WCDMA Fundamentals by Dr. Hatem MOKHTARI

WCDMA Fundamentals
Dr. Hatem MOKHTARI

Cirta Consulting LLC
© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004
1
Spread Spectrum Modulation
n(t)
Narrow-Band Narrow-band
Signal Signal
SW
Sn ε( ) Radio Propagation ε−1( ) S’n
Channel
Transmitter i(t) Receiver
SPREAD SPECTRUM SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM
Sn : Narrow-band Modulated Binary Sequence (information : Speech or Data)

ε( ) : Spreading function using high chip-rate modulation
ε-1( ) : Despreading function using the same sequence as ε( )
n(t) : Gaussian White-Noise ; i(t) : Interference
2
Digital Modulation in WCDMA :
QPSK for DL and BPSK in UL
PSK or Phase Shift Keying is advantageous compared to
other modulations :
Constant Amplitude
Data information is “hidden” in the Phase component
Robustness to Noise and Interference because Noise in
general affects the Amplitude and not the Phase
Component
QPSK is a 4-state Modulation scheme :

Used in DL because of High Data Rate demand
Same Properties as the PSK : Constant Amplitude and
Data in the Phase component
3
BPSK Modulation
Binary Phase Shift Keying Modulation is a two-state Modulation scheme
In BPSK the signal can take two states :
A binary digit is mapped to high frequency carrier sinusoidal waveform
of a given phase as given below :
For a 1 Transmitted symbol :
2 Eb
s1 (t ) = A cos(2πf c t ) = cos(2πf c t )
Tb
for a 0 Transmitted symbol :
2 Eb
s2 (t ) = A cos(2πf c t + π ) = − cos(2πf c t )
Tb
2 Eb
Where A = T the Amplitude, 0 ≤ t ≤ Tb ,
b
Eb is the transmitted Energy per bit
The duration of this sinusoidal waveform is Tb
4
BPSK Modulation Example
Tb = nc*Tcarrier
1 0 0 1
Tcarrier = 1/fc
To ensure that each transmitted binary digit contains an integer number of cycles, the
n c
carrier frequency fc has to fulfill the condition : f c = where nc is a fixed
integer number. For the above example nc = 2 T b
5
Modulation Example : BPSK
BPSK Modulation shifts the PHASE of the DATA modulated carrier by 180 degrees.
Mathematically this can be represented as a multiplication of the carrier by a function

c(t) which takes the values +1 and -1
Assume data modulated carrier of power P and frequency ω0 and phase modulated θd(t)
Binary Data Phase 2 P cos(ω 0t + θ d (t ) )

Modulator
2 P c(t ) cos(ω 0t + θ d (t ) )
2 P cos(ω 0t ) c(t )
BPSK DS SS Transmitter
6
The Wideband Signal is transmitted througha channel having a delay td
The received signal is mixed with interference and Gaussian Noise
Despreading is done by remodulating the wideband signal with ad-hoc delayed spreading
code as shown bellow
Bandpass Data Phase

2Pc(t −τ d ) cos[ω0t +θd (t −τ d ) + φ ] + n(t) Filter Demodulator
Estimated Data
c(t − τ d' )
BPSK DS Receiver
7
The re-modulation or correlation of the received signal with the delayed spreading code
is a critical function in all SS Systems
The signal component of the Output of the despreading Mixer is given by :
Sn' (t) = 2Pc(t −τ d )c(t −τ 'd ) cos[ω0t +θd (t −τ d ) + φ ]
τ’d is the receiver’s best estimate of the Transmission delay
Since c(t) equals +1 or -1 the product c(t −τ d )c(t −τ 'd ) will be +1 if the delays
τd = τ’d that is, if the spreading code and the despreading code are SYNCHRONIZED.
8
BPSK Spectral Density
Before Spreading and for Tb as a bit duration the two-sided power spectral
Density is given by :
Sn ( f ) =
1
2
{ }
PTb sin c 2 [( f − f 0 )Tb ] + sin c 2 [( f + f 0 )Tb ]
After the Spreading we use the Chip duration Tc instead of Tb because of

the involvement of the Chip (code) :
S n' ( f ) =
1
2
{ }
PTc sin c 2 [( f − f 0 )Tc ] + sin c 2 [( f + f 0 )Tc ]
Where sinc function (Also known as the Cardinal Sinus) is given by :

sin( x)
sin c( x) =
x
9
BPSK Power Spectral Density
1
0.8
0.6 sin( x)
sin c( x) =
x
SIN(x)/x
0.4
0.2
0
-900
-800
-700
-600
-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
-0.2
-0.4
x (DEGREES)
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
(sinx/x)^2 0.6
0.5
0.4
2
 sin( x)  0.3
sin c 2 ( x) =   0.2
 x  0.1
0
-900
-800
-700
-600
-500
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
x (DEGREES)
10
QPSK Modulation
* QPSK is very similar to BPSK, except that now one of four possible waveforms is
transmitted through the channel.
* Each Waveform can represent two binary digits
2 Es  π
si (t ) = cos 2πf c t + (2i − 1)  where i = 1,2,3,4
Ts  4
* Es is the Transmitted Signal Energy per Symbol
* Ts is the Symbol Duration. Note that each symbol can represent 2 binary digits unlike
BPSK in which each symbol was just a sungle binary digit
* fc is the carrier frequency equal to nc/Tc as in BPSK description
11
QPSK Modulation
BASIS Functions
In this case we use ORTHONORMAL basis functions as follows :
2 2
φ1 (t ) = cos(2πf c t ) φ2 (t ) = sin (2πf c t )
Ts Ts
The Coordinates on the signal Constellation (or Space) diagram are given
by :
Ts Ts
x1 = ∫ r (t )φ1 (t )dt x2 = ∫ r (t )φ 2 (t )dt

0 0
r(t) = si(t) + n(t) is the received signal : Either signal s1 or s2 + Random

Noise
12
QPSK Modulation : Constellation
The signal Constellation
diagram for QPSK is shown
bellow.
The signal points are mapped
to a pair of binary digits as
shown
The Decision boundaries are
shown as solid Horizontal
Vertical lines
Notice how this mapping has
been chosen so that
neighboring signal points differ
in only a SINGLE BINARY
DIGIT
13
QPSK Modulation
For example, signal B(11) and D(10) differ in only binary digit position
If for example, the signal point A is transmitted and a Symbol Error occurs,
it is very likely that the received symbol will be either C or D.
This Type of Mapping is called GRAY ENCODING
The gray encoding scheme used will mean that on average, we can expect
the probability of an error in a binary digit to half of the probability of an
error in a symbol
Example
Under the conditions of no noise, the coordinates of a signal point are given
by :
 π
x1 = Es cos (2i − 1) 
 4 Test : Verify the above formulas for i=1
and
 π
x2 = − Es sin (2i − 1) 
 4
14
QPSK Modulation :
Answer
Ts Ts
2 Es  π π 
x1 = ∫ r (t )φ1 (t )dt = ∫ cos(2πf t )cos(2πf t ) cos( 4 ) − sin(2πf t ) sin( 4 ) dt
c c c
0
Ts 0
Ts T
x1 = ∫ r (t )φ1 (t )dt =
2 Es
Ts
×
2 s
2 0∫ (
cos 2 (2πf c t ) − sin( 2πf c t ) cos( 2πf c t ) dt )
0
1 1
cos 2 θ = (1 + cos(2θ ) ) sin θ cos θ = sin( 2θ )
2 2
Es Es
x1 = x2 = −
2 2
15
QPSK Coherent Receiver
16
CDMA Multiple Access : Principal of Spread Spectrum (SS)
Each User encodes its signal
Code Signal Bandwidth (W) > Information Bandwidth
Transmission
Spread Spectrum
f f
The Receiver knows the code sequence

Reception P
Despreading
f f
17
CDMA Multiple Access Advantages : Multiple Access Features
1. All Users’ Signals overlap in TIME and FREQUENCY

2. Correlating the Received Signal despreads ONLY the WANTED SIGNAL
p p
S1
RECEIVER of USER 1
S1xC1
p S1 = S1 X C1 X C1
f f
p
S2 X C2 X C1
p p
S2
f f
S2xC2
f f
18
CDMA Multiple Access Advantages : Interference Rejection
p p
S1
S1xC1
f f
p
S1
p p
I I IxC1
f f
Correlation Narrowband Interference Spread the power

19
CDMA Principles : Multiplexing
m’1(t)
A B1
∫ D/A
m1(t)
c1(t) Radio Propagation
c1(t)
Channel
B2 m’2(t)
∫ D/A
A
m2(t)
c2(t) c2(t)
Transmitter Receiver
T
c1(t) and c2(t) are Orthogonal Codes : ∫ c (t )c (t )dt = 0
1 2
0
20
Walsh Codes (1/6)
Since all the WCDMA users use the same RF Band in the DL, to
avoid mutual interference Walsh codes are used.
Hadamard Matrix is a recursive Matrix :
H HN 
H 2N =  N
H N H N 
0 0 
Where H2 =  
 0 1 
0 0 0 0 W0 
H 2  0  
H 2 1 0 1 W1 
Example : N=2 H4 =   = =
H 2  0 0 1 1  W2 

H 2
0 1 1 0  W3 
21
Walsh Codes (2/6)
Walsh codes are thus given by :
W0 = [− 1 − 1 − 1 − 1]
W1 = [− 1 1 − 1 1]
W2 = [− 1 − 1 1 1]
W3 = [− 1 1 1 − 1]
Afterwards, replacing 0 by -1 we obtain the real Walsh codes used in
WCDMA
Note : Except W0 all the codes satisfy orthogonality and dot product
conditions to be used in WCDMA.
22
Walsh Codes : Example (3/6)
Assume three different users with three different data sequences :
m1 (t ) = [+ 1 − 1 + 1]
m2 (t ) = [+ 1 + 1 − 1]
m3 (t ) = [− 1 + 1 + 1]
Assume we have a Spreading factor of 4 then :
The Spread Spectrum Signal would be for user1 :
W1(t) -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
×
m1(t) 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1
=
S1(t) -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1
23
The Resulting SS Signal for the three users can be written as follows :
C (t ) = w1 (t ) m1 (t ) + w2 (t ) m 2 (t ) + w3 (t ) m 3 (t )
And the bit sequence would be :
C (t ) = [− 1 − 1 − 1 3 −1 −1 3 −1 −1 3 − 1 − 1]
If no error is encountered each user decodes its signal using the despreading function,
for user j for example :
m1(t) = w1(t)C(t) = [4 -4 4] and using an integrator m1(t) is fully recovered which

yields the original signal : [+1 -1 +1]
m2(t) = w2(t)C(t) = [4 4 -4] and using an integrator m2(t) is fully recovered which
yields the original signal : [+1 +1 -1]
m3(t) = w3(t)C(t) = [-4 4 4] and using an integrator m3(t) is fully recovered which
yields the original signal : [-1 +1 +1]
24
m1' (t )
C(t) W1(t) Tb 1 or -1
C(t) ∫ C (t )W (t )dt
0
1
W1(t)
C (t )W1 (t ) = [1 − 1 1 3 1 − 1 − 3 − 1 1 3 1 − 1]
4 -4 4
m1' (t ) = [4 − 4 4]
m1' (t ) is computed over the information period Tb using a summation

The forward link of the CDMA system modeled uses orthogonal Walsh codes to
separate the users. Each user is randomly allocated a Walsh code to spread the data
to be transmitted.
The transmitted signals from all the users are combined together, then passed
through a radio channel model. This allows for clipping of the signal, adding multipath
interference, and adding Guassian noise to the signal.
The receiver uses the same Walsh code that was used by the transmitter to
demodulate the signal and recover the data. After the received signal has been
despread using the Walsh code, it is sub-sampled back down to the original data rate.
This is done by using an integrate and dump filter, followed by a comparator to decide
whether the data was a 1 or a 0.
The received data is then compared with the original data transmitted to calculate the
bit error rate (BER).
The RMS amplitude error is also worked out. The signal level after it has been
demodulated and filtered, is compared with the expected amplitude of the signal
based on the transmitted data. The RMS amplitude error directly relates to the bit
error rate, so is a useful measurement to make.
25
Walsh Codes : Self-Test
Compute the Hadamard Matrix for N=4
What are the Possible Orthogonal Walsh Codes ?
Given a signal m1(t) and m2(t) as follows :

m1(t) = [-1 1]; m2(t) = [1 -1]; m3(t) = [1 1];
Compute the composite spread spectrum signal
Verify that m1(t), m2(t) and m3(t) are fully recovered
26
Walsh Codes Self-Test : Answer
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
H H 4  0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

H8 =  4 =
H 4 H 4  0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
 
0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 

First row is not considered as an orthogonal code, all the remaining rows are Walsh
codes by replacing each 0 by -1. Basically 7 Walsh codes are thus generated.
27
Walsh Codes Self-Test : Answer
m1=[-1 1]
m2 = [1 -1]
m3 = [1 1]
m1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
W1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
S1 = W1*m1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1
m2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
W2 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1
S2 = W2*m2 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1
m3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
W3 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1
S3 = W3*m3 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 1 1 -1
C=W1*m1+W2*m2+W3*m3 -1 -1 3 -1 -1 -1 3 -1 -1 3 -1 -1 -1 3 -1 -1
W1*C 1 -1 -3 -1 1 -1 -3 -1 1 3 1 -1 1 3 1 -1
After Integrator -8 8
After Threshold Decision -1 1
W2*C 1 1 3 -1 1 1 3 -1 1 -3 -1 -1 1 -3 -1 -1
After Integrator 8 -8
After Threshold Decision 1 -1
W3*C 1 -1 3 1 1 -1 3 1 1 3 -1 1 1 3 -1 1
After Integrator 8 8
After Threshold Decision 1 1
28
CDMA Principles
T
Cross-Correlation Rxy(τ) : R xy (τ ) = ∫ x (t ) y (t − τ ) dt
0
T
Cross-correlation if τ=0 : Rxy (0) = ∫ x(t ) y (t )dt
0
If x and y are discrete sequence (binary signals):
Rxy ( 0 ) = X T .Y = ∑x y
1≤ i ≤ I
i i
Example of orthogonal codes :

− 1 − 1 − 1
− 1 1 1
X =  Y =  Rxy (0) = [− 1 − 1 1 1].  = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 = 0
1 1 1
     
1 − 1 − 1
29
CDMA Principles
To be used in DS-SS CDMA Codes must satisfy the
following conditions :
Zero Cross-correlation
Number of +1s and -1s must be the same
Dot Product must be equal to 1
Example :
Dot product of the previous example is :
X T . X / 4 = (1 + 1 + 1 + 1) / 4 = 1
30
CDMA Principles
m1(t) M1(f) Tc : Chip Rate of the PN Code
1 -1 1 Tb : Information rate (voice/data)
f
1/Tb
Tb 2Tb 3Tb
c1(t) C1(f)
f
1/Tb 1/Tc
Tc 4Tc
m1(t).c1(t) C1(f)* M1(f)
f
1/Tb 1/Tc
31
CDMA Fundamentals
W/R : Defined as the system processing gain
In CDMA, the Reverse Link Capacity is often the

limiting link in terms of capacity
In CDMA : Uplink Receive Power is equal from all S
MSs. S
Per user : S/N = 1/(M-1)
M : Total Number of users in the cell S
S
S = S (The wanted signal)
N = (M-1)S => S/N = 1/(M-1)
Example : If M=7 then S/N = 1/6
W
if M>>1 then
M ≈ R

Eb
No
M : The Number of simultaneous users a CDMA
cell can support
32
CDMA Multiple Access : Principal of Spread Spectrum (SS)
Eb = Signal Power / Bit Rate = S/Rb Eb S W

= ×
No = Noise Power / Bandwidth = N/W N o N Rb
Signal to Noise Ratio
Processing Gain
Example :
Given a Demodulator Performance Eb > 6dB
No
Bit rate Rb = 8 kpbs
Bandwidth W = 1.2 Mcps => G = W/Rb = 150 = 21 dB
S  E  W 
  =  b  −   > 6 dB − 21dB = − 15 dB
 N  dB  N o  dB  Rb  dB
33
CDMA Fundamentals : Capacity
If other users from other cells are considered, the actual cell becomes
loaded and :
Eb 1 W 1
= . .
No M −1 R 1+η
where η is the loading factor (0 < η < 1)

We define F as the Frequency reuse :
1 I Other _ Cell _ Interference

F= Where η is given by : η =
1+η I Own _ cell _ Interference
34
B1 Cell A
Cell B C2
B2
C1
Cell C
Interference Introduced by Users in the Neighboring Cells

35
Cell A
Unwanted interferers
rejected by antenna
pattern of Cell A
Cell B
Cell C
Sectorization Reduces Interference and adds

a Gain to the system : Sectorization Gain
36
Sectorization Gain :
Tri-Sectors : λ = 3 (2.5 in practice)
6-Sectors : λ= 6 (5 in practice)
Sectorization Gain = λ = Total Interfering Power from all Directions/ Perceived

Interference Power by the sector antenna. G is the antenna pattern in given
direction 2π
∫ I (θ )dθ
λ= 2π
0
G (θ )
∫0 G(0) I (θ )dθ
37
Voice Activity Factor : Interference is reduced when the
user is not transmitting
Eb 1 W 1 1
= . . .λ.
No M −1 R 1 + η v
The final value for M :

W 
 
M ≈ 
R  . 1 .λ
 Eb  η + 1 v
 
N
 o
38
Shannon-Hartley Theorem
Generic Model
Band-limited White Noise
Radio Propagation Channel + Noise+Signal

Received Signal
1. In Theory, without presence of Noise the channel capacity is infinite
2. For a given Signal Level the capacity tends to a constant value as the
bandwidth increases.
39
CDMA Multiple Access Principle
Shannon Theorem
Channel Capacity C (Bit/s) given by Shannon Theorem :
 S 
C = W × log 2  1 + 
 N
W : System Bandwidth (Hz)
S/N : Signal to Noise Ratio (numerical value)
C : System Capacity (bit/s)
Wide W and Low S/N (such as in WCDMA)

Same Capacity
Narrow W and Large S/N (such as in GSM)
40
Shannon-Hartley Theorem
C can also be written as :  S 
ln1 + 
N oW   S 
 × x ln1 + 
 1
C =W × = 1.44 × 
ln 2  No   x
where WN o

x=
S
assuming W to be infinite :
t2 t3
 S   S  t− + + ...
ln( 1 + t ) 2! 3!  S 
lim C = 1 . 44 ×   lim = 1 . 44 ×   lim = 1 . 44 × W ×  
x→ ∞ N
 0 t→0 t N
 0  t→0 t N 
Thus for any degrading S/N we can transfer data with low BER if we increase
the bandwidth used to transfer the data.
Numerical Example :
For a data rate of 10kbps, and SNR of -20 dB then W = 694.4 kHz
41
Bandwidth Efficiency
Bandwidth Efficiency is a measure of how well a particular modulation and
error-control coding scheme is making use of the available bandwidth
Example :
If a system requires 4 kHz of bandwidth to continuously send 8000
binary digits/sec, the bandwidth efficiency = 8000/4000 = 2 bits/s/Hz
Notice that to double the rate at which binary digits are sent over the
given communication channel, we would require a bandwidth efficiency
= 16000/4000 = 4 bits/s/Hz
In this case of an ideal system, rb = 1/Tb = C, where C is given by the
Shannon-Hartley theorem :
 S  E C
C = W × log 2 1 +  = W × log 2 1 + b . 
 N  N0 W 
Or equivalently : C  C 
Eb 2 −1
W  E   2W −1
= ⇒  b  = 10 log 10
 
N0 C  N0  dB  C 
 
W  W 
42
Bandwidth Efficiency Versus Eb/No
10
Bandwidth Efficiency, R/W
1
-7.1
-5.9
-4.5
-2.7
-0.7
1.76
4.49
7.48
10.7
14
17.5
0.1
Eb/No (dB)
43
Self-Test
* A Digital Cellular Phone System is required to work at a bandwidth efficiency of
4 bits/s/Hz to ensure sufficient users to make it profitable.
** What is the minimum Eb/No in dB required to ensure that users on the

edge of the coverage area receive error-free communication ?
** To Double the number of users on the existing communication system,

by what amount should the base-station and handsets transmitted powers be
increased to maintain coverage and error-free communication ?
44
CDMA Principles
Amplitude
distance
λ/2
Mobile λ
The MS crosses 2 fades in : 2
v
Example : @ 900 MHz and v = 90 km/h (25 m/s)
MS crosses fades every 6.67 ms
@ 1800 MHz MS crosses fades every 3.335 ms
45
CDMA Principles : Delay Spread
Tb
Propagation Time T1
Delay Spread = τ = |T2 - T1|
Propagation Time T2 τ
Here τ < Tb implies Interference
Example :
D1 = 150 m and D2 = 200 m => T1 = 150/3*108 = 0.5 µs
BTS and T2 = 0.66 µs => τ = 0.16 µs
Assume we have a UMTS Service R = 3.84 Mchps =>
Tb = 0.26 µs
τ < Tb => INTER-SYMBOL INTERFERENCE PRESENT
Multipath Immunity
WCDMA is inherently tolerant to multipath delay spread signals as any signal which is
delayed by more than one chip time becomes uncorrelated to the PN code used to
decode the signal. This results in the multipath simply appearing as noise. This noise
leads to an increase in the amount of interference seen by each user subjected to the
multipath and thus increases the received BER.
46
Received Power
τ1= 3µs
τ2= 4µs
τ3
Time (µs) t
Inter Symbol Interference can occur if the delay spread τn is greater than
one symbol period : The higher the bit rate, the more ISI occur
47
Example 1:
Let us consider a Mobile Communications System that uses Rb = 270.83 kbps
The bit period is thus Tb = 1/270830 = 3.69 µs
Conclusion : bit period almost equal to 4 µs as shown on the delay spread power
profile => ISI would normally exist ! Without use of Viterbi-based EQUALIZER such
as in GSM
Example 2:
Let us consider a Mobile Communications System that uses Rb = 1.2288 Mbps =
1228800 bps
The bit period is thus Tb = 1/ 1228800 = 1 µs
Conclusion : bit period is much LESS than 4 µs as shown on the delay spread power
profile => ISI would not normally exist !
Important note : CDMA Rake Receive uses a special form of Time Diversity to
recover the signal. CDMA Rake receiver combines multipath components and
suppresses phase differences provided that delays are not very small
48
The Principal of Maximum Ratio Combining in CDMA Rake Receiver
Transmitted Symbol Received Signal Modified Signal Combined

- Amplitude at each time delay Using Channel Estimator Symbol
- Phase
θ
θ
θ
Figure #1
θ
Figure #2
θ
Figure #3
49
Block Diagram of CDMA Rake Receiver
I Phase Delay
Correlator Q Rotator Equalizer
Input RF Signal
Code Channel
Generator Estimator
Finger # 1
I
Correlator
Phase Delay ∑I
Rotator Equalizer
Code Channel
∑Q
Generator Estimator
Finger # 2
Correlator
Phase Delay Q
Rotator Equalizer Combiner
Code Channel
Generator Estimator
Finger # 3
Timing (finger allocation)
Matched Filter
50
CDMA Rake Receiver : Components
Digitized input samples are received from RF Front-end in the form of I and Q components
Code Generator and Correlator : Perform despreading and integration to user data symbol
Channel estimator : Uses the Pilot symbols to estimate the channel state
Phase Rotator : aligns the symbols to the initial phase (phase cancellation)
Delay Equalizer : Compensates the Delay in the arrival times of the symbols in each finger
Rake Combiner : Sums up the channel-compensated symbols, thereby providing

MULTIPATH DIVERSITY against Fading.
Matched Filter : Determines and Updates the Current Multipath Delay Spread. This is used
to assign the Rake fingers to the largest Peaks (Maximum Combining)
51
CDMA Principles: Delay Spread
In Multipath Environment :
Received power can be written as :
N N
r (t ) = ∑ a n s (t − τ n ) → R ( f ) = S ( f ) ∑ a n exp( − j 2π f .τ n )
n =1 n =1
Fourier Transfer Function :
N
R( f )
H(f ) = = ∑ a n e − j 2πf .τ n
S ( f ) n =1
52
Example with two-equal amplitude paths : a1=a2=A
H ( f ) = 2 cos( π fτ )
H(f)
2A
1 1 3 2
f
2τ τ 2τ τ
1. Frequency-Selective Fading is evident in the nulls of the Magnitude Spectrum
2. WCDMA is more advantageous than CDMA when the delays are small such
as 0.4 ms (Dense Urban and Urban Environments)
3. WCDMA using 5 Mbps (bit period of 0.2 ms) better than IS-95 CDMA using only
1.2288 Mbsp (bit period 1 ms) when ISI are to be considered in Dense Urban areas
53
CDMA Fundamentals : Power Control
Near-Far Problem
Pr,1 = EIRP(MS1) - PL1 = 21 - 100 = -79 dBm
Pr,2 = EIRP(MS2) - PL2 = 21 - 90 = -69 dBm PL2 = 90 dB
Pr,2
Pr,2
P = 21 dBm
P = 21 dBm
PL1 = 100 dB
MS1 MS2
(S/N)1 = Pr,1 - Pr,2 = -10 dB MS2 must be Power Controlled by -10 dB to have
(S/N)2 = Pr,2 - Pr,1 = +10 dB the same S/N for both users MS1 and MS2
54
What is the initial MS power to be used ?
Maximum MS Power :
) Advantage : High likelihood to reach the BTS
) Drawback : Uplink interference
Minimum MS Power :
) Advantage : Low Uplink interference
) Drawback : Low probability to reach the BTS
Solution (IS-95 used in WCDMA also) :

Use of Access Probes : MS Power Rise portions done gradually
Advantage : Avoid Uplink interference and Reach the BTS with
sufficient Transmit power
55
OPEN-LOOP Power Control:
MS Transmits its first access probes at relatively low power
MS waits for a response back from the BTS
If after a Random time the MS has no acknowledgment from the BTS, a
second Access Probe is performed (at a slightly higher power)
Process is repeated until the MS receives a response from the BTS
MS
Transmit Power
Random Time
Second Intervals
Acces
First Probe
Acces Correction
Probe Initial Transmit Power
Correction
56
OPEN-LOOP Power Control: Purely Mobile-Controlled Operation
Step Size for a Single Access Probe is Specified by the System Parameter PWR_STEP
(equivalent to BSS RF Parameters in GSM)
The Standard Specifies that the MS uses initially the Received power from the BTS :
If the MS receives strong DL level => MS assumes BTS close and then transmit at
low level
Alternatively MS transmits at high level if the initial DL Level is low
Initial MS Transmit Power (dBm) :

p t ,initial = − p r − 73 + NOM _ PWR + INIT _ PWR
NOM_PWR and INIT_PWR : Broadcast by the BS in the “access parameters message”

These can be set by the Operators for further fine tuning
57
During a call :
MS continues to calculate Pr
Path Loss changes as the MS moves and Pr also
Open-Loop PC adjusts the MS Transmit power using :
p t = − p r − 73 + NOM _ PWR + INIT _ PWR + ∑ Acc . Pr .Correct .
VERY IMPORTANT NOTES :

UL and DL frequencies are different
Fast Rayleigh Fading is Frequency-Selective
Open-Loop PC too slow to compensate Rayleigh Fading
However, Open-Loop PC suitable for Log-Normal (slow) Fading
Correlation between UL and DL concerning Slow-Fading but not Fast
Rayleigh Fading
Closed-Loop PC compensates Fast Rayleigh Fading
58
CLOSED-LOOP Power Control : Involves BOTH the MS and the BS
During the call :

BS monitors the UL and measures the link Quality
If the UL quality becomes bad : BS commands MS to power-up
If the If the UL quality becomes too good : BS commands MS to power-
down
Yes BS Commands MS
to
Power-Down
BS Monitors
Eb/No > Threshold
UL Eb/No
BS Commands MS
to
No Power-Up
59
CLOSED-LOOP PC

BS Sends PC commands to the MS using the DL

PC Commands are in the form of Power-Control Bits (PCBs)
Each Power-up or Power-down amount is +1 dB or -1 dB
MS response must be fast (Fast Rayleigh Fading)
PCBs are sent through the Traffic channel
Bits are robbed (stolen) from the Traffic Channel in order to send the PCBs
PCB @ 1500 bps (1500 Hz)
12.2 kbps Conv. 24.4 kbps 24.4 kbps 3.84 Mchip/s

Vocoder Encoder MUX Spreading
R=1/2
60
INNER LOOP
OUTER LOOP 1. Measure Eb/No
2. Compare Eb/No
Adjusting Eb/No to Threshold
Threshold Eb
Threshold 3. Decide which PCB
No to send
61
CDMA Fundamentals : Handover
SOFT-HANDOVER
During the communication, the MS simultaneously maintains connection with
two or three Base Stations,
A Traffic Channel is maintained with both cells,
BS2 (Target Cell)
RNC
BS1 (Home Cell)
DOWNLINK
MS Combines the two signals

using the Rake Receiver
62
SOFT-HANDOVER
RNC Demodulated Frame 2

Demodulated Frame 1 SELECTOR
Selects the Best Frame with

the best FER value !
UPLINK
BS2 (Target Cell)
BS1 (Home Cell)

63
SOFTER-HANDOVER
Softer Handover is considered when two cells (or sectors) of the same site are
involved
on the DL the same process happens at the MS : demodulation and Maximum

Combining using the Rake Receiver features
on the UL, two sectors of the same site simultaneously receive two signals from
the mobile
The signals are demodulated and combined inside the Site, but only ONE
frame is sent back to the RNC
64
Home Cell Target Cell
Only 1 Frame sent

back to the RNC
BTS
RNC
SOFTER HANDOVER ILLUSTRATION

65
HARD-HANDOVER
Hard-Handover occurs from CDMA carrier to another CDMA Carrier or CDMA
to Analog Carrier. CDMA to CDMA HO is sometimes called D-to-D Handover.
Hard-Handover in UMTS may concern WCDMA to GSM or WCDMA to

GSM1800
BS1 BS2
f1 f2
MS f2
f1
66
HANDOVER PROCESS in WCDMA
Each Sector is distinguished from one another by its PILOT channel : 4 Logical
Channels on the DL are Defined : Pilot, Paging, Synch., and Traffic Channels
Power
TRAFFIC CHANNEL K : USER K
TRAFFIC CHANNEL 2 : USER 2

TRAFFIC CHANNEL 1 : USER 1
SYNCHRONIZATION CHANNEL
PAGING CHANNEL
PILOT CHANNEL
Frequency
67
Each Sector uses a different PILOT and is assigned a different PN
Code with an offset to distinguish it from other Sectors
3-Sector Site
6-Sector Site
68
For Traffic(Voice and Data) we use Eb/No, but for PILOT a special term to
describe the SNR is the Ec/Io
Ec/Io : Energy per chip per interference density
Ec : related to the spreading code, hence the term “chip”
Since no Baseband data is transmitted through the Pilot, there is no

Despread and bits are not recovered, unlike for Traffic channels
(baseband)
Ec/Io : defines the signal strength of a PILOT channel
The PILOT is not Despread : No despreading gain !
69
MS is an intimate in the SHO in WCDMA :
MS Measures the Ec/Io and report it the the BTS
BTS transmits a PN Sequence using different offsets for each sector
Ec/Io gives a good indication on whether or not a sector should the serving
cell
Highway or Road
PN2
PN1
PN3
Example with 3 PILOTS
70
During HO Management Process :
MS maintains in its Memory four exclusive lists of
Sectors
Sectors stored in the form of PN offsets
Four Exclusive List of sectors called : SETS

Active Set
Candidate Set
Neighbor Set
Remaining Set
71
Active Set (A) :
Contains all Sectors communicating with the MS on traffic channels
If the Active Set contains only one Pilot : NO SHO
If the Active Set contains more than one Pilot : the MS is maintaining
communication with all the Active Set Sectors with Different Traffic
Channels
Active can contain 6 Pilots : UL Diversity maximized
A Pilot enters the (A) only if the RNC decides and then sends a “handover
Direction Message” to the message to add that pilot into (A)
Candidate Set (C) :

Contains Pilots whose Ec/Io are sufficient to make them HO Candidates
If Ec/Io > Threshold (Pilot Detection Threshold or T_ADD in Database),
the Pilot will be added to the (C)
A Pilot is deleted from the (C) and moved to the Neighbor Set (N) if Ec/Eo
< Threshold (“Pilot Drop Threshold” or T_DROP in Database)
72
A Pilot is removed from (C) if its Ec/Io drops below T_DROP threshold for more
than duration specified by T_TDROP : „Handover Drop Timer Expiration
Value“ and put in (N) set
The (C) Set can contain at least 6 Pilots
Ec/Io Pilot still in (C) set Pilot put in (N) set
T_DROP
Counter = 0 Counter = T_DROP time

73
The Neighbor Set (N) : contains those Pilots that are in the Neighbor List of
the MS´s Serving Cell
Initially :
(N) contains Pilots sent to the MS in the ´Neighbor List Message´ by the
Serving Cell
To keep current Pilots in the (N), MS keeps an aging counter for each Pilot in
(N) : NGHBR_MAX_AGE
Counter is reset (counter = 0) when Pilot is moved from (A)/(C) to (N)
Counter incremented for each Pilot in (N) whenever a Neighbor List update
message is received
The (N) Set can contain up to 20 Pilots
74
The Remaing Set (R) : Contains all possible Pilots in the System for this UMTS
carrier Frequency, except pilots in (A), (C) or (N)
In (R) Pilot PN offsets are defined by the Parameter PILOT_INC

Example :
) If PILOT_INC = 4 ; each sector in the Network can only transmit 0, 4, 8 , 12, etc.
PILOT_INC is sent to the MS inthe „Neighbor List Message“ and

„Neighbor List Update Message“
75
Source Target 2 Pilots (A&B)

Ec/Io Cell B
Cell A In Active Set : MS is in SHO
1 Pilot (B) in Active Set
T_ADD
T_DROP
1 Pilot (A) in Active Set

Distance
76
HARD HANDOVER in WCDMA
Hard HO includes inter-frequency HO :
) Cells with multiple Carriers with high load
) WCDMA GSM
f1 GSM
f1 f1
f1, f2
f1 f1
f1
WCDMA
77
HARD HANDOVER in UMTS
A
HO Quality Measure (dB)
Replace A Replace C Replace A Time

by C by A by B
78
Cell Breathing Concept in UMTS
The Cell Size Shrinks due to Loading
LOAD
1. UL Noise-Rise due to own-cell or other-cell UL interference translated into Lower

UL MAPL : MAPL2 = MAPL1 - Noise-Rise (dB)
2. Noise-Rise computed Using : -10log10(1-η) ; η being the Loading due to interference
79
Cell Breathing : RF Propagation Environment
Basic Concept for Loading and Propagation Environment :

Dense Urban : Lp = 127 + 45*log10(r)
MAPL = 126.7 dB using η = 0.5 (50 % loading)
η = 0.5 => own-cell interference is twice the other-cell interference
r = 0.984 km but reduces to 0.501 km using η = 0.75 loading
49 % Range Loss in DENSE URBAN
HIGHER LOADING
50 %
Loading
75 %
Loading
80
Cell Breathing : RF Propagation Environment
Suburban : Lp = 123 + 33*log10(r)
MAPL = 133.7 dB using η = 0.5 (50 % loading)
r = 2.1 km and reduces to r = 1.7 km @ η = 0.75
19 % Range Loss in SUBURBAN
Path Loss (dB)
Dense Urban
Suburban
MAPL (η = 0) Ideal Case
3 dB
6 dB
MAPL (η = 50%) or Noise Rise = 3 dB
MAPL (η = 75 %) or Noise Rise = 6 dB
Log(d)
81
Soft Capacity
WCDMA System is limited by interference sharing between neighbor cells
Capacity is dynamically changing due to different traffic variation
Hard Capacity is limited by Hardware Limitation : TRX namely
Number of Channels N Number of Channel Pool = N*(1+i)
Equally Loaded Cells Less Interference in the Neighboring Cells

=> Higher Capacity in the Middle Cell
Soft Capacity = (Erlang Capacity with Soft Blocking / Erlang Capacity with Hard Blocking) - 1
82
Soft Capacity
i is defined by :
i = Other Cell Interference / Own Cell Interference
) i = 0.55 for Omni Cell
) i = 0.55 for 2-sector cell
Soft Capacity Calculation Procedure :
1. Compute the Number of Channels N in equally loaded case based on Uplink
Load Factor : W 
 
N =η R
  
 (1 + i )v Eb  
  N 
  o 
2. Npool = N*(1+i)
3. Use Erlang B table to compute the Offered Capacity
) Offered Capacity (Erlang) = ErlangB(Npool, 2%)
4. Soft Capacity (Erlang) = Offered Capacity(Erlang) / (1+i)
5. Soft Capacity (%) = (Soft Capacity (Erlang)/Offered Capacity (Erlang)) -1
83
Soft Capacity
Example
Assumptions
PARAM ETER VA LU E
B it R a te S p e e c h @ 1 2 .2 k b p s
V o ic e A c tiv it y F a c to r 67 %
E b /N o S ppech : 4 dB
i 0 .5 5 a s s u m in g a n O m n i C e ll
N o is e R is e 3 d B (5 0 % L o a d F a c to r )
G oS 2 %
Computation of Number of Channels :

W/R = 3.84*1000/12.2 = 314.75
Eb/No = 4 dB = 2.51
v = 0.67 (67 % Voice Activity Factor)
N = 60.4 channels
Npool = 60.4*(1+0.55) = 93.6 Channels
Offered Capacity = ErlangB (94 channels, 2% GoS) = 82.17 Erlang
Soft Capacity = 82.17/(1+0.55) = 53 Erlang
Hard Capacity = ErlangB (61 channels, 2% GoS) = 50.6 Erlang
Soft Capacity (%) = 53.6/50.6 -1 = 4.74 approximately 5%
84
CAPACITY in UMTS : Uplink Capacity
- Sensitivity is affected by interference (Loading)
IUL = −10 × log(1 − ηUL )

Maximum Capacity is related to the amount of UL interference a system can tolerate
I
− UL M
UL η = 1 − 10
10
=
max M
Mmax : Maximum number of simultaneous users supported by a single cell-carrier @ 100%
Loading assuming that all users are using the same service (e.g. speech or Data). Also
called the Pole Capacity.
For a Multi-service system :
− IUL
M1 M2 M3
ηUL = 1 − 10 10
= + + + ...
M 1,max M 2,max M 3,max
Mn : The Number of simultaneous users for the n th service
85
Maximum UL Capacity figures
1
M max = 1 +
C 
(1 + F ) ×  
 I  numerical
 Eb 
 − 
W

 No  dB  R  dB
C
= 10 10
I
F Values are :
0.67 for Omni,
) 0.93 for 3-sector,
) 0.4 for Micro-cells (without the presence of Fast Fading)
86
F Values on the UL
S ite P ed estrian A P ed estrian B V eh icu la r A 120
C o n fig u ra tio n 3 k m /h w ith o u t 3 k m /h w ith k m /h w ith F ast
F a st F a d in g F a st F a d in g F a d in g
O m ni 0 .8 4 / 0 .6 7 0 .6 7 0 .6 7
3 -S ecto r 1 .1 6 / 0 .9 3 0 .9 3 0 .9 3
M icro cell 0 .5 / 0 .4 0 .4 0 .4
Typical Uplink Mmax Values for a 3- Sector Site

Service Pedestrian A P edestrian B V ehicular A
M m ax M m ax M m ax
w ithout Fast w ith Fast W ith F ast
F ad ing Fading F ad ing
S peech 12.2 kbps 94.6 / 105.9 84.4 56.3
C ircuit 128 kbps 8.5 / 9.3 7.9 6.8
C ircuit 384 kbps 4.2 / 4.6 3.7 3.2
P acket 128 kbps 11.1 / 12.3 9.9 8.1
P acket 384 kbps 4.3 / 4.8 4.0 3.4
87
Example of Computation of Mmax
1. Assume we use Packet Data @ 384 kbps and a tri-

sectorial Site Configuration; What is the Mmax ?
Answer : W/R = 3840/384 = 10 = 10 dB; Eb/No = 1.5 dB

F = 0.93 and C/I = 0.14125 => Mmax = 4.66 users
2. Assume we use Packet Data @ 144 kbps and a 3-

sector site configuration; What is the Mmax?
88
CAPACITY in UMTS : Downlink Capacity
In the DL, each user is subjected to different interference levels
Therefore, no single interference level is valid in the DL
For dimensioning purposes, the current solution is to use simulation. Mostly, researchers do use
Monte Carlo Random Number Generation Algorithms
Urban Environment - Pedestrian A 3 km/h

Assumptions : 18 dBi Antennas, PL = 134.7 + 35.2 log(R),
Antenna Height 30 m, No Body Loss Considered
90
80
Relative Loading (%)
70 0 dB
60 5 dB
50 10 dB
40 15 dB
30 20 dB
20 25 dB
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Cell Range (km)
89
Recommended Mmax Values for 3-sector site Configuration
Service Dense Urban & Rural

Suburban
Speech 12.2 kbps 86.4 64.1
Circuit 128 kbps 7.3 4.1
Circuit 384 kbps 2.7 1.6
Packet 128 kbps 8.4 5.2
Packet 384 kbps 2.8 1.7
90
Open Area - Vehicular A 120 km/h

Assumptions : 18 dBi Antennas, PL = 105 + 33.8 log(R), Antenna Height 50
m, 3 dB Body Loss
100
Relative Loading (%)
80 0 dB
5dB
60 10dB
40 15dB
20dB
20 25dB
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Cell Range (km)
91
Example
Estimate the Number of Speech Users supported in an Urban Environment :
Cell Range : 1 km
18 dB Building Penetration Loss
4 dB Feeder Loss
18 dBi Antenna Gain
Answer
1. Take the Mmax value for Speech 12.2 kbps
) It would be 86.4 users
Find at which relative load the 25 dB curve crosses the 1 km range
) It would be 40%
Calculate the supported relative Load :
) It would be 86.4 X 0.4 = 34 simultaneous users
92
CAPACITY in UMTS : Mixed Services (1/2)
Total Loading :
Loading = M1/M1max + M2/M2max + M3/M3max + …
Within a Cell, one service may have higher loading than another
which leads to :
1 >= M1/(L1*M1max) + M2/(L2*M2max) + M3/(L3*M3max) +…
Li : is the Maximum Load of Service i that a cell is able to support
at a given range
Example of Mixed Services

Assume we are interested in Speech @ 7.95 kbps mixed with
Data @ 32 kbps in an Open Area (Vehicular A) at a range of 20
km. A 6 dB incar Penetration loss and 2 dB Feeder Loss are
assumed :
M1max = 64.1 users for Speech @ 7.95 kbps
M2max = 16.4 users for Packet Data @ 32 kbps
93
CAPACITY in UMTS : Mixed Services (1/2)
A) For Speech, find the Relative Load the 8 dB (BL + BPL + Lf+j) Curve
Crosses the 20 km Cell Range
Ans. 65%
B) For Packet Data, find at which Relative Load the 5 dB (BPL + Lf+j ) Curve
Crosses the 20 km Cell Range :
Ans. 75%
Note 1: This examples confirms that some Services may have higher relative
load than others
Note 2 : The above Loads are the Maximum Allowed Loads for Each Service,
when offered as a Single Service
C) Determine M1 and M2 that fulfill the following Equations :
1 >= M1/(0.65*64.1) + M2/(0.75*16.4) (Cell Range Limitation)
0.65 >= M1/64.1 + M2/16.4 (Total Load Limitation)
At this stage it is necessary to determine the capacity distribution between
Service Types : We assume Speech Traffic approximately 10 times
Packet Data Traffic, hence : M1 = 10*M2
This Leads to M1 = 29 and M2 = 3 ; we verify that Loading = 63 % < 65%
94
Concluding Remarks : CDMA System Capacity
Capacity, or number of simultaneous users M, is directly

proportional to the Processing Gain of the System
Capacity is inversely proportional to the required Eb/No of the

system. The lower the required threshold Eb/No , the higher the
capacity
Capacity can be increased if one can decrease the amount of

loading from users in adjacent cells
Spatial filtering, such as sectorization, increases system

capacity. For example, a 6-sector cell would have a higher
capacity than a 3-sector cell.
95

WCDMA Fundamentals by Dr. Hatem MOKHTARI

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

WCDMA Fundamentals by Dr. Hatem MOKHTARI

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

WCDMA Fundamentals

Dr. Hatem MOKHTARI

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

Transmitter i(t) Receiver

SPREAD SPECTRUM SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

Sn : Narrow-band Modulated Binary Sequence (information : Speech or Data)

 QPSK is a 4-state Modulation scheme :

 for a 0 Transmitted symbol :

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

Mathematically this can be represented as a multiplication of the carrier by a function

Binary Data Phase 2 P cos(ω 0t + θ d (t ) )

The received signal is mixed with interference and Gaussian Noise

Bandpass Data Phase

The signal component of the Output of the despreading Mixer is given by :

Sn' (t) = 2Pc(t −τ d )c(t −τ 'd ) cos[ω0t +θd (t −τ d ) + φ ]

τ’d is the receiver’s best estimate of the Transmission delay

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

 After the Spreading we use the Chip duration Tc instead of Tb because of

 Where sinc function (Also known as the Cardinal Sinus) is given by :

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

* Each Waveform can represent two binary digits

* Es is the Transmitted Signal Energy per Symbol

* fc is the carrier frequency equal to nc/Tc as in BPSK description

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

x1 = ∫ r (t )φ1 (t )dt x2 = ∫ r (t )φ 2 (t )dt

 r(t) = si(t) + n(t) is the received signal : Either signal s1 or s2 + Random

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

 The Receiver knows the code sequence

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

1. All Users’ Signals overlap in TIME and FREQUENCY

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

Correlation Narrowband Interference Spread the power

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

 m1(t) = w1(t)C(t) = [4 -4 4] and using an integrator m1(t) is fully recovered which

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

m1' (t ) is computed over the information period Tb using a summation

 What are the Possible Orthogonal Walsh Codes ?

 Given a signal m1(t) and m2(t) as follows :

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

 If x and y are discrete sequence (binary signals):

 Example of orthogonal codes :

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

 In CDMA, the Reverse Link Capacity is often the

Eb = Signal Power / Bit Rate = S/Rb Eb S W

Signal to Noise Ratio

where η is the loading factor (0 < η < 1)

1 I Other _ Cell _ Interference

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

Interference Introduced by Users in the Neighboring Cells

Sectorization Reduces Interference and adds

 Tri-Sectors : λ = 3 (2.5 in practice)

 Sectorization Gain = λ = Total Interfering Power from all Directions/ Perceived

 The final value for M :

Band-limited White Noise

Radio Propagation Channel + Noise+Signal

1. In Theory, without presence of Noise the channel capacity is infinite

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

Wide W and Low S/N (such as in WCDMA)

© Cirta Consulting LLC 1999-2004

QPSK is a 4-state Modulation scheme :

for a 0 Transmitted symbol :

After the Spreading we use the Chip duration Tc instead of Tb because of

Where sinc function (Also known as the Cardinal Sinus) is given by :

r(t) = si(t) + n(t) is the received signal : Either signal s1 or s2 + Random

The Receiver knows the code sequence

m1(t) = w1(t)C(t) = [4 -4 4] and using an integrator m1(t) is fully recovered which

What are the Possible Orthogonal Walsh Codes ?

Given a signal m1(t) and m2(t) as follows :

If x and y are discrete sequence (binary signals):

Example of orthogonal codes :

In CDMA, the Reverse Link Capacity is often the

Tri-Sectors : λ = 3 (2.5 in practice)

Sectorization Gain = λ = Total Interfering Power from all Directions/ Perceived

The final value for M :

Rake Combiner : Sums up the channel-compensated symbols, thereby providing

Fourier Transfer Function :

Solution (IS-95 used in WCDMA also) :

Initial MS Transmit Power (dBm) :

NOM_PWR and INIT_PWR : Broadcast by the BS in the “access parameters message”

VERY IMPORTANT NOTES :

During the call :

BS Sends PC commands to the MS using the DL

on the DL the same process happens at the MS : demodulation and Maximum

Hard-Handover in UMTS may concern WCDMA to GSM or WCDMA to

Since no Baseband data is transmitted through the Pilot, there is no

Ec/Io : defines the signal strength of a PILOT channel

The PILOT is not Despread : No despreading gain !

Four Exclusive List of sectors called : SETS

Candidate Set (C) :

Counter is reset (counter = 0) when Pilot is moved from (A)/(C) to (N)

The (N) Set can contain up to 20 Pilots

In (R) Pilot PN offsets are defined by the Parameter PILOT_INC

PILOT_INC is sent to the MS inthe „Neighbor List Message“ and