , V1(s) and V2(s) are the Laplace Transform of V1(t) .
1. Low pass filters: (LPF): A LPF characteristics is one in

which the PB extend from = 0 to = c where c is
know as cut off frequency.
1
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A
PB
SB
PB
SB
wc
Fig. 1(a)
Fig. 1(d)
2. High pass filter: A high pass filter is a compolement of a

low pass filter in that the frequency range form o to c is
the SB and from c to infinity is the PB.
Notch filter
5. All pass filters (APF): It is a filter which passes all range

of frequencies , i.e , PB ranges from o to infinity.
A
SB
PB
PB
wc
Fig. 1(b)
PB
w
Fig. 1(e)
Non- ideal Characteristics:
3. Band pass filter ( BPF): A BPF is one in which the

frequency extending form L (or 1) to u (2 ) are passed Filter Gain curve while signals at
all other frequencies are stopped.
A
Attenuation curve
A
1. LPF
1
0.707
SB
PB
wc
Fig. 1(c)
TB
SB
w
WpWc Ws
Wp Wc Ws
A BSF is complement of BPF

4. Band stop filter(BSF):
where signal components at frequencies form 1 to 2 are
stopped and all others
are passed. These filters are
sometimes known as Notch filters.
2.HPF
2
WsWcWp
1. From the attenuation curve it to be noted that in the pass

band the attenuation is always less then a maximum value.
Designated as max
2. In the stop band the attenuation is always larger then a
minimum value designated as min .
3. Band between PB and SB so defined are known as
transition bands. (TB).
Bilinear Transfer function and its poles and zeroes:
We know,
T(s) = P(s)/Q(s) = N(s)/D(s)
a sm +a
m
T(s) = b s n + b
n
m1
m1
+ ........... + a s + a
1
s n1
v1
+
-
c
-
Fig 1.
Plot the magnitude and phase response of the ckt shown in fig
(1) and identify the filter.
Solution:
Applying kirchoffs law for fig 1
If z1< p1
Realisation of filter with passive elements:

Let us now see how the bilinear transfer function and its
various special cases can be realized with passive elements.
= a1 (s + ao / a1 )
b (s + b / b )
G(s z1 ) or T (s) =
=
(s p1 )
Date:2065/4/22
T (s) = P(s) = a1 s + a0
Q(s) b s + b
P1 = -b0/b1 = a pole
When , m = n = 1, then the T(s) of equation (i) will be bilinear ,

i.e
Z = -a0/a1 = a zero
+ ............+ b s + b
n1
Here, G = a1/b1 = Gain
V = R + 1 idt................ (i)
G(s + z1 )
(s + z2 )
If p1< z1
1
V2 =
L idt..........
............
(ii)
Taking laplace transform of equation (i) and (ii)
3
V (s) = RI (s) +
I (s)..................(iii)
cs
V
V2 (s) =
-1
1
I (s) R +
-1
(jw) = tan (o/w0) tan (w/wo)

-1
(jw) = tan (w/w0)
When,
W = 0 , (j0) = 0
cs I (s)
(s)
=
V1 (s)
2
For phase plot:
cs
1
cs
1
=
Rcs +1 RC(s +1/ RC)
cs
1
W = wo , (jwo) = -45
W = , (j ) = - 90
90
RC
S +1/ RC
W0
T (s) = S +W0
45
Wo
Where, W0 = 1/RC
Now , for magnitude plot,
T(s) = T(jw) = W0/(jw+W0)
-45
w0
T ( jw) =
w + wo
-90
Now when
W = 0 T ( jw) = 1
2.
W= wo T ( jw) = 0.707
W = , T ( jw) = 0
R1
T(jw)
R1
2
+
1
0.707
v1
Wc
Fig. 2. Magnitude plot
+ R1
-
v2
4
Above figure can be modified as:

1
v1
-1
3
2
From figure the potential of node 2, is V1/2 and the potential at

node 3 is Vs R/(1+1/cs)
-1
(jw) = tan (-w/wo) - tan ( w/wo)

-1
(jw) = -2tan (w/wo)
when,
w = 0, (jw) = 0
w = 0, (jw) = -90
w= , (jw) = -180
V2 = V1/2 - Vs R/(1+1/cs)
V1/V2 = - RCS/RCS+1
T(s) = R(S+1- 2RCS)/2(RCS+1) = -{(RCS+1)/2(RCS+1)}
= RC(S+1/RC)/2RC(s+1/RC)
90
45
Where Wo = 1/RC
Wo
T(jw) = -1/2 {(jw-wo)/(jw+wo)}
W
-45
For magnitude plot ,
-90
2
T ( jw) =
1 w + (w0 )
-135
2 w + w0
-180
From the magnitude plot, we see that the networking is all pass
filter.
T(jw)
Assignment:
3.
+
1
T ( jw) = 2
v1
Phase plot:
+
-
v2
5
R1
Z1= 1/Y1 = R C S +1
Now applying kirchoffs voltage law, for fig (i).
V1 = z1i+R2i
V1(s) =
(z1s+R2)I1(s) And ,
V2(s) = R2I(s)
4.
c1
R1
v1
+
-
R2
v2
T(s) = V2 (s) =
V (s)
1
R2
=
Z (s) + R 2
R2
R
1
R 1 C1 S + 1
+ R2
1
R R C (S +
5.
R2 (R1C1 S +1)
R 1C 1
= R1 + R2 R1C1 S + R2 = R R C S + R + R
1
R1
v1
R2
S+
C2
1
RC
1
1
1
S+
+
R C 1 R C1
2
Date: 2065/4/28
Or, T(s) =
c1
S + 01 S (
=
S+
S (
02
01
02
)
)
R1
v1
+
-
R2
v2
-wo1
And ,
>
or,
02
01
02
<
01
From fig (i)

Y1 = c1s+1/R1 =
R1C1 S +1
For Magnitude plot:
R1
6
R RC
2
v2
Example :04
o2
Now at w = 0
(z) = (j0) = 0
2
+ w01 2
T(jw) = jw + w 01 = w
w + w02 2
w
Now at w= 0, T ( j0) = 01 = R2
jw + w02
At w = ,
T ( j) =
01
R+ R
02
(z) = (jw0)= 45
Now at w =
2
(j ) = 90
=1
02
Pole plot ( p)
-1
(p) = tan (w/w01)
T(jw)
= tan
R2
R 1C 1
R1+R2
1
R C
2
For Phase plot,
p = (w02) = 45
jw + w
at w = , p = (j ) = 90
01
jw + w02
Where, w01= 1/R1C1

W02 = 1/R1C1+1/R2C2
Therefore, (jw) = tan 1 w tan
w
01
(jw)
zero plot
02
(jw) = z p
Since direct phase plot of above expression is very complicated,
we will go it by indirect method. First we will plot the zero phase
and then the pole phase and finally find the net pole zero phase.
Zero plot ( z)
90
45
pole zero plot

wo2
w=0
wo1
-45
Pole plot
-90
(z) = tan
w
01
Now at, w = 0
p = (j0) = 0
at w = w02
w=0
T(jw) =
= tan
(wR1C1 )
7
Thus the magnitude response of the above network shown that it

is a high pass filter with dc gain R2/(R1+R2) and phase plot
signifies it is leading type.
Insertion Gain and insertion loss:
T(jw)
wo
wo
wo
w
Insertion gain
T(jw)
wo
w
Insertion gain
One of the important factor that should be consider in design is

that the minimum value of should be zero degree. But this is
not true in practical case since we are using active element , this
need not be the case because the active element may provided
the gain greater than one (1). If it is necessary to meet the
specification exactly then it will be necessary to provide ck t to
reduce the gain. We call this unwanted gain as the insertion gain.
On the other hand there is a loss in the components of passive
filter so it provides access attenuation and we call this loss as
insertion loss. To overcome this problem additional
compensation circuit is required.
Chapter- 2
Normalization and Renormalization:
In most of the cases we consider the values of R, L S& C to be
the order of unity. It is very difficult to built the capacitor of 1 f
and inductor of 1 H . Besides this the practical values of
capacitors available in the electronic circuit is of the order of
microfarad or Pico farad. The circuit considered so for have
normalized elemental values but practically these values are not
realizable. So we perform scaling to get the realizable
components.
There are mainly two reasons for resorting the normalized
design.
1. Numerical computation become simple and it is easier to
manipulate the numbers of the order of unity.
2. If we have the normalized design of the filter then it is
easy to generate the filter of similar characteristics of
varying center frequency and impedance level without
redesigning the whole circuit.
The actual or the required elemental values of the
8
Filter ckt which is obtained after scaling is called demoralized

values of the circuit.
Scaling: While designing the ckt sometimes the value of
components may not be available so we change them with the
available one, which is called scaling. To obtained the elemental
values of the required filter we amplitude and frequency scale the
normalized design.
Also,
XLKm = Lold S Km = (KmLold)S = LnewS
Lnew = Km Lold .(ii)
Again,
Xc Km = 1/cold s . Km =
old
new
1
Cnew .S
C = C0
Types of scaling:
1
C
ld
.(iii)
Km
1. Impedance (Magnitude or amplitude) scaling: In this

scaling, the magnitude of the impedance is increased or
decreased. To scale in magnitude , z(s) (the impedance) is
multiplied by a constant factor Km .
Example 01:
Perform Impedance scaling to the following network.
R=1 ohm
+
+
V2
Z(s)
C =1F
V1
-
Solution:
If Km . 1, then it is called scale up.

If Km< 1, then it is called scale down.
Let, Rold = old value of Resistor.
Lold = old value of inductor
Cold = old value of capacitor.
Rold = 1
Cold = 1 F
Now , let us assume that,
Cnew = 10 F
The new values of R, L and C are given by
Note: Generally we assume new value of capacitor 1F or 10

F. We know that
Cnew = Cold/Km
5
Km = Cold/Cnew = 1F/10 F = 10
Rnew = Km Rold .(i)
Therefore, Rnew = Km .Rold

5
= 10 * 1
9
If, w = old corner frequency

= new corner frequency.
Rnew = 100K
R=100k
+
= Kf w
Where,
Kf = frequency scaling factor.
If Kf > 1, then it is called expansion scaling
If, Kf < 1 , then it is called compression scaling.
+
V2
C =10 uf
V1
-
Fig(ii) scaled ckt.

The transfer function for fig. (i) ,
Told(s) = 1/(s+1)
o
Expansion
1
R C
new
And, Tnew =
new
S+
= 1/s+1
R C
new
new
Thus we see that there is no change in the following transfer

function while doing magnitude scaling.
= 10
o = 10
Date: 2065/5/3
Compression
2. Frequency scaling:
In frequency scaling our objective is to scale the frequency
without affecting the magnitude of the impedance , i.e
ZL = ( = XL) = LS = jWL
Z L =WL is a constant.
Similarly,
Zc ( = Xc) = 1/cs = 1/ jwc
o = 10
o = 1
Also, if T(jw) is old Transfer function, then the new transfer

fucnti is T(j )
= T (jKfw)
Zc = wc is constant.
To do so any change in w must be compensated by

corresponding change in L and c
The resistance is unaffected by frequency scaling , i.e

Rnew= Rold .(v)
10
For inductor,
Xl = Ls = jwL = jwkf . L/kf
Now we know that

Cnew = Cold /k f = 1F/ 1000 = 1
mF And , Rnew = Rold = 1
Or, XL = j(wkf) ( Lold/kf) since, L = Lold
1k
= j ( Lold/kf)
1mF
Lold = Lold / Kf .(vi)

Fig (ii): after frequency scaling.
For capacitor,
Cnew = Cold/ kf(vii)
Now,
1
R C
3. Both magnitude and Frequency scaling:
0ld
Told(S) =
It is not necessary that we scale magnitude and scale in
frequency separately. We can do both at once. Cobining all the
above equations.
s+
old
old
old
1
R C
new
And, Tnew(s) =
Rnew = KmRold .(Viii)

Lnew = Km/kf. Lold (ix)
Cnew = Cold/Km.kf .(x)
1
s +1
1
R C
new
s+
R C
new
10
s +10
new
Example 02:
R=1/10
These three equations are know as element scaling equations.

1
Example 01:
1
1F
1F
Perform frequency scaling with o = 1

Solution:
W0 = 1 , = 1000
Therefore, kf = o/wo = 1000
Example 03:
11

R1
C1
v1
R2
v2
R2old = 2/5 = 0.4

Cold = 1 F
Say, C1new = 10 F
Then, Km = Cold/Cnew = 1F/ 10 F
Km = 10 5
5
Therefore, Rnew = km R2old = 10 0.4 = 40 k
The selected ckt will be :
T(s) = (s+0.5)/(s+3)
200k
Perform magnitude and frequency scaling separately with wo = 3

and 0 = 300.
40.4F
v1
40k
v2
Solution:
The transfer function of the above figure is
s+
T(s) =
1
R C1
.(i)
s+
1
1
+
R C 1 R2C
1
But given ,
T(s) = (s+0.5)/(s+3) .(ii)
Comparing equation (i) and (ii)
1/R1C1 = 0.5
R1C1 = 2 ..(iii)
Again, ( 1/R1+ 1/R2)1/C1 = 3..(iv)
Let , C1= 1 F
For equation (iii) R1 1 = 2
R1 = 2
Therefore from equation (iv)
(1/2 + 1/R2) 1/2 = 3
Therefore, R2 = 2/5
In order to perform magnitude scaling
R1old = 2
Again for frequency scaling,

Wo = 3 , 0 = 3000
Therefore , kf = o/ wo = 3000/ 3 = 1000
Therefore, R1new = R1old = 2
R2new = R2old = 0.4
C1old = C1old/kf = 1F/ 1000 = 1 mF.
Example 04:
C2= 1/10 F
R2= 1/100
_
R1= 1 C1= 1 F
Perform magnitude scaling to the ckt given.

Note: Take Cnew as the new value of capacitor for Cold where
Cold represents the largest value in the circuit.
12
Solution:
Here, R1old = 1
R2old = 2
Chapter: 3
One port and two port passive network:
C1old = 1 F
C2old = 1/10 F.
Take, Cnew = 10 F.
Then for, magnitude scaling,
Cnew = Cold/km
5
Km = C1old/ C1new = 1F/ 10 F = 10
5
Therefore, C2new = C2old/km = 0.1 F/ 10
C2new = 1 F
Similarly,
Positive real function: The filter circuit is complex transfer

function that may be realizable depending upon weather the
transfer function exhibits PRF properties. I the transfer function
is PRF only ckt is realizable. There are two types of passive
network : [i] one port network [ii] Two port network.
I(s)
I1(s)
I2(s)
R1old = km. R1old = 10 1 = 100 k

5
R2new = km. R2old = (1/100). 10 = 1 k.
V(s)
1- port
n/w
V1(s)
Fig. 1(a) one port n/w
1k
2- port
n/w
Fig. 2(b) two port n/w
_
100k
10 uF
Fig: Magnitude Scaling Ckt.
One port network: Let us suppose of fig of 1(a),

Then, z(s) = V(s) / I(s)
If V(s) = 3s+2
I(s) = 1
Then, z(s) = 3s+2
= Ls +R
3H
V(s)
Thus , the function is realization but if, z(s) = 3s-2 , then it is not
realizable.
13
Date: 2065/ 5/10

Why? ( )
(i)
If F(s) denote the function in S-domain, the F(s) indicates

either driving
point impedance or driving admittance.
Which ever is concern to us.
(ii) F(s) should be for real value of S.
(iii) The value of F(s) must be
greater than or equal to zero.
i.e Re[f(s)] 0.
Thus in brief a PRF must be real and +ve .
If F(s) = LS = jWL
L must be +ve.
F(s) = 1/CS = 1/jwc
C must be +ve
F(s) = R
R must be +ve.
Properties of Passive n/w.
A passive network is one
(i)
The element of which one are +ve and real.
(ii) The average Power dissipated (APD) by the n/w. for a
sinusoidal i/p must be +ve.
2
For one port n/w APD = 1/2 Re[ z(s)][I(s)] 0
Properties of PRF:
1. If F(s) is +ve and real , then 1/F(s) is also +ve and real.
2. The sum of DRFS is always PRF but the difference may not
be PRF.
Example: Z1(s) = 5s+ 3
(PRF)
Z2(s) = 2s+ 5 ( PRF)
Then, z1(s)+z2(s) = 7s+8 (PRF)
But, Z1(s) Z2(s) = 3s-2 (not PRF)
3. The Poles and zeros of PRF cannot be in the right half of
the S-Plain.
4. Only poles with real residues can exists on the jw axis.
Example: F(s) = 6s/(s + 2 )

In this case, S = j
Residue = real and +ve.
5. The poles and zeroes of PRF Occurs in pairs.
numerator
and denominator
6. The highest power of
polynomial may differ atmost by unity.
5
4
3
2
1
Example: S + 4S + 3S + 3S + 3S + 2
6
S + 4S
+ 2 S + 3S
+ 3K
7. The lowest power of

numerator
polynomial may differ atmost by unity.
5
and denominator
+ 4S + 3S + 3S + 3S
Example: S 6 + 4S 4 + 2S 3 + 3S 2 + 3K
S
8. The real part of F(s) must be greater than or equal to zero.

i.e Re[F(s)] 0
But , if
Re[F(s)] = 0 , then the ckt do not consist resistive
components. Hence only capacitive and inductive components
are presents. Hence only capacitive and inductive components
are present . Such a n/w whose transfer function satisfies this
condition is known as lossless n/w.
Example: Determine weather the function is PRF.
2
2
(i)
z(s) = 2s +5/s(s +1)
2
Hence , z(s) = 2s +5/s(s+1)
2
2
A/s + Bs/(s +1) = A/s + B/ (s +1)/s
2
2s + 5
A = s(s +1) .s s = 0
2
2s
B=
s(s 2
+5
+1)
(s +1)
.
s
s
= 2(1) + 5 = 3
(1)
Z(s) = 5/3 + - 3s/(s +1)

2
Here, (-3) , the residues ( s = -1) is ve , therefore z(s) is not
14 PRF.
(ii)
(s +1)(s + 4) s(s + 4) + 2(s + 4)

z(s) = (s +1)(s + 3) = s(s + 3) +1(s + 3)
2
= s + 6s + 8
s 2 + 4s + 3

En (s) + On (s)
Z(s) = Em (s) + Om (s)
Where En(s) and Om(s) denote the even parts of numerator and
denominator respectively and On(s) and On(s) denote odd part.
5
2s + 5
(s +1)(s + 3)
= z1 (s) + z2 (s)
2s + 5
A
B
3 / 2 1/ 2
=
+
=
+
(s +1)(s + 3) s + 1 S + 3 s +1 s + 3
3 / 2 1/ 2
+
Therefore, z(s) = 1 + s +1 s + 3
Where z2(s) =
It is not PRF.
(iii)
3
2
z(s) = 8s + 4s + 3s +1
3
8s + 3s
(iv) Y(s) = s + 2s + 8
s(s + 4)
Basic ckt Synthesis Techniques:
Em (s) + Om (s)
bm s m + bm1 s m1 + bm2 s m2 + ............ + b1 s + b0
P(s)
= Q(s)
En (s)Em (s) + On (s).Om (s) + On (s)Em (s) En (s)Om (s)

E 2
m
= Re[ z(s)] =
(s) + Om
(s)
En (s)Em (s) On (s).Om (s)

2
2
Em (s) Om (s)
(s) Om
(s)
(ii)
Therefore from equation (i) and (ii).

En (s)Em (s) On (s).Om (s) = 0
N (s)
= D(s)
Em (s) Om (s)
En (s)Em (s) + On (s)Em (s) En (s)Om (s) On (s)Om (s)

2
2
Em
(s) Om (s)
Any one port n/w each can be represented by either

admittance function Y(s) or impedance function z(s) . i.e
F(s) =
For the loss less function , it is to be noted that,

Re[z(s)] = 0 .(i)
Now, z(s) = En (s) + On (s) Em (s) Om (s)
an s n + an1 s n1 + an2 s n 2 + ............. + a1 s + a0
s + s + s + s +1
= N (s)
6
5
4
3
2
s + s + s + s + s + s +1 Q(s)
4
2
5
3
(s + s +1) (s + s + 5)
+
En
On (s)
(s)
= 6 4 2
5
3
(s + s + s +1) (s + s +1)
+
Em (s)
Om (s)
Z(s) =
=1 +
Em (s) Om (s)
Z (s)
= P(s)
En (s)Em (s) On (s).Om (s) = 0

En (s)Em (s) = On (s).Om (s)
Em (s) On (s)
.(iii)
=
Om (s)
Design of LC Ckt . (Loss less ckt):

Consider a impedance function as
Em (s)
The above equation (iii) indicates that LC ckt is even to odd ( or

odd ) to even function.
15
Properties of LC Ckt:
n
1. F (s) =
n2
F(s) =
n4
an s + an2 s
+ an2 s
+ ............. + a0
m
m2
m4
bm s + bm2 s
+ bm4 s
+
+ b0
The coefficients an and bm must be real and +ve and F(s) must be
even to odd or odd to even function.
2. The highest power of numerator and denominator can differ
atmost by unity ( in this case it is 2). So does the lowest
power.
3. The succeeding power of s in numerator and denominator
must differ by the order of 2 all the way
through . Example:
+17s +165s
3
s + 4s
4. The poles and zeros must be alternatively placed on the jw

axis and lie only on the imaginary axis.
5. There must be either a pole or a zero at the origin.
Example: Test whether the following function is LC.
2
2
2
2
(i) z(s) = K (s +1)(s +5)/(s +2)(s +10) k>0 It is
not LC ckt function because,
1. There is neither pole or zero at the origin though the pole
zero are alternatively placed on the imaginary axis.
2. It is not even to odd or odd to even function.
2
(ii)
(iii)
Z(s) = z(s +1)(s +9)/s(s +4)

2
2
2
Z(s) = k s(s +4)/(s +1)(s +3)
(iv)
This equation may represent z(s) or Y(s)

Case I : ( i.e when F(s) = z(s))
Then,
S
2ki s
+ ............ + k s
s + wi
Here,
ko/s will represent a capacitive reactance of 1/ko F.
2
2
2ki(s)/(s +w ) will represent LC parallel combination.
Having capacitor of value 1/2ki F and inductor of value 2ki/wi 2.
Thus the final circuit will be:
2
-
1/k0
2ki/wi
.......
1/2ki
z(s)
This method of circuit synthesis is known as foster impedance or

st
series or 1 method for LC ckt.
, k> 0
In this case , F(s) = Y(s) , then equation (i) becomes
Y(s) =
Date: 2065/5/12
Design of LC ckt by Fosters Method:

In this case ,
k0
Z(s) =
Case II
Z(s) = s +4s +5/(4s +s )
k0
2ki s
+ ............ + k s .(i)
+ 2
S s + wi 2
+ 2ki s + ............ + k s
2
S s + wi 2
0
Here,
- KO/s represents admittance of inductor having value of 1/ko
H.
16
K s represent
admittance of capacitor having value K F.

9+4
- 2ki(s)/s +w represents admittance of series LC combination

having inductor of value 1/2ki H and capacitor value wi
5
5
2
= 2(9 +1) = 8 = 16
/2ki
Therefore, B = 5/16
The ckt can be realize as :
z(s) =
1/2ki
1/k
(3/16)s (5 / 6)s = z (s) + z (s)

+ 2
1
2
s 2 +1
s +9
The ckt will be as follows.
L 1= 3/16 H
wi /2ki
This method of circuit synthesis is known as foster admittance or

nd
parallel or 2
C1 =16/3 F
z(s)
L 2 = 5/144 H
C2 = 16/5 F
method for LC ckt.
Example 01: Design a Foster series n/w for the following n/w.
2
s(s + 4)
F (s) = 2(s
+1)(s
The first part of z(s) ( i.e z1(s) ) represents parallel LC

combination having inductor L1 of value 3/16 H and
capacitor of value 16/3 F.
+ 9)
Solution:
It is Fosters series n/w
2
nd
s(s + 4)
2
F (s) = z(s) = 2(s +1)(s + 9)

2
s(s + 4)
Now, z(s) =
= As + Bs
2
2
2
2
2(s +1)(s + 9) s + 1 s + 9
2
2
s(s + 4)
(s + 9)
Where, A =
.
2
2
2
s
2(s +1)(s + 9)
s = 1
1 + 4
=
= 3 /16
2(1 + 9)
Therefore, A = 3/16
2
The 2 part of z(s) (i.e z2(s) ) represents parallel LC

capacitor C2 of value 16/5 F.
Example 02: Design Foster parallel n/w for the function
s(s 2 + 4)
F (s) = 2(s
+1)(s 2 + 9)
Solution:
It is Fosters parallel n/w
s(s 2 + 4)
s(s + 4)
(s + 9)
And B =
.
2
2
2
s
2(s +1)(s + 9)
s = 9
F (s) =Y (s) = 2(s +1)(s + 9)

s(s 2 + 4)
As
Bs
Now, z(s) =
= 2
+ 2
2
2
2(s +1)(s + 9) s +1 s + 9
17

2
s(s + 4)
(s + 9)
.
2
2
s
2(s +1)(s + 9)
s 2 = 1
Where, A =
2s + 20s
+18
s + 4s
3
1 + 4
= 3 /16
2(1 + 9)
S +4s )2s +20s +18( 2s

4
2
2s +8s
Therefore, A = 3/16
2
12s +18
s(s + 4)
(s + 9)
.
2
2
s
2(s +1)(s + 9)
s 2 = 9
= 9+4 = 5 =5
2(9 +1) 2 8 16
And B =
12s 2 +18
Therefore, Y(s) = 2s + 3
s + 4s
12s 2 +18
= 2s +
s(s 2 + 4)
Therefore, B = 5/16
Y (s) = (3 /16)s + (5 / 6)s =Y (s) + Y (s)
2
1
s 2 +1
s2 +9
The ckt will be as follows:
Y(s) = Y1(s) + Y2(s)
Figure:
2
Now Y2(s) = 2s + 12s +18 = A +
s(s
The first part of Y(s) ( i.e Y1(s) ) represents series LC

capacitor of value 16/3 F.
nd
The 2 part of Y(s) (i.e Y2(s) ) represents series LC

capacitor C2 of value 144/5 F.
Example 03: Design Foster parallel n/w for the function
+1)(s 2 +
9) s(s 2 + 4)
F (s) = 2(s
+4
Here Y1(s) = 2s , so C1 = 2 F
Y2 (s) = 9 / 2 , So, L1 = 2/9 H
s
And Y3(s) =
(15 / 2).s
s2+4
L2 = 2/15 H
C2 = 8/15 F
Therefore, The final ckt will be
L 2 =2/15 H
L 1= 2/9H
2(s 2 +1)(s 2 + 9)
s(s
Y(s) = 2s + 9 / 2 + (15 / 2)s =Y1 (s) + Y2 (s) + Y3 (s)

2
Solution:
It is Foster Parallel ,
F (s) =Y (s) =
+ 4)
Bs = 9 / 2 + (15 / 2)s
s2 +4
s +4
s
2
+ 4)
C1 = 2 F
18
C2 = 8/15 F
Example 01: Synthesis the following function in cauer form.

Fig. Fosters parallel n/w of LC ckt.
Solution:
In cauer n/w we proceed as follows:
Assignment:
2
2
1. z(s) = 2(s +1)(s + 9)
2. Y(s) =
s(s 2 +1)
2(s 2 + 2)(s 2 + 4)
(s
2s5 +12s3 +16s

2
4
s + 4s + 3
Z(s) =
Continued Fraction method or cauer method for LC

Ckt 1. case- I
It is removed by successive removal of pole at . The ckt will be
as follows:
L2
C1
V(s)
C1
3s /2
3) 2s (2s/3
2s
2H
Z5(s)
8/3
2/3
....
C2
Cn
1/4
Z(s)
3/4
Fig. Cauer n/w for LC series ckt
Fig. For F(s) = z(s)

L1
z1(s)
2s +8s +6s
4
2
4s +10s) s + 4s +3 (s/4
Y2(s)
4
2
S + 10s /4
2
3
3S /2+3) 4S +10S (8s/3
Z3(s)
3
4S +8S
2
2S) 3S /2 +3 (3s/4
Y4(s)
+ 3)(s +1)
Date: 2065/5/17
L1
S +4s +3) 2s + 12s + 16s (2s
L2
C2
Example: 02: Y(s) = 2s5 +12s3 +16s
....
C3
s 4 + 4s 2 + 3
Cn
Y(s)
2F
8/3 F
2/3 F
Fig. For F(s) = Y(s)

Fig: Cauer n/w for LC parallel ckt.
19
Example:03: Synthesis the following ckt in cauer form.

(i) Y(s) = s(s 2 + 2)(s + 4)
2
(s +1)(s
16/3
(ii) Z(s) = s(s 2 + 2)(s 2 + 4)
(s +1)(s
+ 3)
176/40
88/3
+ 3)
Z(s)
7/64
Cauer II:
This is the case of removal of pole at origin.
C1
C2
21/44.44
Fig. Cauer II n/w for LC ckt
....
L2
L1
s 4 + 4s
+3
Example:02: Y(s) = 2s +12s +16s
Ln
7/64
21/1936
Fig. Caure II n/w for LC series ckt.

Example:01: Synthesize the following function in cauer form.
4
Y(s)
176/49
88/3
16/3
s + 4s + 3
Z(s) = 2s5 +12s3 +16s
Solution:
Since Z(s) is the case of pole at origin (i.e s = 0 ) z(s) can be
rewrite as:
3 + 4s 2 + s 4
Z(s) = 16s +12s3 + 2s5

3
16s+12s +2s ) 3+4s + s (3/16s

z1(s)
2
4
3+9s /4+ 3s /8
2
4
3
5
7s /4+5s /8)16s+12s +2s (64/7s
Y2(s)
3
16s+40s /7
3
5
2
4
44s /7+2s ) 7s /4+5s /8 (49/176s
Z3(s)
2
4
7s /4+44s /88
4
3
5
2
Y4(s)
3s /44) 44s /7 +2s ((44) /21s
3
44s /7
5
2
2s ) 3s /44(3/88s
Z5(s)
2
3s /44
Fig. Caure II n/w for parallel LC ckt.

R-C one port n/w: (R-C impedance /R-L admittance)
st
1. Foster 1 method:
In this case,
F(s) = z(s) , gives R-C impedance n/w.
k
1/k0
z(s)
20
.......
1/k1
Foster method defines F(s) as

F(s) = z(s) = ko/s + k1/(s+ 1)+ k2/(s+ 2) +
+k Here,
- ko/s represent capacitive reactance having capacitor of
value 1/ko F.
- k represent resistor of value k .
- ki/(s+ i) represents RC parallel in which the resister
has a value of ki/ i and a capacitor has value of 1/ki
F.
2) s(s + 3)
Example:02: Synthesis the following function in Foster series
form: F(s) = 6(s + 2)(s +
4) s(s + 3)
Solution:
Since it is foster series function z(s) =
6(s + 2)(s + 4)
s(s + 3)
This is the RC impedance

n/w. Now,
(i)
z(0) = , C0 is present .
(ii) z( ) = , R is also present.
Z(s) = ko /s + k + k1/(s+3) = ko /s + k1/(s+3)+6
Ko = 6(s + 2)(s + 4) .s
s(s + 3)
s=0
= (6.2.4)/3 = 16
K2 = 2
Z(s) = 16/s + 2/(s+3) + 6

The component values are as follows:
c0 = 1/16 F
16/s 1/cos
R R = 6
2/(s+3) R1 = 2/3 and C1 = F
Properties of RC impedance N/w:

1. the poles of RC impedance n/w are on the ve real axis.
2. As in LC ckt, residues of poles (kis) are real and +ve i. z(s )
must be PRF.
3. At two critical frequencies i.e when s = o , i.e = 0 when s
= i.e
=
4. z(0) = if C0 is present
= Ri , if C0 is missing
5. z( ) = k , R is present
= 0, R is missing
6. z(0) z() is always true.
7. The critical frequency nearest to the origin must be a pole.
8. The poles and zeroes must be alternatively placed.
(d) Z(s) = (s +1)(s +
Example:01 State giving reasons which of the following if not

RC impedance.
(a) Z(s) =
(s +1)(s + 8)
(s + 2)(s + 4)
(c) Z(s) =
1/16
(s +1)(s + 4)(s + 9)
s(s + 2)(s + 5)
(b) Z(s) =
The ckt will be:
(s + 2)(s + 4)
(s +1)
2/3
.......
z(s)
21
1/2

F(s) = 6(s + 2)(s + 4)
s(s + 3)
Solution:
Since it is Foster parallel,
Date: 2065/5/19
F(s)
= 6(s + 2)(s +
4) s(s + 3)
F(s) = Y(s) =
6(s + 2)(s + 4)
s(s + 3)
= 6 + 16/s +
F(s) = z(s) = 6(s + 2)(s +
2/(s+3)
4) s(s + 3)
The ckt will be:
= 6+ 16/s + 2/(s+3)
Forster parallel method for R-C one port n/w:
In this case,
F(s) = Y(s)
Y(s) = ko/s + k1/(s+ 1)+ k2/(s+ 2) + +k
R1
2/3
1/16
1/6
1/2
......
Fig. R-L admittance ckt from foster parallel
R2
Lo
L1
L2
Fig. (i) R-L admittance n/w for foster 2
nd
method in this case
- ko/s represents inductor of value 1/ko

- k represents inductor of value 1/ko
- ki/(s+ i) represents RL series ckt having inductor of
value 1/ki H and resister of value i/k .
Continued Fraction method or cauer method for R-C

impedance or R-L Admittance:
1. If F(s) = z(s) , then it yields cauer 1 n/w.
2. If F(s) = Y(s) , then it yields cauer 2 n/w.
For cauer 1 n/w:
In this case F(s) = z(s)
Example:01: Synthesize the following function cauer 1 form.
F(s) = 6(s + 2)(s + 4)

s(s + 3)
Properties:
Same as RC- impedance.
Solution:
Example: 01: Synthesis the following function in foster parallel.
2
F(s) = z(s) = 6(s + 2)(s + 4) = 6s + 36s + 48
2
s(s + 3)
s + 3s
Now,
2
S +3s)6S +36s+48(6
22
2
S +18s
2
18s+48) s + 3s (s/18
Z1(s)
Y2(s)
1. Foster Series method: It yields R-L impedance ckt for

which
F(s) = (s) = ko + kis/(s+ 1) + k2s/(s+ 2) + ..+ ks
k1
k2
k1/ 1
k2/2
ko
....
The ckt will be:

6
54
z(s)
1/18
1/144
Fig. Caure 1 n/w

Cauer 2 n/w:
Example: 02: Realise the given function in cauer 2 n/w F(s)
= 6(s + 2)(s + 4)
s(s + 3)
Solution:
In this case,
F(s) = Y(s) =
6(s + 2)(s +
4)
s(s + 3)
In this case circuit will be :

1/18
1/6
1/144
1/54
Fig. Caure 2 method

R-L one-Port n/w: (R-L impedance or R-C admittance n/w)
In this case,
- k0 represent resistor of value ko .
- k s represent inductor of value k H.
- kis/(s+ i) represent RL parallel ckt with resistor of
value ki and inductor of value ki/ i .
st
This method of synthesis is know as foster series (1 ) method for
R-L one port n/w.
Properties of R-L impedance n/w:
1. Poles are on the ve real axis.
2. The residue of pole must be real and +ve i.e F(s) must be
PRF.
3. z(0) = k0 if R0 is present.
= 0 if R0 is missing.
4. z( ) = if L is present.
= Ri if L is missing.
5. z( ) z(0)
6. Zero is nearest to the origin.
7. The pole and zero must be alternatively placed.
2. Foster parallel method:
In this case,
23
F(s) = Y(s) = ko +k1s/(s+ i) + k2s/(s+ 2) + .+

k The ckt will be as follows:
K1 = 4(s +1)(s + 3) .(s + 2)

s(s + 2)(s + 6)
s = 2
4(2 +1)(2 + 3)
2(2 + 6)
1/k1
Y(s)
1/k2
1/k 0
k1/1
K2 = 4(s +1)(s + 3) .(s + 6)

s(s + 2)(s + 6)
k2/2
s = 6
4(6 +1)(6 + 3)
6(6 + 2)
This method of synthesis is known as Foster parallel method

which yields R-C admittance n/w.
K2 = 5/2
z(s)/s = 1 + (1/ 2).s + (5 / 2).s
s+2
s+6
1/2
Properties:
Some as that of R-L impedance except F(s) = Y(s)
5/2
1
1/4
Example:01: Given F(s) =
4(s +1)(s + 3)
. Realise the above
(s + 2)(s + 6)
5/12
z(s)
function in (a) Foster series (b) Foster parallel.

Solution:
Since zero is nearest to the origin , (i.e s = -1f) the function
yields R-L one port n/w.
Fig. Foster series n/w

(b) Foster parallel:
In this case,
4(s +1)(s + 3)
(a) Foster series: In this case F(s) = z(s) =
Which yields R-C admittance n/w.
(s + 2)(s + 6)
Thus, it yields R-L impedance n/w. To check the availability of

components, we use.
Z(0) = (413)/(26 ) = 1 = ko . i.e Ro is present .
Z( ) = 4 = Ri , L is missing.
4(s +1)(s + 3)
z (s) /s = (s + 2)(s + 6)
k1
k2
1
= s + s + 2 +s + 6
F(s) = Y(s) =
4(s +1)(s + 3)
(s + 2)(s + 6)
(5 /
2).s
(1/ 2).s
Y(s) = 1 + s + 2 + s + 6
Y(s)
24
2/ 5
12 / 5
Fig. Foster Parallel ckt.

Cauer Method for R-L one port n/w:
(1) If F(s) = z(s) , it is called cauer 1 method which yields RL impedance ckt.
(2) If F(s) = Y(s) , it is called caure 2 method which yields RC admittance ckt.
Example: 01: Synthesize the following function in
16/7
2/3
10/49
5/7
4s +16s +12
s 2 + 8s +12
(a) caure 1 n/w. (b) cauer 2 n/w.

Solution:
(a) cauer 1 n/w:
In this case
Fig. cauer 1 n/w

(b) Cauer 2 n/w:
In this case,
F(s) = Y(s) =
F(s) = z(s) = 4(s +1)(s + 3) = 4s 2 +16s +12

(s + 2)(s + 6)
4s 2 +16s +12
s + 8s +12
s 2 + 8s +12
12 +16s + 4s 2
12 + 8s + s 2
1/2ki
S +8s+12 ) 4s + 16s+12 ( 4
2
4s + 32s+4s
-ve
1/k
wi /2ki
This way the ckt cannot be realize. Therefore z(s) is rewritten in

form as:
12 +16s + 4s 2
Z(s) = 12 + 8s + s
Fig. Cauer 2 n/w

Assignment: 03
12+8s +s ) 12+16s+4s ( 1
Z1(s)
(s + 2)(s + 4)
2
12+ 8s+s
8s +3s ) 12+8s+s
( 3/2s
12+9s/2
2
2
7s/2 +s ) 8s+3s ( 16/7
2
Y2(s)
1. F(s) = (s +1)(s + 3) Find the n/w of the form (a) Foster series
(b) Foster parallel.
Z3(s)
2. Realize the n/w function F(s) =

8s+16s /7
nd
2
2
method. (b) 2 foster method.
5s /7 ) 7s/2+s ( 49/10s
Y4(s)
7s/2
2
2
25
s ) 5s /7 ( 5/7
Z5(s)
2
5s /7
(s +1)(s + 3)
(s + 2)(s +
(a) 1st Foster
4)
3. Realise the n/w function Y(s) =

4. z(s) =
(s + 2)(s + 4)
as a cauer n/w.
(s +1)(s + 3)
(s +1)(s + 3)
Realise the function in foster and cauer
(s + 2)(s + 2)
n/w.
5. Realise the n/w Y(s) =
(s + 2)(s + 4)
(s +1)(s + 6)
Two port n/w:

1. Z-Parameter
2. Y Parameter
3. ABCD Parameter
4. Transformation of one parameter to other
5. T and n/w
6. Interconnection of two port n/w
a. Cascade b. series c. parallel.
Date: 2065/5/24
Chapter: 4
Low pass Filter Approximations:
T(jw)
T(jw)
1
1
PB
SB
w o=1
Fig. (a) Ideal case
Wp Ws
(b) Non ideal case
The desirable feature of low pass approximation are

1. Minimum pass band attenuation, p
2. Maximum stop band attenuation, s
3. Low transition band ratio, ws/wp

4. Simple network.
The approximation Method are:
1. Butterworth
2. Chebyshev
3. Inverse chebyshev
4. Ellipse or Cauer
5. Bessel Thomson
1. Butterworth low pass approximation: Generally signal
become contaminated with
high frequency signal. It is
evident that low pass filter
are required to remove such
unwanted signals from the useful one. The desirable LPF
response is shown in fig . 1(a)
Below the normalize frequency i.e w0 = 1,
the amplitude T ( jw) is constant and above this frequency it is
zero. Pass band and stop band are clearly separated at wo = 1.
But since the ideal response can not be achieve . We make the
approximation based on the ideal response.
We make the magnitude T(jw) nearly constant in PB. In
the SB, we require sharp roll off (n-pole roll off). Where n
will be large no if abrupt transition from PB to SB is desired.
Mathematically, we can
write, T(jw) = Re[ T(jw) ] + j I m [
T(jw)] Re[T(jw)] = Real part of T(jw)
Im [T(jw)] = Imaginary part of T(jw).
Where it is to be noted that Re[T(jw)] indicates an even
functions.
Where Im[T(jw)] indicates it is an odd
function. Agains,
T*(jw) = T(-jw) = Re[ T(jw)]+jIm [T(jw)] .(ii)The
functions so obtained is called conjugate of T(jw)
Thus (i) and (ii) gives
26
T(jw) T*(jw) = T ( jw) = Re[T(jw)] +

T(jw) T*(jw) = T(s) T*(s) = T (s) 2

2
2n
jIm[T(jw)] (iii)
B2n = (1/w0) .
B0 and A0 = B0
Now , putting these assumption in the equation (i) we get,
A
The function T (s) 2 (or T ( jw)

function.
Example 01: Find the magnitude
3+
T ( jw)
) is called magnitude squared
= B0 + B2n w
Bo
square function for
T(s) = (s+2) / (s
+ 2s+3)
3
2
T(s) = -s+2 / -s + 2s 2s +3
2
T (s) = T(s) . T(-s)
3
2
3
2
= (2+s)/(s +2s +2s+3) (2-s)/(-s +2s 2s+3)
2n
B0 +
2n
B0
2s 2
2n
1+
w2n
w
0
= ..
T ( jw)
.(ii)
2n
1w
+
The magnitude square function is an even function which can

be represented by using a numerator and denominator
polynomial that are both even, i.e
In generalize condition,
wo = 1
T ( jw) 2 =
A(w )
1
1+(w
= )2n
.(iii)
1
(iv)
T ( jw) 2 =
2n
1+ ( w )
T ( jw)
B(w )
2n
T ( jw)
T ( jw)
2
4
A0 + A2 w + A4 w + ........... + A2n w
=
2
4
2n
B0 + B2 w + B4 w + ........... + B2n w
From equation (iv) the following property can be written.

1. At w = 0 , i.e T(j0) = 1 for all values of n.
2. At w = 1 (=w0), i.e T(j1) = 0.707 for all values of n.
3. At w = , i.e T(j )= 0 for all value of n.
4. For large values of w; Tn(jw) exhibits larger roll off.
5. Butterworth
response , also known as, maximally flat
response, is all pole functions.
6. Butterworth (BU) response can be expanded in Taylors
series from as:
A0
4
2n
= B0 + B2 w + B4 w + ........... + B2n w
2
Here A2 = A4 = A2n = 0 (assumption).

The choice has been made as per our inspection on the roll off
that was directly dependent on the number of poles. This means
larger the difference between degree of A and B , we get the
larger roll-off . This will give
us a direct n-pole roll off for
Tn(jw) or Tn(s) which will be know as All pole function.
Special case:
We assume ,
B2 = B4
=0
T ( jw) =
27
1
2n
1+( w )
2n -1/2
= (1+w )
2n
2
2n 2
= 1+ . w + (1/2) . (w ) /2! - ..
2n
1 . w
Date: 2065/5/29
In Taylor series,
T ( jw)
=1
Again we know ,
2
1
T ( jw) =
1 + (w )
1 w 2n
2
..(v)
Butterworth transfer function (continued )

(ii)
For n = 2
Equation (vi) becomes ;
T (s)
1
2 4
1 + (1) s
jw
2n
Putting jw = s
2n
s
1+
T (s)
= 1 + (1)n s 2n
=
1+
2n
1
2n
1+ s
2n
1
n 2n
1 + (1) s
225
(vi)
1
2
1 s
T (s) = 1/(1-s)(1+s)
= 1/(1+s). 1/(1-s)
= T(s) . T(s) T(s) = 1/(s+1)
S = 1 45 , 135 , 225 , 315

The poles that lie on the left half of s-plane are:
NOTE:
(i)
(ii)
1+s4
s =1
s = 1
If s = -1, then, s=1

(180+k360)/n, k = 0, 1..(n1) in s domain.
n
315
To get the poles ,

4
1+s = 0
4
S = -1
S = 1 (180 + k360 )/4 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3 [since n = 4]
Evaluation of T(s) for BU Response:

(i)
For n = 1 equation (vi) becomes
2
45
(1)
Which gives the butterworth response in s-domain
T (s)
135
T (s)
If s =-1, then, S = 1
k360/n, k =0,1, 2.(n-1)
S = 1 135 , 225
Or S = -0.0707 j0.707 = s1, s2
1
T(s) = (s s )(s s )
28

jw
1
= (s + 0.707 j0.707)(s + 0.707 + j0.707)
1
120
60
= s 2 + 2s +1
(iii)
180
For n = 3
T (s) =
1
3
1 + (1) s
240
320
1
= 1s6
Order and cutoff frequency for Butterworth:

It is to noted that, at w =wp , = p = max
And at w = ws , = s = min
We know that
To get the pole

6
1-s = 0
6
S =1
S = 1 k360/n , k = 0,1,2 (2n-1)
S = 1 0, 60, 120, 180, 240, 300
The poles that lie on left half of s-plane are S
= 1 120, 180, 240
Or, = 1 120, 1 180, 1
S1 = -0.5 + j0.866
S2 = -1+j0
T (s)
w 2n
w
1+
Also the attenuation formula is given by ;

= -20log T (s)
240
1
= -20log10
S3 = -0.5 - 0.866j
2n
w
1+
1
T (s) = (s s )(s s )(s s )
2
= (s +1)(s 0.5 0.866 j)(s + 0.5 0.866 j)

1
= -20log10 1 + w
w
2n
= 10log10
2n
.(i)
w
1+
= (s +1)(s 2 + s +1)
/10 = log10
29
w
w
1+
2n
10
/10
Now let us find expression for transition band ratio , i.e
2n
=1+
TBR = ws/wp , where , TBR = Transition band ratio. Ws/wp

min/10
max/10
1/2n
= [(10
1)/(10
-1)]
.(v)
w
o
/10
2n
= 10
-1
o
w
/10
= (10
1/2n
-1)
w=
(10
1) 2n
/ 10
Now at w = wp , = max
w
p
wo =
.(ii)
1
(10
1) 2n
max/10
and at w = ws , = min
ws
wo =
..(iii)
(10
min/10
Example 01: Consider a filter using a butterworth response to

realize the following specifications of LPF.
max = 0.5 dB
min = 20 dB
wp = 1000 rad/sec
ws = 2000 rad/sec
Determine the order and cut off frequency for the filter.
Solution:
n = 4.83 5
wo = 1234.12 rad/sec
Note: Always choose higher value of n ( i.e the order of filter
)because it provides larger roll off which decreases attenuation.
1) 2n
equating (i) and (ii) can be equated as:

wp
1) 2n
max/10
(10
min/10
1
max/10
(10
min/10
wp = (10
w
(10
=
o
2. Chebyshev Approximation Method For LPF :
1) 2n
(10
T(jw)
1) 2n
max/10
wp
2n
1) 2n
Date: 2065/6/2
(10
ws
T(jw)
1)
min/10
C-R
1)
BU-R
Taking log on both sides,

2n
wp
=log (10
(10
(10
max/10
n = log
max/10
20 log
(10
min/ 10
1)
1)
Fig (i) (a) Chebyshev response
1)
wp
/ 2 log
min/ 10
1)
Wo
w
o
Wo
(b) butterworth response
The generalize low pass filter can be represented by

30
Tn ( jw)
1 +[F (w)]
When adjustable frequency multiple of fixed frequency is

applied , stationary figures are obtained which are know as
Lissagious figures.
.(i)
For Butterworth
n
Fn(w) = (w/wo)
With w0 = 1
Fn (w) = w
Similarly to butterworth we have to determine the function Fn(w)
for chebyshev response for which the concept of Lissagious
figure is required.
Lissagious figure:
Horizontal plate
Line of axis
sin
Analysis:
Let the deflection due to voltage on horizontal plates
be x = coskT .(ii)
Where , k = 2 /T
The deflection due to voltage on vertical plates will be then,
y = cosnkT .(iii) Where n is integer and proves the
multiple frequencies.
From (ii),
-1
KT = cos x
-1
y = cosn cos x ..(iv)
-1
cn(x) = cosn cos x which is the equation for Lissagious figures.
Vertical plate
Fig (ii) (a) CRO Lissagious figure.

y
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
Example: If n = 4
-1
Assume, = cos x
x = cos
Then,
y = cos4
x
0
1
22.5
0.924
45
0.707
67.5
0.383
90
0
Fig(ii) (b) Lissagious figure for n = 1,2,3 and 4

31
4
0
90
180
270
360
y
1
0
-1
0
1

y
cosjz = coshz
w = coshz
-1
Z = cosh w
-1
w = cosj cosh w
-1
-1
cos (w) = jcosh w
0.383
x=1
-1
cn (w) = cosn cos w

-1
= cosnj cosh w
= cosj(ncosh w)
-1
0.707
-1
# Analyse the same for n = 3 and 5.
-1
= coshn cosh w
Chebyshev magnitude Response:
We know that ,
Tn ( jw)
-1
w> 1
cn(w) = cosh cosh w ,
-1
Cn(w) = cosn cos w,
1 +[F (w)]2
w=1
This function (i.e cn(w)) is valid within the range w = 1.

However , the function must also be valid for longer value of w
for which we should refine our assumption for cn(w).
1+
cn (w)
Tn ( jw) =
1+
2
cn (w)
-1
w1
Where, cn(w) = cosn cos w

-1
w1
= coshn cosh w
ez +e
2
= coshz
1
1+
1
2
and
1. At w = 0,
Cn(0) = cosn /2 ; 0,1,2.
Tn ( jw)
= 1 for n = odd
Cos (w) =
jz w = cosjz
we know that ,
j( jz)
j ( jz)
cosjz = e + e
cn 2 (w)
w > 1,
Let,
-1
1+
Tn ( jw)
Properties of magnitude response for Chebyshev:

We know that,
Where Fn (w) =
cn(w) ; 1
-1
Where cn(w) = cosn cos w
Therefore the magnitude square response will be
1
Tn ( jw) 2 =
.(vi)
32
for n = even
equation (vii) reduces to ,

= max = 10 log ( 1+ 2 .1)(x)
max / 10 = log ( 1+ 2 .1)
g
1+
= 10 max/10
(b) C-R for n = even
Date: 2065/6/7
Order of C-R filter:

We know , the attenuation formula is given
by = -20log Tn ( jw) dB
Here
we know that
w = wnp , then,
Tn ( jw) =
cn (wnp )
=
1
(w)
-1
-1
[since wnp >1]
-1
Cosh (ncosh whp) =
(w)
cn
wnp )
1
2
-1
Cosh (ncosh whp) =
= - 20log
(w) 1
cn
cn 2 (w)
2
g
cn
cosh(n cosh
1

But,
.(xi)
w=1
Fig (iii) (a) C-R for n = odd
w=1
1)
max/10
(10
Tn ( jw)
for all values of n.

=
1
2. w = 1
cn (1) = 1
-1
-1
Cosh whp = 1/n. cosh (
(cos n cos
w)2
w 1
= 10 log 1 2 (cosh n cosh 1 w)2 ............(ix)

Now ,
max occurs when , cn(w) = 1
-1
wnp = cosh(1/n. cosh (

)) (xii)
max/10
-1
Wnp = cosh [1/n. cosh ({10
1/2
1} )] Now = min when w = ws
min = 10 log10(1 2 cn 2 (ws )
min/10
2
cn 2 (ws ) = 10
1
min/10
2
-1
2
(cosh ncos ws) = 10
-1
b
= 10log 1
for w > 1,
cn (w)
2
cn (w) (vii)
= 10 log 1
= -10log 1
-1
min/10
max/10
Or, ( cosh ncosh ws) = (10

-1)/ (10
-1)
-1
-1
min/10
max/10
1/2
n cosh ws = cosh [(10
-1)/ (10
-1)]
33

-1
}/cosh ws ..(xiii)
Example: Given wp = 1 , ws = 2.33 , max = 0.5dB , min = 22 dB.

Calculate n for Butterworth and chebyshev filters which filter
would you select.
Solution: For Butterworth filter , the order is given by
max/10
min/10
-1)]/ 2 log (wp/ws)
-1)/(10
-1)]/cosh (2.33)
The minimum value of

Coshnv = 1, coshnv not equal to 0
= 2.89 3
n for chebyshev = 3 .
Since the order of chebyshev filter (i.e n =3) is less then the
order of butterworth filter (i.e n = 5) and both filter provides the
same roll- off for the specification, n would choose chebyshev
filter.
Chebyshev poles location and network function:
We know
1
..(i)
T ( jw) 2 =
cn 2 (w)
Substituting s = jw equation (i) becomes,

2
1
..(ii)
T (s) =
2
cn (s / j)
To determine the poles,
j

cn (s / j)
cn 2 (s / j) 0
2
g
(iii)
-sinnuk = sinhnvk =
But, sin nuk = +- 1
+-1 . sinhnvk =
Or sinhnvk =
1
1
-1
Nvk= sinh (
-1
Vk = 1/n. sinh ( 1 )

cosnu = 0
Or cosnuk = cos(2k+1). /2, k = 0,1,2.
Uk = (2k+1) /2n .(v)
Now ,

n = cosh [(10
-1)/(10
-1)]/2log (1/2.33)
= log[(10
= 4.234 5
n for BU = 5
For Chebyshev the order is given by ,
min/10
max/10
-1
-1
n = log10[(10
-1)/(10
0. 5/10
22/10
Again,
-1
Cn (s/j) = cosn cos (s/j)
Let
-1
Cos (s/j) = x = u + jv
Then, cn(s/j) = cosnx = cosn (u+jv)
= cosnu. Cosnjv sinnu. Sin njv
= cosnu coshnv jsin nu . sinh nv
=0 j
[ from equ. (iii)]
1
Thus, comparing , we
[ cosjnv = coshnv
get, Cosnu . cosh nv = 0 [ sinjnv = jsinhv]
sinnu. Sinhnv = 0
-1)]
-1)/ (10
1/2
n = {cosh [(10
max/10
min/10
-1
Again, we know that

-1
Cos (s/j) = x = u +jv
s/j = cosx = cos(u+jv)
34 in general,
Date: 2065/6/9
sk = jcos(uk +jv)
th
= j[cosuk .cosjv sinuk. sinjv]

= j[cosuk . coshv jsinuk. sinhv ]
Sk = sinuk. sinhv + jcosuk. coshv (vi) , k = 0,1,2.(2n-1)
Again,
Sk = sin[(2k +1) /2n] sinhv + jcos[(2k+1) /2n]
coshv Or , sk = k + jwk ..(viii)
Where,
k = sin[(2k+1) /2n] sinhv .(ix)
Form euation (ix) ,
Example:01 Obtained the 4 order network function of a low

pass chebyshev filter with max = 0.75 dB
Solution: n = 4 max = 0.75 dB
max/10
1/2
-1
Now = ( 10
-1) whp = cosh (1/n. cosh
0.75/10
1/2
(1/)) = (10
-1) = 0.434
-1
And whp = cosh ( 1/n. cosh (1/)) =
Pole location is given by
Sk = sinuk sinhv + jcosuk coshv
Where, uk = (2k+1) ./2n ; k = 0, 1, 2n-1
-1
V = 1/n. sinh (1/)
uo = /8 u1 = 3/8 , u2 = 5/8, u3 = 7/8 , u4 = 9/8
u5 = 11/8 u6 = 13/8 , u7 = 15//8

v = 0.393
(adjust calculator in radian)
s0 = 0.154 + 0.996j
Now adding equation (xi) and (xii) we get,
s1 = 0.373+ 0.413j
Which is equation of ellipse . Therefore we can say that the
poles of chebyshev filter lie on the ellipse.
s2 = 0.373 0.413j
s3 = 0.154-0.996j
s4 = -0.154 0.996j
s5 = -0.373 0.413j
s6 = -0.373 + 0.413j
s7 = -0.154 + 0.996j
The transfer function (or n/w function) for forth order chebyshev
35 filter is given by ,

T (jw)
T(s) = 1/(s+s4)(s+s5)(s+s6)(s+s7)
T (jw)
jw
S7
S0
S1
S6
S2
S4
S5
inverse-Chebyshev-response
Chebyshev-respone
S3
1- T (jw)
Home Assignment:
rd
Example:02: Determine the network function for 3 order
chebyshev LPF with max = 0.75 dB ( =p ; pass band
attenuation)
Date: 2065/6/14
Fig: intermediate stage to obtain inverse chebyshev response.
Inverse chebyshev low pass approximation:

2
Tic(jw)
T (jw)
BU-Response
We know the response of chebyshev is given by

2
1
=
T ( jw)
1
2

Ideal LPF
Fig: The reciprocal value of w of intermediate stage give the

value of w in I-C response.
T (jw)
36
cn (w)
= 10log
1+
cn
1+
= 1-
1- Tc ( jw)
(w)
cn (w)
2
cn 2
1+
= (w)
Now replace w by 1/w
c
n
(1/ w)
1+
cn
(i)
TIC ( jw)
(1/ w)
Where,
TIC ( jw) 2 is the magnitude square response for I-C.
We know ,
cn(1/w) = cosncos
1
(1/w) at for w = 1
cn(1) = 1 for all value of n
Thus equation (i) becomes
2
2
.1
= 1+
TIC ( j.1)
2
2
TIC ( j.1) =
.1 . (ii)
2
1+
We know that ,
min = -20log TIC ( j.1) dB (iii)
Using equation (ii) on equation (iii) , we

get, = min = -20log TIC ( j.1) dB
2
=1/2
20log
2
1+
Then above equation becomes
min = 10
= max = 10 log 1 +
log [ 1+
(10
1) =
} Or ,
max/10
10
min/10
cn (1/ wp ) =
-1
(10
cn (1/ wp ) =
1)
max/10
1)
1)
1)
.(v)
max/10 1)
-1
cn (1/ wp ) = coshn cosh (1/wp) . (vi)
cn (1/ wp ) =
(10
(10
min/10
10)
(10
max/10
min/10
(10
min/ 10
. (iv)
2
Again in general, the attenuation formula can
be written as:
= (10
1
cn (1/ wp )
1
c (1/ w
2
= -10log
1+
cn 2 (1/ w)
2
(1/ w)
[ wp < 1, 1/wp > 1]

Thus equating equation (v) and (vii)
1
= 10 log 1 +
c n 2 (1/ w)
Now at w = wp = max
-1
Coshn cosh (1/wp) =
(10
37
min/10
(10
1)
max/10
1)

1
(10
cosh
n=
max/10
(10
1)
min/10
wp = 0.9
n=?
1)
wnp = ?
(vii)
cosh 1 (1/ wp )
Which gives the required order for the inverse chebyshev filter.
Now , for half power frequency i.e at w = wp
TIC ( j.1) = 1/2
Example:02 Differentiate between Butterworth , chevyshev and

inverse chebysehev filters.
=
Which means,
2
2
cn (1/ wP ) = 1
TIC ( j.1)
Pole zero location for inverse chebyshev:

We know that ,
TIC ( jw)
cn (1/ w) = 1
2
cn (1/ w)
cn (1/ wnp ) =
Assignment:
cn (1/ w)
T(s). T(-s) = z(s).z(-s)/[p(s).p(-s)]

Where, z(s) z(-s) |s = jw = 2 cn 2 (1/ w)
P(s) P(-s)|s = jw = 1 + 2 cn 2 (1/ w)
np
-1
-1
Coshn.cosh (1/w ) =cosh 1
-1
-1
n coshn.cosh ( (1/ wnp ) = cosh ( 1 )

2
1/wnp = cosh[1/n. cosh
)]
-1
1
(
(1/ wk )
Cosn cos (1/wk) = cos(k/2) for k = 1,3,5 ..(i.e odd)

-1
ncos (1/wk) = k/2
1/wk = cos(k/2n) which gives the zero for inverse chebyshev.
Wk = sec(k/2n)
Which gives the desire half power frequency.

Example: 01
Given, max = 0.5 dB
min = 22 dB
For poles:
1+ 2 cn 2 (1/ wk ) 0
The poles location are similar to chebyshev.
Simply replacing wk by 1/wk
< 1 .(viii)
cosh
cosh
cn
0
-1
wnp
0
cn (1/ wk )
cn (1/ wk )
-1
-1
cosh ( (1/ wnp ) = 1/n. cosh ( 1 )
For zero location:
38
i.e if chebyshev poles = pi

Then , inverse chbyshev poles = 1/pi
The effect of frequency transformation are:

1. Magnitude response 2. Network function
3. Location of poles and zeroes. 4. Network elements.
Types of transformation:
1. LP to LP transformation
Transformation
Fig. Zero location
Fig. Pole location
W0
Example:01
Given,
min = 18 dB
max = 0.25 dB
ws = 1.4 rad/sec
wp = 1 rad/sec
Find out the pole and zero for inverse chbyshev response.
Chapter 5
Frequency transformation:
Frequency transformation is important because the prototype
LPF with any type of approximation can be converted into high
pass band pass , band stops filters within the same characteristics
easily.
Old LPF
New LPF
Replace s by wo/o .s
i.e
w0 = 1 ( in normalized case)
s s/0
TLP(new) (s) = TLP(old) (s/0)
For eamaple,
If
TLP(s) =
1/S+1 Then
TLP(old)(s) = 1/s+1
TLP(new)(s) = TLP(old)(s/o) = 1/(s/o)+1 = 0/(s+0)
T(jw)
1. For resistor:
- No change.
2. For inductor:
XL = LS
1
0.707
Wc
39
s
Putting s 0
THP(s) = TLP(s) s = s0 =TLP ( S0

) Example if TLP(s) = 1/(s+1)
1
HP
Then, T (s) =
=
s
old
s
XL = Lold
=
s = Lnew .S
0 0
0
s
Lnew = Lold/0
(1) For
3. For capacitor:
Putting s
1
No
(2) For inductor:
old
resistor:
change
Xc = 1/cs
Xc =
+1 0 + s
old
1
Cnew .s
XL = LS
Putting s 0
.s
Cnew = Cold/s
1
1
XL = L. s =
2 LP to HP Transformation:
.s
L0
1
Comparing
with 1/CS
1
.s
L0
Transformation
W0
C = L0
LPF with W0
HPF with
In this case we replace s 0

w 0 .s
Or , s
0
s
[Since w0 = 1]
(3) For capacitor:

Xc = 1/cs
Putting s 0
s
XL =
1
0
s
.c
40
s
c0
1
=
.S = LS
C0

1
Com paring
.S
with LS
(2) For inductor:

XL = LS
The new value of inductive reactance is given by:
0
1
L=
XL = L.
XL
s2 +
Bs
L0
L
= B .s + Bs
2
0
Date: 2056/6/15
L0 2 .s
The new component are inductor and capacitor in series.
(3) LP to BP Transformation:
L
TLP (jw)
Ws
= s 2 + 0 2 = cs 2 + c0 2 = c
c.
Bs
c0
B s + Bs
Bs
1
2
=c
Bs+
+
u L
The new components (i.e inductor and capacitor) are in parallel

as shown in fig. below:
Here, u L =
B And w0 = 1
s . s
1
B
c0 2 .s
In this case,
s w0 . s
Lo
(3) For capacitor:

The new capacitive reactance form LP to BP is given by :
Transmission
TBP(j )
1
B
= B .s +
+ 2
Bs
Co
Where 0 = L. u
(1) For resistor

- no change
41
LP to BS Transformation:
T
TBS(j )
(jw)
LB
LP
Transmission
s + 0
But w0 = 1,
LB
Xc = 1/cs
.w0
1
Bs
Xc =
Bs
In this case s is replaced by
(3) For capacitor:
Ws
c.
s + 0
Bs
s +0
CB
o 2
(1) For resistor :

Resistor value remain same.
CB
1
, then change the above function
s +1
from LP to BP. Given , L = 10 and u = 20.
Example:01: If T(s) =
(2) For inductor:

XL = LS
Bs
s + 0
s
0
1
1
.s +
=
=
+
=
CBS
CBs CBs CB
CB .s
2
0
Solution:
LBS
2
1
0 = 1
s + LB
LBS + LBs
LB
Then, TLP(s) =
XL = L. s 2 + 0 2 = . s 2 + 0 2 = s 2
2
0
.s
The new component (i.e inductor and capacitor ) are in parallel

as in figure below:
1
s +1
, L = 10 , u = 20
We know ,
2
0 = L. u = 10. 20 = 200
For Lp to BP we replace
ss
+ 0
B
Thus,
42
s + 2000 s + 200
=
(20 10)s
10s
T
LP
s=s
+ 200 =TBP (s) =
s 2 + 200
+1
10s
10s
Where, o = 400 rad/sec , B = 150
10s
= s 2 +10s + 200
Now for section A:

L = 1.2817
10(s)
TBP(s) = s 2 +10s + 200
Which changes to series LC component as shown below:

th
Example:02: Obtain the transfer function of the 4 order Butter

4
worth HPF with 0 = 2 10 rad/sec.
1
= 0 4
2.61313
C= 1. 9093
+ 3.41921
02
+ 2.61313
+1
th
Which changes for LP to BP As:
Example:03:The filter shown in the figure below is a 4 order

chebyshev low pass filter with p = 1 dB and wp = 1. Obtain a
bandpass filter from this low pass with o = 400 rad/sec and B =
150.
Co
V1
+
-
C
B
V2
Solution:
For LP to BP conversion , we replace
New inductor value = B/C o = 150/(1.9093400 )= 491.01

F New capacitor value = C/B = 1.9093/150 = 12.72 F
For section C:
L = 1.4126
s + 0
s
Bs
For section B:
Lo
150/(1.2817400 ) = 731.45 F.
The new inductor value is = L/B = 1.2817/150 = 8.54 mH

2
and the new value of capacitor is
= B/L 0
TLP(s) = s 4 + 2.61313s3 + 3.41921s 2 + 2.61313s +1

We know that ,
s 0
s
43

B
Lo
L
B
I2
I1
R1
Vs
Loss less
Ladder
zi n
-
R2
V2
V1
For section D:
Fig.1 Doubly Terminated LC ladder ckt.
Co
For section E:
R=1
8. 54 mH
R=1
731. 45uF
V
+
-
9. 41 mH
491uH
893. 71mH
1
6. 99 mF
Date: 2065/6/16
Doubly Terminated LC-Ladder ckt:
P1max = |v 1(jw)| /R1 = |vs(jw)| /4R1

Also it is to remember that ,
663. 66uF
12.72 uF
From figure(i)
I1= Vs/(R1 +Vin) (i)
Where,
Zin = Rin + jxin .(ii)
Since the ckt is loss less Input
power = output power
2
2
P1 = zin |I1(jw)| = |V2(jw)| /R2 (iii)
From equation (i) and (iii)
2
2
zin|Vs(jw)| /(R1+zin) = |V2(jw)| /R2
2
2
2
or , |V2(jw)| /|vs(jw)| = zin R2/(R1+zin)
..(iv) Now for matched source.
R1 = zin
Which means
V1 = vs/2
P2 = |v2(jw)| /R2
2
2
2
|(jw)| = p2/p1max = [|v2(jw)| /R2]/ |vs(jw)| /4R1 = 4R1/R2.
2
|v2(jw)/vs(jw)| ..(vi)
Form equation (iv) and (vi)
2
|H(jw)| = 4R1/R2. {zin R2/(R1+zin)}
2
2
= 4R1zin/ (R1+zin) = 1- (R1-zin) /(R1
2
2
2
2
+zin) (R1-zin) /(R1 +zin) = |(jw)|
= reflection coefficient
44
(s). (s) =
(R z )2
1
1 s
s +1
zin1 = R1 . 1 + (s) = 1. 1 s
+ s +1
1
Zin1 = . 2s + 1 .............(a)
in
(R1 + zin )
1 (s)
(s) = (R1 zin ) .....................(vii)

(R1 + z in )
From equation (vii) , we get

1 (s)
zin = R1 . 1 + (s)
1 + (s)
st
1 zin
= . s +1 s
s +1 + s
Zin2 = 2s+1 .(b)

Zin2 = 2s+ 1 = Ls + R
i.e L = 2, and R = 1
..(viii)
nd
The ckt will be
zin = R1 . 1 (s) -----------2 zin
R1
1
Generally we take R1 = 1. Both impedances in equation (viii) are

reciprocal impedance.
+
-
vs
R2
Synthesis of Doubley Terminated LC ladder with equal

terminal (All pass filter)
From equation (a) , zin1 = 1/(2s+1) i.e c = 2, and R = 1
For butterworth response:

T ( jw
= H ( jw) 2 =
1 +w
(s)
=1 H (s)
(s). (s) =
2n
N (s)N (s)
[since w0 = 1]
vs
+
-
1v2
2
D(s)D(s)
=1 H ( jw)
w2n =
w2n
D(s).D(s)
1 + w2n
1 = w2n
=1
2n
2n
1+w
1+ w
n
n
= s .(s)
(ix)
D(s).D(s)
Now,
For n = 1
D(s) = s+1
[since T(s) = H(s) = 1/S+1]
Form equation (ix)
n
(s) = s /D(s)
1
= s /s+1 = s/s+1
For n = 2
2
D(s) = s +2s + 1
(s) = s n =
D(s)
sn
s2
+ 2s +1
zin1 = 1 (s)
= 1 s 2 /(s 2
+ 2s +1)
1 + (s)
1 + s /(s + 2s +1)
( 2s +1)
zin1 =
..(a)
2
(2s + 2s +1)
45 Similary,
= (s 2
(s
+ 2s +1 s )
2
+ 2s +1 + s )

2
Zin2 = 2s + 2s +1
2s +1
Synthesis of Doubly Terminated LC - Ladder with unequal

termination: ( R1 R2) :
For R1 R2 the butter worth response is given by ,
.(b)
Taking equation (b)
H ( jw)
2
2 s+1) 2s +2 s +1 (2.s
H (0)
2
=
= T ( jw)
1 + w2n
Generally we take,
R1 1 and R1 R2
z1(s)
2s +2 s
1 ) 2.s + 1( 2 s Y2(s)
2 s
z3(s)
1) 1 (1
1
R1
I1
I2
LC
VsZin
+
-
R2 V2
The ckt will be as follows:

1
vs
1.41
+
-
From figure, the transform function , T(s) =

1v2
Vs
1.41
From which we get ,

R
T(0) = 2
2
1
vs
R2 + R1
1.41
1.41
V2
Now we know
4R V (s)
H (s) 2 = R 1 . 2
2
Vs (s)
H (s)
= 4R1 . T (s)
R2
Home work : For n = 3 and n = 4
H (S) = 2
R1
.T (s)
H (0) = 2
Date: 2065/6/17
R2
1
.T (0) = 2 R1
R
2
46
R
2
R1 + R2

3
2
D(s) = s +2s + 2s+1 (from table)
R .R
2
H (0) = 2
The first impedance is ,
R1 + R2
Example:01: Realize the doubly terminated ladder filter with a

Butter worth response for n = 3, R1 = 1, R2 = 2 .
Solution:
We know, for unequal termination ( i.e R1 R2) the Butterworth
response is given by,
2
H ( jw) 2 = H (0)
2n
1+w
Here, n = 3, R1 = 1 & R2 = 2
4.1.2
4R2 .R1
2
1/ 3 + s
1 s3 + 2s 2 + 2s +1
1 (s)
Zin1 = 1 (s) =
1/ 3 + s
1 + s3 + 2s 2 + 2s +1
Zin1
Zin2
2s + 2s + 2 / 3
= 2s3 + 2s 2 + 2s + 4 / 3 .(a)
3
2
2s + 2s + 2s + 4 / 3
=
..(b)
2
2s + 2s + 2 / 3
Now using continued fraction method for equation (b)
H (0) = ( R 2 + R1 )2 = (1 + 2)2 =9
2
H ( jw) =
8/9
2n
1+w
The reflection coefficient function is

( jw)
=1 H ( jw)
=1 8 / 9
1+ w
2n
2n
2s +2s+2/3 ) 2s +2s +2s + 4/3 ( s

z1(s)
3
2
2s +2s +2/3.s
2
4/3.s+4/3 ) 2s +2s+ 2/3 (3/2. s
2
2n
= 1 + w 8 / 9 = 1/ 9 + w
2n
2n
1+w
1+w
Y2(s)
2s +2s
23
1/ 9 (s / j)
1/ 9 + (s / j)
( jw) =
=
1 + w23
1 + w6
6
2
3 2
Or, (s) 2 = 1/ 9 (s) = (1/ 3) (s ) = (1/ 3 s)(1/ 3 +
6
6
6
s) 1 s
1s
1s
2
(s) =
1/ 3 + s
D(s)
For n = 3,
z3(s)
4/3.s
4/3 ) 2/3 (1/2
2/3
(1/ 3 + s ) (1/ 3 s )
.
(s). (s) =
D(s)
D(s)
6
Where, D(s). D(-s) = 1- s
2/3 ) 4/3.s +4/3(2s
+
-
2
2/3
47
Y4(s)
Home Assignment:
Try it for n = 1, 2, 3 and 4 , for unequal terminal i. e R1 = 1
and R2 = 2.
4
3
2
[ for n = 4, D(s) = s +2.16s +3.14s +2.6s+1]
Review of ideal and non ideal properties of operational
amplifiers, GBP, CMRR, Inverting and non inverting A/F.
48

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Also, T(s) = T(jw) =

Then the voltage gain in db is given by ,

power , the power gain is

Now, the voltage attenuation is given by ,

Gain and Attenuation:

Types of filters: ( According to the function)

1. Low pass filters: (LPF): A LPF characteristics is one in

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2. High pass filter: A high pass filter is a compolement of a

5. All pass filters (APF): It is a filter which passes all range

Non- ideal Characteristics:

3. Band pass filter ( BPF): A BPF is one in which the

A BSF is complement of BPF

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1. From the attenuation curve it to be noted that in the pass

Realisation of filter with passive elements:

When , m = n = 1, then the T(s) of equation (i) will be bilinear ,

Here, G = a1/b1 = Gain

Taking laplace transform of equation (i) and (ii)

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(jw) = tan (o/w0) tan (w/wo)

For phase plot:

Fig. 2. Magnitude plot

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Above figure can be modified as:

From figure the potential of node 2, is V1/2 and the potential at

(jw) = tan (-w/wo) - tan ( w/wo)

T(jw) = -1/2 {(jw-wo)/(jw+wo)}

For magnitude plot ,

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From fig (i)

For Magnitude plot:

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For Phase plot,

Where, w01= 1/R1C1

pole zero plot

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Thus the magnitude response of the above network shown that it

One of the important factor that should be consider in design is

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Filter ckt which is obtained after scaling is called demoralized

1. Impedance (Magnitude or amplitude) scaling: In this

If Km . 1, then it is called scale up.

The new values of R, L and C are given by

Note: Generally we assume new value of capacitor 1F or 10

Rnew = Km Rold .(i)

Therefore, Rnew = Km .Rold

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If, w = old corner frequency

Fig(ii) scaled ckt.

Thus we see that there is no change in the following transfer

Also, if T(jw) is old Transfer function, then the new transfer

To do so any change in w must be compensated by

The resistance is unaffected by frequency scaling , i.e

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Now we know that

Or, XL = j(wkf) ( Lold/kf) since, L = Lold

Lold = Lold / Kf .(vi)

3. Both magnitude and Frequency scaling:

Rnew = KmRold .(Viii)

These three equations are know as element scaling equations.

Perform frequency scaling with o = 1

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