Biomechanics of Running

Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95
Review Paper
The biomechanics of runnin

Tom !" #ovachec$
Motion Analysis Laboratory% Gillette Children&s Specialty Healthcare% Uni'ersity of Minnesota% ()) E" Uni'ersity A'e"% St" Paul% MN 551)1% USA Received (5 *u ust 1997+ accepted (( ,eptember 1997
Abstract This review artic-e summari.es the current -iterature re ardin the ana-/sis of runnin ait" 0t is compared to wa-$in and
sprintin " The current state of $now-ed e is presented as it 1ts in the conte2t of the histor/ of ana-/sis of movement" The characteristics of the ait c/c-e and its re-ationship to potentia- and $inetic ener / interactions are reviewed" The timin of e-ectrom/o raphic activit/ is provided" 3inematic and $inetic data (inc-udin center of pressure measurements% raw force p-ate data% 4oint moments% and 4oint powers) and the impact of chan es in ve-ocit/ on these 1ndin s is presented" The status of shoewear -iterature% a-terations in movement strate ies% the ro-e of biarticu-ar musc-es% and the sprin -i$e function of tendons are addressed"
This t/pe of information can provide insi ht into in4ur/ mechanisms and trainin strate ies" 5 1998 6-sevier ,cience 7"8" Keywords9 Runnin + 7iomechanics+ 3inematics+ 3inetics+ 6-ectrom/o raph/+ 6ner /+ 0n4ur/
1. Introduction:history To avoid the misconception that the ana-/sis of

runnin is a new area of interest% one need on-/ e2; amine the art of Grecian vases and consider the writ; in s of *ristot-e% <!urther% the forces of that which causes movement and of that which remains sti-- must be made e=ua-""" !or 4ust as the pusher pushes% so the pusher is pushed > i"e" with simi-ar force& ?1@" Aeon; ardo da 8inci&s interest in accurac/ in paintin in the 15th and 1'th centuries increased focus on human movement and was fo--owed b/ #ewton&s proc-ama; tion of his three -aws in the 17th centur/" 0n 18B'% the Ceber brothers (Ci-he-m and 6duard) set the a enda for future research with the most detai-ed treatise on wa-$in and runnin ait to date" The/ -isted 15) h/potheses inc-udin that the -imb can act as a pen; du-um" Dore sophisticated too-s were needed than were current-/ avai-ab-e to test them" 6tienne Eu-es Dare/ (18B) 19)F) was a pro-i1c pioneer of instru; mentation" Ge was amon the 1rst to emp-o/ photo ;
)9'';'B'(:98:H19")) 5 1998 6-sevier ,cience 7"8" *-- ri hts reserved"
P00 , ) 9 ' ' ; ' B ' ( ( 9 7 ) ) ) ) B 8 ; '
raph/ and use it as a true photo rammetric too-" Ge a-so desi ned and bui-t the 1rst serious force p-at; form" The reader is referred to Iavana h&s historicareview ?(@ for further insi ht into the contributions and historica- si ni1cance of the wor$s of 7raune% !ischer% Du/brid e% Gi--% !enn% 6-ftman% and Gub; bard"
The e2p-osion of interest in runnin has prompted
a comparab-e e2p-osion of research and assessment" This has been potentiated b/ technica- advances in; c-udin faster cameras and mar$er s/stems which e-iminate the need to hand di iti.e frame after frame of video" The rowth of this 1e-d has been spurred b/ the vast rowth in participation in distance runnin in the -ate 19')&s and ear-/ 197)&s" *ppro2imate-/ B) mi--ion *mericans run for recreation or competition" The rate of in4ur/ is si ni1cant" 6ach /ear between 1:F and 1:( of runners wi-- sustain an in4ur/ that is severe enou h to cause a chan e in practice or perfor; mance ?B%F@" This ma/ -ead the runner to see$ consu-; tation% a-ter trainin % or use medication"
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"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95
7ecause runnin shoe companies now had a -ar e new mar$et% the/ spent part of their pro1ts to support
research" The increased incidence of in4ur/ hi h-i hted the -ac$ of understandin of the pathoph/sio-o / and biomechanics of chronic runnin in4uries" These in4uries are due to repetitive app-ication of re-ative-/ sma--oads over man/ repetitive c/c-es (in sharp distinction to acute traumatic events such as *IA ruptures in footba-- > a sin -e -ar e -oad)" The tissues respond dif;
ferent-/ as we-- ?5 7@"

0t is often the number of repetitions that is prob-em; atic" * variet/ of intrinsic and e2trinsic factors have been b-amed for the deve-opment of these t/pes of in4uries ?B%F%8@" 0n addition% particu-ar patterns of in4ur/ have been noted" Eames and Eones ?8@ noted that a-most 75K of comp-aints fe-- into si2 cate ories (!i " 1)" 0nterestin -/% one mi ht intuitive-/ thin$ that particu-ar anatomic abnorma-ities -ead to speci1c in4ur/ patterns (e" " h/perpronation predisposin to posterior tibias/ndrome or enu varum -eadin to i-iotibia- band s/ndrome)% but few such re-ationships have been found" Given the assumption that reater understandin wi-improve dia nosis and counse-in % the =uandar/ for the -ast two to three decades has been how to ma$e more
rea-m is dif1cu-t to identif/" 0t seems that Jr ,tan Eames (6u ene% NR% L,*) has been the c-inician who has e2hibited the reatest understandin of the biome; chanics of runnin ait ?(B@" Ge has a-so used biome; chanica- insi ht to shed -i ht on runnin in4ur/ patterns ?8%(F@ as have severa- biomechanists ?(5%('@" 6ven thou h shoe manufacturers have -ead the wa/ in some areas of biomechanics research% one must wonder whether a broad spectrum of focus is maintained b/ that approach" 2. Gait cycle
Gow does one o from a standsti-- to ma2imum
sense out of wh/ and how in4uries occur"

The vo-ume of -iterature is e2tensive+ therefore% not a-- materia- can be reviewed or referenced" !or the most part this treatment of the topic wi-- be restricted to biomechanics and its app-ication to the stud/ of run; nin ait" I-inica- information wi-- be reviewed to the e2tent that it focuses one&s attention on the issues at hand" The reader is referred to artic-es and chapters dedicated to the pathoph/sio-o / and mana ement of chronic runnin in4uries ?B 7%9 1F@" Runnin 0n4uries ?15@ edited b/ Gar/ #" Guten% DJ provides a re-evant% recent review of c-inica- materia-" These c-inica- and pathoph/sio-o ica- issues -ie outside the scope of this artic-e" ,evera- prior review artic-es ?1' (1@ dedicated to the biomechanics of runnin ait are recommended" These have been inva-uab-e to this author over the /ears and are hi h-/ recommended" The 7iomechanics of Jistance Runnin edited b/ Iavana h ?((@ is an
essentia- reference"
Lnfortunate-/% a si ni1cant void e2ists between the wor-d of the biomechanist and the rea-m of the c-ini; cian" * -oo$ at the avai-ab-e -iterature revea-s that the -in$ between the 1e-d of biomechanics and the c-inica-
forward ve-ocit/ durin sprintin O Gow does the move; ment strate / chan e between wa-$in and runnin -ocomotionO The demarcation between wa-$in and runnin (!i " 1% point *) occurs when periods of dou; b-e support durin the stance phase of the ait c/c-e (both feet are simu-taneous-/ in contact with the round) ive wa/ to two periods of doub-e Moat at the be innin and the end of the swin phase of ait (neither foot is touchin the round)" Genera--/ as speed increases further% initiacontact chan es from bein on the hindfoot to the forefoot (!i " 1% point 7)" This t/pica--/ mar$s the distinction between runnin and sprintin " 0n practica-it/% the difference between runnin and sprintin is in the oa- to be achieved" Runnin is performed over -on er distances% for en; durance% and with primari-/ aerobic metabo-ism" Eo ; in % road racin % and marathons are e2amp-es" *ppro2imate-/ 8)K of distance runners are rearfoot stri$ers" Dost of the remainder are characteri.ed as midfoot stri$ers ?(7@" ,printin activities are done over shorter distances and at faster speeds% with the oa- of coverin a re-ative-/ short distance in the shortest pe; riod of time possib-e without re ard for maintainin aerobic metabo-ism" 6-ite sprinters perform with a fore; foot initiacontact% and in fact% the hindfoot ma/ never contact the round" !or sprintin % the bod/ and its se ments are moved as rapid-/ as possib-e throu hout the entire race" !or distance runnin on the other hand% the bod/ is moved at a more contro--ed rate in re-ation to the ener / demand of the race"
The ait c/c-e is the basic unit of measurement in ait
!i " 1" !orward human -ocomotion" *t point *% stance phase e=ua-s 5)K of ait c/c-e" Periods of doub-e support in wa-$in ive wa/ to periods of doub-e Moat in runnin " Point 7 for the purposes of the $inematic and $inetic sections of this artic-e represents a chan e from
hindfoot to forefoot initiacontact"
ana-/sis ?(8@" The ait c/c-e be ins when one foot comes in contact with the round and ends when the same foot contacts the round a ain" These moments in time are referred to as initiacontact" ,tance ends when the foot is no -on er in contact with the round" Toe off mar$s the be innin of the swin phase of the ait c/c-e" 6ach of these phases for both wa-$in and run; nin is subdivided further as seen in !i " (" 7ecause the stance phase in wa-$in is -on er than 5)K of the ait c/c-e% there are two periods of doub-e support when
79
!i " (" The ait c/c-e" (a" Ca-$in 1 ure" (b" Ca-$in
ait c/c-e9 P0I% initiacontact+ AR% -oadin response+ PTN% toe off+ D,% midstance+ T,%
termina- stance+ P,% preswin + 0,% initia- swin + D,% midswin + T,% terminaswin " (c" Runnin 1 ure9 1" ,tance phase absorption" (" ,tance phase eneration" B" ,win phase eneration" F" ,win phase reversa-" 5" ,win phase absorption" PDuscu-os$e-eta- animation produced usin ,0DD (,oftware for Duscu-os$e-eta- Dode--in % Duscu-o raphics% Ihica o% 0--inois)" (d" Runnin ait c/c-e9 Pfor runnin and sprintin + 0I% initiacontact+ TN% toe off+ ,tR% stance phase reversa-+ ,wR% swin phase reversa-+ absorption% from ,wR throu h 0I to ,tR+ eneration% from ,tR
throu h TN to ,wR"
both feet are on the round (!i " B)% one at the be in; nin and one at the end of stance phase"
0n runnin % toe off occurs before 5)K of the ait c/c-e is comp-eted" There are no periods when both feet are in contact with the round" 0nstead% both feet are airborne twice durin the ait c/c-e% one at the be in; nin and one at the end of swin ?B)%B1@% referred to as doub-e Moat" The timin of toe off depends on speed" Aess time is spent in stance as the ath-ete moves faster" 0n our stud/% toe off occurred at B9 and B'K of the ait
c/c-e for runnin and sprintin % respective-/" !aster runners and e-ite sprinters spend much -ess time in stance than that (!i " B)" Cor-d c-ass sprinters toe off as ear-/ as ((K of the ait c/c-e ?B(@"
Re ard-ess of speed% a-ternate periods of acce-eration
and dece-eration occur durin runnin referred to as absorption and eneration (!i " (c%d)" *s can be seen% these phases do not coincide with the timin of initiacontact and toe off" The/ are out of phase" Jurin the period of absorption% the bod/&s center of mass fa--s from its pea$ hei ht durin doub-e Moat" This period is divided b/ initiacontact (0I) into swin phase absorp; tion (!i " (c% c 5) and stance phase absorption (!i " (c c 1)" The ve-ocit/ of the center of mass dece-erates hori.onta--/ durin this period as we--" *fter stance phase reversa-% the center of mass is prope--ed upward and forward durin stance phase eneration (!i " (c c ()" 3inetic and potentiaener / increase" The -imb is then prope--ed into swin phase after toe off (swin phase eneration > !i " (c cB)" *t swin phase rever; sa- (!i " (c c F)% the ne2t period of absorption be ins" These issues wi-- be discussed further in a subse=uent section on the interaction of potentia- and $inetic en; er /"
!i " B" 8ariation in ait c/c-e parameters with speed of movement" !or each condition% the bar raph be ins at initiacontact on the -eft and represents two comp-ete ait c/c-es or strides" #ote that as speed increases% time spent in swin (c-ear) increases% stance time (shaded) decreases% doub-e Moat increases% and c/c-e time shortens" 0nforma; tion for this raph comes from data co--ected at the Dotion *na-/sis Aab at Gi--ette Ihi-dren&s ,pecia-t/ Gea-thcare" PJata for e-ite sprint;
Chi-e stance wi-- be p-otted before swin for the
in is from 8au han ?1'@"
purposes of this artic-e% not a-- authors a ree with this convention" Dan/ pub-ications depict swin phase 1rst" 0n fact% Je8ita ?(9@ fe-t stron -/ that toe off shou-d mar$ the be innin of the ait c/c-e and that swin phase be depicted before stance" Gis reasonin was based on the observation that both net 4oint tor=ues
8)
!i " F" 6DG (adapted from Dann and Ga / ?B(@)" Dusc-e activit/ is represented b/ the so-id bars in re-ation to the ait c/c-e" *ppro2imate-/
1"B ait c/c-es are depicted in an effort to better visua-i.e the continous nature of runnin ait (b/ e-iminatin the arti1cia- division caused b/ be innin and endin the c/c-e at initiacontact)" #ote the reater number of active musc-e roups around the time of initiacontact (0I) and
the -ac$ of musc-e activation at the time of toe off (TN)"
and 6DG activit/ are reater at the transition from

swin to stance than from stance to swin " This su ; ests that the bod/&s preparation for round contact is more si ni1cant than that needed to -eave the round" This author has a-so fe-t that the arti1cia- division of the events surroundin initiacontact (b/ depictin it at the be innin and the end of the c/c-e) can -ead to a -oss of insi ht into the continuous nature of the activ; it/" 7oth events of course are important% and the issue can be easi-/ reso-ved b/ depictin two consecutive
and the deve-opment of musc-e force" Nne shou-d a-so not be confused b/ what wou-d seem to be ear-/ cessation of 6DG activit/ of the astroso-eus and =uadriceps in midstance because musc-e force is sti-present after 6DG activit/ ceases" B"1" #ectus:$uadriceps
The =uadriceps and rectus femoris both 1re from -ate
c/c-es ad4acent to one another"
3. EMG
Dusc-e activit/ durin norma- wa-$in ?BB@ and run; nin ?B)%BF%B5@ has been we-- documented" T/pica- e-ec; trom/o raphic (6DG) activit/ for runnin is depicted
in !i " F"
0n enera-% musc-es are most active in anticipation of and 4ust after initiacontact" Dusc-e contraction is apparent-/ more important at that time than it is for the preparation for and the act of -eavin the round" This certain-/ is consistent with Je8ita&s contention that the events surroundin 0I are more important than those around the time of TN" This is the basis for his recommendation that swin phase be depicted 1rst and stance phase second when raphica--/ representin the runnin ait c/c-e ?(9@" Dusc-e activit/ and function wi-- be discussed in more detai- in the $inetics section% and the reader can refer bac$ to !i " F to e2amine the re-ationship between $inetic 1ndin s and 6DG activit/"
swin to midstance to prepare the -imb for round contact and to absorb the shoc$ of that impact durin stance phase absorption" The c/c-e time for the data presented in !i " F is )"' s" The onset of =uadriceps activit/ is at 87K% 78 ms before 0I% which is consistent with the deve-opment of musc-e force 4ust before 0I" Nn-/ the rectus is active in midswin " This is essentiato restrain the posterior movement of the tibia as the $nee Me2es" The biarticu-ar rectus probab-/ p-a/s a ro-e in ener / transfer between se ments (see -ater section on biarticu-ar musc-es)" B"(" Ha%strin&s:hip e'tensors:&astrosoleus
*-- of these musc-e roups have simi-ar activation
Iomments here wi-- be brief"

Nne must remember that there is a de-a/ (appro2i; mate-/ 5) ms ?B'@) between the onset of 6DG activit/
times as described above" The hamstrin s and hip e2; tensors e2tend the hip in the (nd ha-f of swin and the 1rst ha-f of stance" The hamstrin s a-so dece-erate the momentum of the tibia as the $nee e2tends 4ust prior to 0I" ,imi-ar to the rectus% the biarticu-ar hamstrin s p-a/ a ro-e in ener / transfer between se ments" The ham; strin s and astroso-eus both have important eccentric and concentric functions whi-e the hip e2tensors proba; b-/ function on-/ concentrica--/ (see subse=uent $inetics section)"
81
!i " 5" 3inematics" These raphs show the chan in position of the 4oint -isted for one comp-ete ait c/c-e in a-- three p-anes" 6ach raph be ins and ends at initiacontact and therefore represents one ait c/c-e a-on the ';a2is" The vertica- dashed -ine represents toe off for each condition"
The portion of the raph to the -eft of the toe off -ine depicts 4oint motion durin stance phase whi-e swin phase motion is depicted to the ri ht of the dashed -ine" The position of the 4oint or bod/ se ment in de rees is represented a-on the y;a2is" Ca-$in is represented b/ the -i ht-/;dashed -ine% runnin the so-id -ine% and sprintin the heav/;dashed" The correspondin toe;off -ine is p-otted usin the same -ine st/-e" The continuous -ine connects 1ft/ data points (ever/ (K of the ait c/c-e) and represents avera e data (15 strides) for each of the three conditions" The position of the pe-vis is p-otted re-ative to the hori.onta- and vertica- coordinate s/stem of the -ab" Gip position represents the position of the femur p-otted re-ative to the position of the pe-vis" 3nee Me2ion;e2tension denotes the an -e between the femur and the tibia" )Q indicates fu-e2tension (18)Q between the femora- and the tibia- shafts)" JorsiMe2ion;p-antarMe2ion is the position of the foot re-ative to the tibia with a 9)Q
an -e bein p-otted as )Q" !oot pro ression an -e depicts the orientation of the foot re-ative to the -ab"
8(
!i " '" ,a itta- p-ane an$-e% $nee% and hip motion" 'a" *n$-e motion9 TN timin % 6-ite ((K% ,print B7K% Run B9K% Ca-$ '(K" The three sets of
s-ower data were co--ected at the Dotion *na-/sis Aaborator/ at Gi--ette Ihi-dren&s ,pecia-t/ Gea-thcare and represent avera e data (15 strides) for each of the three conditions" P6-ite sprintin data was adapted from Dann and Ga / ?B(@ and represents the avera e of two e-ite sprinters with simi-ar ve-ocities" JorsiMe2ion;p-antarMe2ion is the position of the foot re-ative to the tibia with a 9)Q an -e bein p-otted at )Q" 'b" 3nee motion9 3nee Me2ion;e2tension denotes the an -e between the femur and the tibia" )Q indicates fu-- e2tension (18)Q between the femora- and the tibia- shafts)" 'c" Thi h position9 Thi h position denotes the position of the thi h re-ative to the vertica-" * )Q an -e indicates that the thi h is in a vertica- position" This is comparab-e to the hip Me2ion:e2tension an -e depicted in !i " 5 e2cept that in that case the thi h position is p-otted
in re-ation to the position of the pe-vis and is% therefore% reported as a hip Me2ion:e2tension an -e"
B"B" Anterior tibialis The anterior tibia-is dorsiMe2es the an$-e to provide
c-earance in swin (concentric)% to a--ow round contact with the hindfoot initia--/% and to contro- the -owerin of the forefoot to the round durin the 1rst part of
stance (eccentric)"
4. Kinematics
3inematics are a description of movement and do not consider the forces that cause that movement" Ce can raph $inematic variab-es as a function of the percenta e of the tota- ait c/c-e or time" !or a-- of the $inematic raphic data presented in the ne2t section% the patterns of movement are important (when in the ait c/c-e the 4oint in =uestion is Me2in or e2tendin )" The pea$ va-ues in de rees of movement are not impor; tant as the/ depend on the ath-ete&s -eve- of trainin and speed" The timin of e2tremes of motion is impor; tant to note" This wi-- be true in the subse=uent $inetics section as we--" 3inematic data can be e2pressed in
other wa/s% e" " an -e;an -e dia rams ?B7%B8@% but these representations be in to have -ess meanin for the c-inician" Dotion in a-- three p-anes wi-- be considered" Nne must be co ni.ant of what the an u-ar measure; ments represent when readin such raphs" !or e2am; p-e% is the hip an -e the abso-ute position of the thi h se ment re-ative to vertica- or the an -e formed between the orientation of the thi h and that of the pe-visO ,ee the captions for !i " 5 and !i " ' for the conventions emp-o/ed in this artic-e" Dost of the information in the ne2t two sections has been presented e-sewhere ?B1%B9%F)@" F"1" Sa&ittal plane "ine%atics
Chen observin sa itta- p-ane motion there is a shift
into Me2ion and the center of mass is -owered as the motion chan es from wa-$in to runnin to sprintin " The pattern of movement in the ti-t of the pe-vis is simi-ar at a-- speeds (!i " 5)" Nne mi ht e2pect a reater amount of pe-vic motion with faster ve-ocities% but there is in fact ver/ -itt-e increased motion" Pe-vic motion is minimi.ed to conserve ener / and maintain ef1cienc/ in
8B
runnin and sprintin " Gowever% as speed increases% the

pe-vis and trun$ ti-t further forward" The center of mass is -owered% and the hori.onta- force produced in
the propu-sion phase is ma2imi.ed"

The foot and round e2ert an e=ua- and opposite force on one another (the round reaction force)" The position and acce-eration of the runner&s center of mass determines the direction and ma nitude of the round reaction force" Ionsider for e2amp-e a sprinter acce-er; atin from a standsti--" Jurin the initia- phase of acce-eration% the bod/ is ti-ted forward and the center of ravit/ fa--s far ahead of the contact point" *fter severa- ait c/c-es% the sprinter reaches ma2imum ve-oc; it/ and her center of mass then moves bac$ward" *n ath-ete who tried to acce-erate with her bod/ upri ht wou-d fa-- over bac$wards because of the direction of the GR!" The forward trun$ -ean and pe-vic ti-t $eep the round reaction force in a position to a--ow forward
foot is -owered to the round" 0n contrast% durin the absorption phase of runnin and sprintin % the an$-e dorsiMe2es as bod/ wei ht is transferred to the stance -e " Da2imum dorsiMe2ion durin stance phase in sprintin is -ess than in runnin because of the re-a; tive-/ p-antarMe2ed position at initiacontact and the shorter duration of the absorption period" Jurin the eneration phase of stance% ma2imum an$-e p-antarMe2; ion is reater in sprintin than in runnin " Jurin swin phase an$-e dorsiMe2ion is -ess in sprintin than in both wa-$in and runnin " JorsiMe2ion to a neutraposition is not necessar/ for toe c-earance durin sprintin iven the increased amount of hip and $nee Me2ion"
!i " 'a%b%c show the sa itta- p-ane $inematics for
acce-eration"
,a itta- p-ane hip motion is essentia--/ sinusoida- in wa-$in " Da2imum hip e2tension occurs 4ust before toe;off and ma2imum Me2ion occurs in mid to terminaswin " 0n runnin and sprintin ma2imum hip e2ten; sion is simi-ar to wa-$in % but occurs s-i ht-/ -ater in the ait c/c-e (at the time of toe off)" *s ve-ocit/ increases% so does ma2imum hip Me2ion -eadin to a -on er step -en th" Ln-i$e wa-$in % the hip e2tends durin the second ha-f of swin phase durin runnin and sprint; in in preparation for initiacontact" This difference is to avoid the e2cessive dece-eration that wou-d occur at the time of initiacontact if the foot were too far ahead of the center of mass of the bod/" The round reaction force vector wou-d be directed e2cessive-/ posterior-/" *-thou h the pattern of $nee motion in wa-$in % runnin % and sprintin is ver/ simi-ar% the e2tremes of motion are ver/ different" 0n runnin % durin the ab; sorption period of stance phase% the $nee Me2es to appro2imate-/ F5Q" This is fo--owed b/ $nee e2tension to an avera e of (5Q durin the propu-sion phase" 0n sprintin % the absorption period is shorter and the $nee Me2es -ess" Greater $nee e2tension occurs durin the propu-sion period pea$in at ()Q" ,win phase a-so e2hibits differences between wa-$in % runnin % and sprintin " Da2imum $nee Me2ion durin swin is about ')Q in norma- wa-$in " This is much -ess than the avera e of 9)Q in runnin or the 1)5Q in sprintin " The hi h-/ trained ath-ete in a fu-- sprint ma/ e2hibit up to
an$-e motion% $nee motion% and thi h position% respec; tive-/% for the s-ower speeds of movement (wa-$in > 1"( m:s% runnin > B"( m:s% and sprintin > B"9 m:s) for the sub4ects studied at Gi--ette Ihi-dren&s compared to e-ite sprintin data (9") m:s) adapted from Dann and Ga / ?B5@" This comparison is inc-uded to provide insi ht into a-terations in movement patterns with in; creasin speed" *t the an$-e (!i " 'a)% note that the timin of ma2imum dorsi; and p-antarMe2ion occurs ear-ier with increasin speed" The ran e of movement is more restricted in the e-ite sprinters" ,tance phase $nee motion (!i " 'b) is si ni1cant-/ different in the e-ite sprinters" There is apparent-/ minima- shoc$ absorption or -oadin response in the e-ite ath-etes in that the $nee does not e2tend durin the (nd ha-f of stance% as it does at s-ower speeds" *pparent-/ that function is comp-ete-/ provided for b/ the an$-e p-antarMe2ors and hip abduc; tors (see subse=uent $inetics section)" *s speed in; creases the amount of swin phase $nee Me2ion increases" The movement of the thi h (!i " 'c) is simi; -ar at a-- speeds of movement" Nnce a ain% the ma2ima and minima chan e with speed (especia--/ in swin ) and timin of those pea$s occurs ear-ier with increasin speed of movement" The e-ite sprinters e2tend their thi hs si ni1cant-/ more in preparation for initia- con; tact (to minimi.e the -oss of speed associated with round contact)" F"(" Coronal plane "ine%atics
Nvera--% corona- p-ane motion is more subt-e than
1B)Q of ma2imum $nee Me2ion (!i " 'b)"

0nitia- contact durin wa-$in and runnin occurs with the hee-" !or wa-$in % this occurs despite an$-e p-antar Me2ion because of the position of the tibia" 0n runnin % reater an$-e dorsiMe2ion is re=uired to achieve initia- hee- contact" 0n sprintin % initiacontact occurs on the forefoot" Tibia- position a--ows the an$-e to be in a more neutra- or s-i ht-/ dorsiMe2ed position" 0n wa-$in % the an$-e initia--/ p-antarMe2es as the fore;
sa itta- p-ane motion" 0t is however% important in mini; mi.in upper bod/ movement" 0n this p-ane% motion of the $nee and an$-e is restricted b/ the co--atera- -i a; ments" 0n contrast% si ni1cant motion occurs at the hip" *s the -imb is -oaded% the pe-vis remains re-ative-/ stationar/ (!i " 5)" The hip adducts re-ative to the pe-vis" This is a shoc$ absorbin mechanism simi-ar to that seen in the sa itta- p-ane at the $nee in runnin and the an$-e in sprintin " Throu hout the rest of stance phase% the pe-vis drops unti- the start of doub-e
8F
Moat where it is the most ob-i=ue" *s the -imb be ins

swin phase% this motion reverses" The pe-vis now e-e; vates to obtain foot c-earance" Genera--/% in wa-$in % runnin and sprintin % the hip is adducted whi-e the -imb is -oaded in stance phase and abducted durin swin " Gip motion in this p-ane mirrors the movement of the pe-vis" This near-/ reciproca- motion combined with s-i ht -umbope-vic motion minimi.es shou-der and head movement" This is one of the most important mechanisms for decoup-in the intense -ower e2tremit/ motion from the trun$ and head" The resu-t is re-ative-/ minima- head and trun$ motion a--owin ba-ance and
5. Kinetics Cinter and 7ishop out-ined the ma4or oa-s associ; ated with ath-etic events ?('@ providin an overa-- out; -ine in which to or ani.e one&s thin$in about the tas$s that musc-es must perform" The/ are
1" shoc$ absorption and contro- of vertica- co--apse
durin an/ wei ht acceptance phase+

(" ba-ance and posture contro- of the upper part of the
bod/+
B" ener / eneration associated with forward and up;
ward propu-sion+
F" contro- of direction chan es of the center of mass of
e=ui-ibrium to be maintained" F"B" rans'erse plane "ine%atics

Dotion in the transverse p-ane% as in the coronap-ane% is sma-- in ma nitude compared to the sa ittap-ane" Eoint rotations in this p-ane ma/ be the most dif1cu-t to comprehend because the/ are dif1cu-t to see" The movement patterns in the transverse p-ane are important for ener / ef1cienc/ (to be discussed in reater detai- -ater)" The function and motion of the pe-vis in the transverse p-ane is ver/ different in wa-$; in than in runnin and sprintin " 0n wa-$in % pe-vic rotation is an important method of -en thenin the stride" The pe-vis is ma2ima--/ rotated forward at initiacontact to achieve a -on er step -en th (!i " 5)" The resu-t is decreased hori.onta- ve-ocit/" Jurin runnin and sprintin ma2imum interna- pe-vic rotation occurs in midswin to -en then the stride% but b/ the time of initiacontact% the pe-vis has rotated e2terior-/" This ma2imi.es hori.onta- propu-sion force and avoids the
the bod/"
The stud/ of $inetics be ins to answer the <how and
wh/& of the movement we observe" 5"1" Center of pressure (C(P)

Nne method of eva-uatin force app-ication to the
foot is the assessment of center of pressure and the mappin of pressure distribution" ,i ni1cant variabi-it/ is seen% especia--/ between mid; and rearfoot stri$ers ?17@" Pressure distribution mappin can be represented raphica--/ in man/ wa/s" Nne representative method is seen in !i " 7"
Pressure is enera--/ initia--/ focused on the -atera-
border of the hee-" 0t moves fair-/ rapid-/ to the mediaaspect of the hee- and to the forefoot where two pea$s of pressure of near-/ e=ua- ma nitude under the 1rst and second metatarsa- heads are seen" Nf course% this t/pe of mappin ana-/sis is a-tered si ni1cant-/ b/ the
potentia- -oss of speed"

The pe-vis in runnin and sprintin a-so functions as a pivot between the counter;rotatin shou-ders and -e s" !or e2amp-e% when the ri ht -e is ma2ima--/ forward in midswin % the -eft shou-der is rotated for;
ward and the pe-vis is neutra-"

*nother important motion% pronation:supination% occurs in an ob-i=ue p-ane in the foot" 0n the raphs of !i " 5% the portion of this motion that occurs in the transverse p-ane is reMected as chan es in the foot pro ression an -e durin stance phase" The sa itta-
p-ane component of pronation:supination is incorpo;

rated in the an$-e dorsi:p-antarMe2ion p-ot (since the foot is mode-ed as a ri id bod/ in this mode-)" Prona; tion occurs durin the absorption phase whi-e the -imb is -oaded" The foot then supinates durin the eneration phase providin a stab-e -ever for push;off" 0n addition to the bone/ and -i amentous structures of the foot% the posterior tibia-is he-ps to controthis motion" This comp-e2 motion is dif1cu-t to =uantif/ biomechanica--/ because the motions are sma-- in ma nitude% and the bod/ se ments about which the/ occur are sma-- and
def/ accurate -oca-i.ation (see -ater section)"
!i " 7" Nne representative method of mappin p-antar pressure distribution" 0ndicated times represent e-apsed time from the moment of initiacontact for this rearfoot stri$er" (from Iavana h ?17@% with permission)"
85
because initiacontact is on the forefoot fo--owed b/

immediate dorsiMe2ion" The tota- ener / absorbed at the an$-e is reater in sprintin than in runnin (see an$-e 4oint power p-ot)" The period of absorption is fo--owed b/ a period of power eneration whether one is wa-$in % runnin % or sprintin %" The power enerated provides ener / for forward propu-sion" The ma nitude of the an$-e power eneration is direct-/ re-ated to the
ath-ete&s speed"
The $nee moment pattern is ver/ simi-ar in sprintin and runnin " To prepare for initiacontact% the ham; strin s become dominant in the second ha-f of swin producin a $nee Me2or moment" This moment contro-s
!i " 8" ,chematic of a t/pica- round reaction force (vertica- compo;

nent) in a runner (rearfoot stri$er)" The 1rst pea$ is a passive force pea$ associated with the shoc$ of contact with the round" This is attenuated b/ the hee- pad and shoewear and modi1ed b/ passive characteristics of the runnin surface" 0t is enera--/ sma--er and of shorter duration than the second pea$ due to active musc-e forces (as depicted in this e2amp-e)" This second pea$ is centered about stance phase absorption (vertica- dashed -ine) mar$in the end of dece-era;
tion (absorption) and the be innin of acce-eration ( eneration)"
rapid $nee e2tension" ,hort-/ after initiacontact% the =uadriceps become dominant producin a $nee e2ten; sor moment" The ma nitude of the pea$ $nee e2tensor moment tends to be reater in runnin than in sprint; in " This is re-ated to the runner&s reater de ree of $nee Me2ion as the -imb is -oaded"
0n runnin % as the $nee Me2es fo--owin initia- con;
wearin of shoes" The reader must reco ni.e that as -on as the motion of the bod/&s center of mass is unchan ed% shoewear does not a-ter the measured round reaction force" ,hoewear c-ear-/ can chan e the pressure app-ication to different anatomic structures of
the foot" 5"(" #aw force plate data

Raw force p-ate data can be ana-/.ed and depicted re-ative to the three dimensiona- -aborator/ coordi; nates" This t/pe of ana-/sis has been e2tensive-/ re; ported" ,evera- artic-es are particu-ar-/ recommended ?1'%(1%F1%F(@" !i " 8 is a schematic representation of a t/pica- vertica- component of the round reaction force in a runner who is a rearfoot stri$er" #o one foot stri$e pattern can be ta$en as representative of runners in enera-" 7/ comparison% midfoot stri$ers enera--/ have no initia- vertica- force pea$" Da2ima and minima are
tact% the =uadriceps contract eccentrica--/" This is seen as power absorption and reMects their essentia- ro-e as shoc$ absorbers" 0n sprintin % however% the an$-e p-antarMe2ors absorb much of the shoc$ of contact with the round" Therefore% -itt-e power is absorbed at the $nee" 0n both runnin and sprintin % the $nee e2tends in the second ha-f of stance phase" The =uadri; ceps contract concentrica--/ and power is enerated" 0n swin phase ver/ -itt-e power is enerated b/ the mus; c-es crossin the $nee" 0nstead the musc-es absorb power to contro- the movement of the swin in -e " The rectus femoris contracts eccentrica--/ in ear-/ swin to prevent e2cessive $nee Me2ion" Jurin -ate swin phase the hamstrin s contract eccentrica--/ to controthe momentum of the tibia and prevent $nee h/pere2; tension as the $nee is rapid-/ e2tendin "
The hip moment pattern is simi-ar in a-- conditions of
ve-ocit/ dependent ?FB@" 5"B" Sa&ittal plane )oint %o%ents and powers
7/ combinin $inematics with the measured round reaction force% net 4oint moments and powers can be ca-cu-ated" The mathematica- method used for this
ca-cu-ation is <inverse d/namics&"

,a itta- p-ane $inetic 1ndin s are of the most inter; est" Jurin runnin % the an$-e moment pattern is simi; -ar to that in wa-$in (!i " 9)" 0nitia- contact is with the hee-" The forefoot is -owered to the round under the contro- of eccentric contraction of the anterior tibiamusc-es" The onset of the an$-e p-antarMe2ion moment occurs at 5 1)K of the runnin ait c/c-e" 0n contrast% durin sprintin there is no initia- dorsiMe2or moment
forward -ocomotion" Eust prior to and 4ust after initiacontact% the hip e2tensors are dominant" 0n contrast% the hip Me2ors are dominant in the second ha-f of stance throu h the 1rst ha-f of swin " 7oth the hip Me2ors and e2tensors are responsib-e for increased power eneration in runnin and sprintin " Pea$ hip Me2ion occurs in the second ha-f of swin in both runnin and sprintin " *fter pea$ Me2ion occurs the hip e2tensors contract concentrica--/ to e2tend the hip in preparation for initiacontact" The power raph depicts power eneration for runnin and sprintin prior to initiacontact" The hip e2tensors continue to enerate power throu h the 1rst ha-f of stance phase" The hip continues to rapid-/ e2tend" !o--owin this% the hip Me2ors become dominant and dece-erate the bac$ward rotatin thi h in preparation for swin " Jurin this time% the psoas tendon is stretched" The ener / ab; sorbed in stretchin the tendon is returned at toe off"
8'
!i " 9" ,a itta- p-ane 4oint moments and powers" Eoints are or ani.ed b/ co-umn" !or convenience% the correspondin 4oint motion is shown in
the 1rst row" The net 4oint moment is shown in the second row" Eoint moments are -abe--ed as the interna- moment (some authors use the convention of -abe--in as the e2terna- moment)" 0n the net 4oint power p-ots (third row) periods of power absorption are ne ative (deMections
be-ow the .ero -ine) whi-e periods of power eneration are positive" Resu-ts are norma-i.ed b/ dividin b/ bod/ wei ht in $ "
5"F" Coronal plane )oint %o%ents and powers *-thou h the ma nitudes of corona- p-ane moments
are substantia-% the musc-es and -i aments that create them function primari-/ as stabi-i.ers" There is minimamotion+ therefore% power enerated and absorbed are much -ess than in the sa itta- p-ane" Iorona- p-ane $inetic data is not raphica--/ depicted in this review" The reader is referred to prior pub-ications ?B1%B9@"
Jurin stance phase% a continuous hip abductor mo; ment is produced primari-/ b/ the -uteus medius" The hip adducts in the absorption phase because the round reaction force fa--s media- to the hip and the hip abductor moment is -ess than the e2terna- adduction moment due to ravitationa- and acce-eration -oads" The -uteus medius contracts eccentrica--/ to controthis motion" Jurin the propu-sion phase% the -uteus medius contracts concentrica--/ abductin the hip and
87
!i " 1)" 6ner / sources" The area of each pie chart corresponds to the tota- amount of positive wor$ (area underneath the power curve positive
pea$s > see !i " 9) measured for the -ower e2tremit/ 4oints for each condition" The si.e of each portion of the chart corresponds to the percenta e
contribution from each pea$ inc-uded in the ca-cu-ation"
eneratin power" *t the $nee and an$-e% moments are

enerated but -itt-e motion occurs" Therefore% -i a; ments% bone on bone contact forces% and tendons nei;
but it a-so concentrates wei ht pro2ima--/ in order to minimi.e the inertia of the rapid-/ movin dista- se ; ments"
Nne shou-d a-so note that each of these essentia-
ther enerate nor absorb si ni1cant power" 5"5" Conclusions based on "inetics
The movement strate / chan es as one increases speed" This is apparent b/ considerin the sources of power eneration for forward propu-sion (!i " 1))" 7/ e2aminin the power curves% one can see that the main
sources of power eneration are from

1" the hip e2tensors durin the second ha-f of swin
power enerators stretches eccentrica--/ 4ust prior to eneratin their burst of power (!i " 9)" 0t has been shown that tendons stretch and then ef1cient-/ return most of that ener / when the/ recoi-" 0n addition% it is we-- $nown that musc-es that are pretensioned and then contract enerate more power per unit of activation than those that are not" 0n essence one can consider the tendons as the sprin s and the musc-es as the tensioners of the sprin s (see -ater section)"
The ro-e of the arms in runnin has been an area of
and the 1rst ha-f of stance+ (" the hip Me2ors after toe off+
B" and the $nee e2tensors% hip abductors% and an$-e
p-antarMe2ors durin stance phase eneration"

6ssentia--/% the hamstrin s and -uteus ma2imus pu-the bod/ forward b/ active-/ e2tendin the hip after swin phase reversa- when the foot is ahead of the bod/" Then% durin the second ha-f of stance phase% the =uadriceps and astroso-eus contract to push us for; ward b/ e2tendin the $nee and p-antarMe2in the foot" The hip abductors are contractin to stabi-i.e the hip and perhaps to provide -ift (unproven)" !ina--/% the psoas prope-s the -imb into swin b/ pu--in the thi h forward" The tota- amount of power enerated in; creases as speed increases% and the re-ative contribution from each of these musc-e roups chan es such that re-ative-/ more power is enerated pro2ima--/ as speed increases" The musc-e mass of a horse (an anima- that is ab-e to run much faster than a human) is concentrated pro2ima--/" The musc-es have -on tendons connectin them to their dista- -ever arms" This anatomic feature is not on-/ consistent with the 1ndin mentioned above%
debate" Ginrichs ?FF@ conc-uded that the arms provide -ift and that in distance runnin % the/ do not contribute to forward propu-sion" The/ he-p the runner maintain a more constant hori.onta- ve-ocit/ b/ actin as a coun; terba-ance for the rotatin -ower e2tremities ?F5@" 6. Potential and inetic ener!y
The re-ationship between potentia- and $inetic ener /
is critica--/ different between wa-$in and runnin ac; tivities (!i " 11)" 0n wa-$in % the two are out of phase" Chen potentiaener / is hi h% $inetic ener / is -ow% and vice versa" Ca-$in has been referred to as con; tro--ed fa--in (from the .enith of the center of mass in midstance to its nadir durin doub-e support) and is simi-ar to a swin in pendu-um" 0n runnin on the other hand% the two are in phase" Runnin has been -i$ened to an individua- on a po o stic$ ?(1@% prope--in onese-f from a -ow point durin the midd-e portion of stance (stance phase reversa-) to a pea$ durin doub-e Moat"
88
7ecause of this difference% the bod/ comp-ete-/ a-ters the methods it uses to maintain ener / ef1cienc/" Aar e
Muctuations in tota- ener / oin into and out of the s/stem wou-d be disadvanta eous re ard-ess of the pace of movement" 6f1cienc/ in wa-$in is maintained b/ the effective interchan e between potentia- and $inetic ener /" The/ are out of phase" 0n runnin % because the two are in phase% this is not possib-e" 0nstead% ef1cienc/
is primari-/ maintained in two wa/s ?1'%B1%B9@"

1" The stora e and -ater return of e-astic potentiaener / b/ the stretch of e-astic structures (especia--/
tendons)+
(" The transfer of ener / from one bod/ se ment to another b/ two 4oint musc-es such as the rectus
!i " 1(" G/steresis curve for tendon" Tendons ef1cient-/ recoi- in a sprin -i$e fashion returnin appro2imate-/ 95K of the ener / stored when stretched" !or an/ iven amount of stretch (strain)% the differ; ence in stress is dissipated as heat"
femoris and the hamstrin s"

These two concepts wi-- be addressed separate-/ in the ne2t two sections" These mechanisms do not occur without some cost of their own" 0t is the repetitive c/c-in of tendon stretch and recoi- that is responsib-e for man/ of the chronic overuse s/ndromes in runners
Jurin runnin % potentia- and $inetic ener / pea$ in
?7@ (see subse=uent <in4uries& section)"
midswin " *s the center of mass fa--s toward the round% potentiaener / is -ost" *s the foot contacts the round% $inetic ener / is -ost" Duch of the -ost potentia- and $inetic ener / is converted into e-astic potentiaener / and stored in the musc-es% tendons% and -i aments (see -ater section on the tendon as the muscu-otendinous sprin )" Jurin the eneration phase% the center of mass acce-erates upward and both potentia- and $inetic ener / increase" 6ner / for this movement is supp-ied b/ the active contraction of the musc-es and the re-ease of the e-astic potentiaener / stored in the -i aments and tendons" The stora e of ener / in the e-astic structures of the -ower e2tremities thus p-a/s a more important ro-e in runnin and sprint; in than in wa-$in "
". #endons as s$rin!s *s mentioned above% each of these muscu-otendinous
units absorbs power b/ stretchin (eccentric) 4ust before the/ shorten (concentric) to enerate power" Recent anima- studies have indicated that the chan es in the -en th of the musc-e be--/ itse-f are re-ative-/ minima?F'@" 0nstead% the/ function as tensioners of the muscu; -otendinous sprin s% their tendons" Dost of the chan e in -en th comes from the stretch and recoi- of their respective tendons" Therefore% most of the wor$ is done b/ the tendons" *n e2ce--ent source for information on this topic is provided b/ DcDahon ?F7@"
Tendons are% in fact% e2ce--ent bio-o ica- sprin s (!i "
!i " 11" The re-ationship between potentia- and $inetic ener / in wa-$in and runnin " The re-ationship between potentia- and $inetic ener / is one of the crucia- differences between wa-$in and runnin "
0n wa-$in % the/ are out of phase" 0n runnin % the/ are in phase"
1()" 0n this wa/% we shou-d be in to thin$ of tendons as sprin s and musc-es as the tensioners of the sprin s" The ana-o / of a runner to a person on a po o stic$ ?(1@ starts to ma$e even more senseR 0f we consider the *chi--es& tendon% for e2amp-e% we can be in to under; stand the wa/ that it stretches durin the 1rst portion
89
of the stance phase of the ait c/c-e and recoi-s to

return that ener / bac$ to the individua- at the time of push;off" 0t functions in a simi-ar fashion to the sprin of the po o stic$ (e2cept that the tendon stretches under tension whi-e the po o stic$ sprin compresses under pressure)" 6ach returns the ener / that it absorbs
bac$ to the s/stem"

R" Dc#ei- *-e2ander found that the tota- ener / turnover in each stance phase of a 7) $ man is 1)) E
when runnin at F"5 m:s ?F8@" Ge estimated that B5 E are

stored as strain ener / in the hee-cord and 17 E in the arch of the foot" Dore is stored in the stretch of the =uadriceps and pate--ar tendons" Therefore% -ess than ha-f of the ener / has to be removed b/ the musc-es actin as bra$es and returned b/ them doin wor$" The
Eacobs et a- ?5)@ h/pothesi.e that biarticu-ar -e musc-es p-a/ an effective ro-e in power transfer from pro2ima- 4oints to dista- 4oints in order to cause an ef1cient conversion of successive rotationa- motions of bod/ se ments into trans-ation of the bod/ center of ravit/" Pri-uts$/ and Satsiors$/ ?51@ conc-uded that at push off the two 4oint rectus femoris and astrocnemius transfer mechanica- ener / from the pro2ima- 4oints of the -e to the dista- ones to he-p e2tend the dista- 4oints" *t initiacontact and the 1rst ha-f of stance% the/ transfer ener / from the dista- to pro2ima- 4oints to he-p dissipate the mechanica- ener / of the bod/"
The passive transfer of ener / between ad4acent se ;
musc-es must sti-- e2ert the tension% but the/ shorten:

-en then -ess" The idea that the bod/&s s/stem of mus; c-e% tendon% and -i ament sprin s behaves -i$e a sin -e -inear sprin (<-e sprin &) is supported b/ the wor$ of !ar-e/ and Gon.a-e. ?F9@" The/ conc-uded that the most important ad4ustment to the bod/&s sprin s/stem to accommodate hi her stride fre=uencies is that the -e sprin becomes stiffer (for stride fre=uencies from ('K be-ow to B'K above preferred fre=uenc/% the stiffness increased b/ ("B;fo-d from 7") to 1'"B $#:m)" The/ a-so noted that vertica- disp-acement decreased with in;
ments at the 4oint and via sin -e 4oint musc-es ma/ a-so be an important method of maintainin ener / ef1; cienc/" Robertson and Cinter ?5(@ reported that me; chanica- ener / transfer b/ this method was si ni1cant for wa-$in " 0t is -i$e-/ that it is as or more important in runnin % but the author is not aware of an/ pub-ica; tions on this topic"
'. Economy o( motion

0t is enera--/ accepted that one of the most impor;
creased stride fre=uenc/"
%. &iarticular muscles
The second mechanism% transfer of ener / between bod/ se ments b/ two;4oint musc-es% a-so contributes to ener / ef1cienc/" 6-ftman is the 1rst to be reco ni.ed for proposin this princip-e" Ionsider the hamstrin s in the second ha-f of swin phase" The hip and $nee are both e2tendin (!i " 5) whi-e the hamstrin s are con; tractin (!i " F)" *n e2tensor moment is produced b/ the hamstrin s at the hip whi-e the/ enerate a Me2or moment at the $nee (!i " 9% row ()" The moment produced at the $nee is opposite the $nee motion" 0n effect the hamstrin s absorb ener / at the $nee and enerate ener / at the hip (!i " 9% row B)" Gowever since the overa-- chan e in -en th of the hamstrin s is minima-% the hamstrin s as a who-e can be considered to neither absorb nor enerate ener /" 0n this instance the hamstrin s can be thou ht to function as an <ener / strap&% transferrin ener / from the movin tibia to the pe-vis to aid in hip e2tension" *s the $nee e2tends% ener / from the tibia is supp-ied to the pe-vis to au ; ment hip e2tension" * simi-ar t/pe of ana-/sis can be done for the two 4oint rectus femoris durin the 1rst ha-f of swin " This can be visua-i.ed more easi-/ b/ over-a/in the power curves for the hip% $nee% and
tant determinin factors of the manner in which the individua- moves is to ma2imi.e ener / ef1cienc/" 0n enera- it is he-d that for aerobic% stead/ state condi; tions% one chooses the movement strate ies which are most economica- in re ard to ener / usa e" 6conom/ of movement has a-so been fe-t to be a drivin force for the evo-ution of -imb structure in terrestria- anima-s" Jespite these be-iefs% interindividua- variabi-it/ in wa-$; in and runnin aerobic demand is si ni1cant" The source of this variabi-it/ has been pursued e2tensive-/" This author hi h-/ recommends the review of the essen;
an$-e (!i " 1B)"
!i " 1B" Power over-a/ > biarticu-ar musc-es" Jata represents a sin -e sub4ect runnin at B"( m:s" #otice the Mow of ener / via the two 4oint musc-es (primari-/ rectus femoris and hamstrin s) depicted b/ the near-/ mirror ima es of the $nee and hip power curves% i"e" when power is absorbed at one 4oint% it is enerated at the other" 0n this wa/% biarticu-ar musc-es act as <ener / straps& b/ harnessin the momentum of a movin bod/ se ment and transferrin that ener / to the ne2t ad4acent 4oint"
9)
-imbs (i"e" the cost of supportin wei ht) and an inverse

re-ationship to stride rate (i"e" the shorter the time course for app-ication of force% the hi her the ener / cost)" !ina--/% as noted b/ Dartin and Dor an ?5B@% <The =uestion re ardin our abi-it/ to si ni1cant-/ im; prove econom/ throu h biomechanica- trainin remains
unanswered& (p" F7()" 1). *oot biomechanics

Aa/ and sports medicine -iterature has b-amed e2ces; sive pronation for near-/ a-- ma-adies of the -ower e2tremities (and the spine% for that matter)" 0t is fe-t that abnorma- movement of this 4oint occurrin over the course of thousands of repetitious c/c-es -eads to overuse s/ndromes due to increased interna- rotation of the tibia via the mitered hin e effect ?58@" There is a -ar e amount of empiric c-inica- support for this notion in that shoes or orthotics desi ned to diminish h/per; pronation fre=uent-/ e-iminate painfu- conditions" Ln;
!i " 1F" N curve"

(
tia- aspects of this topic b/ Dartin and Dor an ?5B@"

The/ e2amined the econom/ of movement in re ards to the effects of four enera- cate ories > bod/ structure%
fortunate-/% there is -itt-e =uantitative evidence of this t/pe of abnorma- biomechanics ?17@"
,evera- foot and an$-e biomechanics review artic-es
$inematics% $inetics% and biomechanica- feedbac$:train; in " 0t is c-ear that each individua- wa-$s at his:her most
economica- speed" !i " 1F (adapted from *-e2ander ?(1@) revea-s the inverted L;shaped speed:econom/ re-a; tionship for wa-$in " Dinimum aerobic demand occurs at appro2imate-/ 1"B m:s" 7etween 1"1 and 1"F m:s% the speed;ener / e2penditure curve is near-/ Mat a--owin
variabi-it/ of about 915K difference in wa-$in speed without compromisin ef1cienc/"

0n contrast% no such re-ationship e2ists for runnin speed and ener / cost" N2/ en cost chan es -itt-e over a wide ran e of chosen runnin speeds" 6conom/ of movement is obvious-/ maintained b/ mechanisms that remain e-usive% but the/ undoubted-/ inc-ude choices of stride -en th:cadence ?5F@% musc-e shortenin ve-ocit/ ?55@% and sources of mechanica- power output ?5'@" * third conc-usion that can be drawn from !i " 1F is that it wou-d be e2treme-/ uneconomica- to continue to
wa-$ at speeds e2ceedin B m:s" *s previous-/ dis;

cussed% this difference is at -east partia--/ e2p-ained b/ the method which is most important for maintainin ener / ef1cienc/" 0n wa-$in % the transfer between po; tentia- and $inetic ener / is most important" ,ince this is not possib-e in runnin % ener / transfer b/ the biar; ticu-ar musc-es and the stora e and -ater return of e-astic potentiaener / in tendons are most important" 3ram and Ta/-or ?57@ conc-uded that econom/ of runnin invo-ves -itt-e re-ationship to wor$ done a ainst the environment" 0nstead the two most impor; tant factors are a direct re-ationship to wor$ done b/ musc-es and tendons to -ift and acce-erate the bod/ and
e2amine norma- and patho-o ica- mechanics of hind; and midfoot motion ?59%')@" Ro er Dann ?'1@% of course% has -ead the wa/ in educatin biomechanists and the medica- communit/ in this area" I.erniec$i&s review ?58@ corre-ates foot and an$-e biomechanics with Perr/&s three stance phase an$-e roc$ers combinin two separate areas of $now-ed e" ,a itta- p-ane an$-e mo; tion is accompanied b/ rotation in the transverse p-ane and rotation of the foot about its -on a2is due to the ob-i=ue orientation of the an$-e 4oint" Jurin ait% when the foot is 12ed to the round% an$-e dorsiMe2ion causes interna- rotation of the tibia and pronation of the foot" The subta-ar 4oint a-so has an ob-i=ue a2is of rotation and is therefore a-so responsib-e for the com; p-e2 movement of pronation:supination of the foot re-ative to the tibia" * ain via the mitered hin e effect% rotationator=ues about the -on itudina- a2is of the foot are transmitted to the tibia resu-tin in rotationator=ues about its -on itudina- a2is" *t initiacontact% the hindfoot is t/pica--/ inverted" Pronation then occurs as the -imb is -oaded durin the absorption phase" Pronation <un-oc$s& the transverse tarsa- 4oint increas; in the Me2ibi-it/ of the foot a--owin it to function more effective-/ as a shoc$ absorber" Pea$ pronation norma--/ occurs at F)K of stance phase (!i " 15)" The foot then be ins to supinate and reaches a neutraposition at 7)K of stance" The transverse tarsa- 4oint is then <-oc$ed&" The eneration phase has been reached% and the foot is now more ri id a--owin it to act more effective-/ as a -ever for push;off" The <h/perpronator& ma/ not be in to supinate or reach a neutraposition unti- -ater > we-- after power eneration was to have
91
*reb-ad et a-" ?'F@ showed chan es in variab-es of up

to 1Q for ever/ (Q of chan e of the a-i nment an -e when comparin an -es derived from a B;J mode- to the pro4ected an -es of the -ower e2tremit/ athered with a (;J mode-" These errors were found to be most inMuenced b/ differences in the a-i nment of the -on i; tudina- a2is of the foot with the camera a2is" This points out the concern surroundin the use of (;J
!i " 15" *bnorma- e2cessive pronation" This schematic i--ustrates the
difference between norma- foot mechanics and that of the h/permo; bi-e% <pronated& foot" Time to ma2 pronation is de-a/ed be/ond F)K of stance" Ai$ewise% the period of pronation is pro-on ed de-a/in the onset of supination" This dia ram does not reMect the de ree of e2cessive movement nor does it account for abnorma- pronation
s/stems"
Nther efforts to eva-uate and =uantif/ B;J motion of
ve-ocit/"
be un" 0n this case% the foot wou-d not be an effective
-ever"
The foot in most -aboratories is mode-ed as a sin -e ri id bod/" Therefore% motion of the an$-e% subta-ar% and transverse tarsa- 4oints is measured and reported as a sin -e 4oint" This is c-ear-/ too simp-isticR Gera-d Garris and his co;wor$ers ?'(%'B@ and others ?'F%'5@ have reported on their efforts to deve-op an accurate and precise B;J measurement s/stem to =uantif/ the position of these bod/ se ments and of the motion of the 4oints between them" Gindfoot motion has fre; =uent-/ been measured usin two dimensiona- video measurement" 0n this t/pe of ana-/sis% eversion and inversion an -es of the ca-caneus are used to desi nate pronation and supination movement of the subta-ar 4oint ?17@ (!i " 1')" These pairs of terms have essentia--/
the foot i--ustrate new dif1cu-ties" 6n sber and *n; drews ?''@ obtained data in (;J" 0t was then reduced to B;J" The authors ac$now-ed ed that this ma/ intro; duce error" * review of their paper a-so emphasi.es the dif1cu-t/ of raphica- presentation of B;J data in a (;J reportin format" 0t can be e2treme-/ confusin R The/ reported the pro4ection of the direction cosine vector of the e=uiva-ent screw disp-acement onto the 'y* coordi; nate s/stem" The comp-e2it/ of this t/pe of data presen; tation essentia--/ -imits its uti-it/ to a sma-- se-ect roup of researchers" Iertain-/ the c-inician wi-- not ather an/ meanin from this information" *s a c-inician% it does not spea$ to meR The importance of reportin data about rotations between two bod/ se ments in a man; ner that has anatomica- functiona- meanin was em; phasi.ed b/ ,outas;Aitt-e et a-" ?'7@% /et in their stud/ the foot and shan$ were mode-ed as two ri id bodies" The authors pointed out the -imitations of the common approach of de1nin rearfoot motion as the pro4ection of the an -e between a -ine on the posterior aspect of the shan$ and a -ine on the hee- (!i " 1')"
0t remains to be seen whether an abso-ute de ree of
been used interchan eab-/"
pronation% the timin of pronation% or the ma2imum ve-ocit/ of pronation ?'8@ is most important in the deve-opment of in4ur/" 11. +hoes
#umerous pub-ications have been written on the
!i " 1'" T/pica- rearfoot eversion an -e" Two dimensiona- assessment of the rearfoot eversion an -e common-/ reported in runnin biome; chanics -iterature" Da4or sources of error inc-ude rotationa- motion out of the p-ane of view and the inabi-it/ to visua-i.e the rearfoot
topic of runnin shoe ana-/sis ?'9 75@" Pin$ and Eobe ?7'@ recent-/ summari.ed the status of current thou ht about the interface between the foot and the shoe" 0t is essentia- that shoes not on-/ be tested in the -aborato; ries of shoe companies but a-so in vivo because individ; ua-s modif/ their movement pattern in comp-e2 wa/s in response to chan es in their d/namic ba-ance" This is undoubted-/ under neuro-o ic contro-" 0t certain-/ ma$es the documentation of improvement with a-ter; ations in shoewear or in shoe orthotics dif1cu-t" Per; haps the vast c-inica- empiric e2perience re-atin improvement with orthotic intervention is due to this t/pe of adaptationR
7ates et a-" ?7B%7F@ conc-uded that there was no <best&
position (obscured b/ shoewear)"
shoe for a-- runners" The/ corre-ated in4uries and man; a ement to shoc$ absorption and contro-:stabi-i.ation"
9(
The/ found that intra; and intersub4ect variabi-it/ was

-ar e" The differences between sub4ects for a iven condition were reater than the differences between conditions (different shoe desi ns) for a iven sub4ect" The/ conc-uded that the shoe must be on the foot to test its function and that d/namic function must be the
basis for eva-uation and desi n"

Cinter and 7ishop ?('@ stated that for runners <footwear is predicted to protect or attenuate the poten;
Runnin shoe manufacturers have attempted to de; ve-op a cushionin s/stem that not on-/ dissipates ener / but a-so stores it to a--ow for passive ener / e2chan e (to enhance performance)" To this point% to the author&s $now-ed e% the amount of ener / return remains =uite sma-- compared to the stora e character; istics of the stretch:recoi- properties of the soft tissue structures of the ath-ete&s -ower e2tremities ?78@"
Chi-e a-terations in shoewear or the use of orthotics
tia- dama in forces in three wa/s&

1" shoc$ absorption at hee- contact reducin the initiaspi$e of reaction force (protects a ainst 4oint carti;
ma/ decrease foot and -ower -e prob-ems% the more pro2ima- prob-ems persist"
Jespite advances in shoewear techno-o /% the overa--
-a e dama e)+
(" stance phase > protects a ainst the rou h round
surface+
B" a-i nin the forefoot to achieve a uniform force
distribution at the ma4or chronic in4ur/ sites"

!or these reasons% the three main areas of focus for shoe desi n have been on the attenuation of the shoc$ of hee- stri$e% the contro- of hindfoot motion durin -oadin response% and forefoot stabi-it/ in stance phase" *n idea--/ constructed shoe provides both shoc$ ab; sorption and stabi-i.ation of the foot" 0ntrinsic factors of each individua- runner such as de ree of pronation% Me2ibi-it/ of the foot% and bod/ wei ht are a-- important factors which must be considered when se-ectin a
rate of in4ur/ in distance runners has not chan ed si ni1cant-/" This -ends credence to the concept that chronic in4ur/ patterns are due to factors other than the forces enerated b/ the shoc$ of initiacontact and foot a-i nment in stance" 12. In,uries
*s has been shown% forces are not on-/ hi her but
runnin shoe"
,tabi-it/ and motion contro- are addressed in -ast desi n% stiffer hee- counters% -acin s/stems% 1ber -ass midso-e p-ates% and materia- combinations of var/in densit/ in the shoe&s midso-e ?77@" Jesi n features that contro- the tendenc/ for h/perpronation and maintain neutra- forefoot position in midstance can minimi.e e2cessive stresses on the media- side of the *chi--es& tendon or p-antar fascia" !orces ma/ be more uni; form-/ distributed and therefore the potentia- for in4ur/
the/ must be attenuated in rou h-/ one;third the time (as compared to wa-$in )" 6ven a s-i ht biomechanicaabnorma-it/ can induce in4ur/ ?77@" 0t shou-d be appar; ent that in4ured runners can not be tested to provide insi ht into the mechanisms b/ which the/ became in4ured" J/namic ana-/sis in that case wou-d document the compensator/ ait mechanisms emp-o/ed b/ the runner to avoid pain rather than the ait pattern that -ead to in4ur/" 0nstead% runners wou-d need to be tested prior to in4ur/ and then fo--owed c-inica--/ for the deve-opment of an in4ur/"
Lnti- biomechanica- ana-/sis of the forces created in
minimi.ed"
Iushionin and rearfoot contro- re=uire opposite desi n features" Therefore% a sin -e shoe desi n cannot ma2imi.e both" !or more cushionin % thic$er;so-ed shoes are better than softer ones% but softer materia-s
contro- pronation poor-/"

0nterestin -/% =uanti1ab-e differences between racin and trainin shoes are ne -i ib-e despite the common-/ he-d be-ief that racin shoes provide -ess shoc$ absorp; tion and contro- of movement ?FB@" Perhaps runners adapt their runnin st/-e to maintain acceptab-e force -eve-s" Nn the other hand% actua- differences ma/ e2ist
but are undetectab-e"

Dechanica- testin of shoes for shoc$ attenuation has shown a BBK difference between different shoe mode-s ?77@" 0n this report% 75K of shoc$ attenuatin capabi-it/ was found to be retained after 5) mi-es and on-/ '7K after 1)) > 15) mi-es" 0n vivo testin in vo-unteers showed simi-ar but -ess severe de radation
with 7)K retention of cushionin after 5)) mi-es"
runnin was avai-ab-e% the forces that create the tissue trauma responsib-e for chronic in4uries was un$nown" This -ed to inaccurate assumptions" The reatest of these was that most in4uries occur as a resu-t of the hi h impact forces at the time of hee-stri$e" *s a resu-t% a tremendous amount of research has focused on footwear and the runnin surface and how those two factors a-ter the impact of hee-stri$e ?'9 75@" 7/ re; viewin !i " 8% it is eas/ to see that the passive forces associated with hee-stri$e are sma--er and shorter in duration than the -ar er% active force phase durin the -atter B:F of the stance phase ?F)@" This is not to sa/ that attenuatin the shoc$ of round contact is not important" 0t is essentia-% however% to understand that absorption does not occur instantaneous-/ -i$e a bow-; in ba-- -andin on a cement sidewa-$R ,evera- different tissues dissipate this force over time durin the 1rst ha-f of stance phase (as previous-/ discussed) thereb/ mini; mi.in the shoc$ to the bod/ ?F)@" These tissues inc-ude 1" *chi--es& tendon (" P-antar fascia B" Tuadriceps mechanism
9B
F" Gip abductors 0t is notab-e that this -ist is comprised of man/ of the
most common in4ur/ sites in distance runners" 0nverse d/namics has indeed advanced the state of the art of biomechanica- eva-uationR 0t now seems more -i$e-/ that most of the chronic in4uries from 4o in are re-ated to the hi h forces that occur in mid; and -ate stance ?79@" 7ased on these ca-cu-ations% trainin with eccentric $nee e2ercise and concentric p-antarMe2ion can be recommended to he-p avoid in4ur/" Ce now have an appreciation for the biomechanica- stresses that can ive us insi ht into the etio-o / of some of the most
in the ran e of ' 8 times bod/ wei ht ?(1%8)@" Pea$ forces do not occur at initiacontact% but in midstance" The/ are enerated b/ the powerfu- contraction of the astroso-eus > not b/ the shoc$ of initiacontact with the round" These in4uries are due to the active musc-e forces of midstance not to the passive impact forces at the time of initiacontact"
,hoe wear and the t/pe of runnin surface are much
common in4ur/ patterns"

6ven thou h inverse d/namics a--ows the eva-uation of net 4oint moments about the hip% $nee% and an$-e% and provides insi ht into the -ocation and timin of these soft tissues stresses ?('%B1%B9@% actua- stress -eve-s within speci1c muscu-otendinous structures cannot be measured un-ess strain au es are imp-anted" 7iome; chanica- -in$ se ment mode-s can be used to estimate force and stress -eve-s" !or instance *chi--es& tendon forces have been estimated to be appro2imate-/ ' 8 times bod/ wei ht ?(1%8)@ and pate--ofemora- contact forces between 7 and 11 times bod/ wei ht ?8)@" The deve-opment of improved mode-s wi-- a--ow even more accurate ca-cu-ation of these and other individua- tissue
-ess important factors in the enesis of this t/pe of in4ur/ than is common-/ be-ieved" ,hoewear ma/ p-a/ a ro-e in decreasin -oca--/ increased stress if /ou are runnin on an uneven surface or if /ou are a h/per; pronator" * ain% if the shoe can contro- the position of the hindfoot% the -oca-i.ed stresses both a-on the me; dia- aspect of the *chi--es& tendon and further up the $inetic chain ma/ be decreased"
13. *uture directions #ot to be a pessimist% but if one -oo$s at conc-udin
stresses"
0n the conc-udin remar$s of his 1987 review artic-e% Iavanau h wrote% <0t is this author&s 1rm be-ief that% in some few /ears time% it wi-- be possib-e to write a fair-/ e2tensive review of the -iterature pertainin to the =uantitative biomechanica- ana-/sis of runnin in4uries&" * number of pub-ications are now avai-ab-e re ardin the biomechanica- ana-/sis of common in4ur/ patterns in runners ?(5%('%B9%F)%81%8(@" 7ecause of space con; straints on-/ one in4ur/ pattern% *chi--es& tendinopath/%
remar$s b/ authors over the /ears% promises of future $now-ed e are routine-/ made" *uthors common-/ state that reater $now-ed e wi-- -ead to a decreased fre=uenc/ of in4ur/" These promises are oftentimes overstated and incomp-ete-/ 1--ed" *s #i ?8B@ has pointed out% there is% as /et% no evidence that biome; chanica- research in -oad ana-/sis has contributed to a decreased fre=uenc/ of runnin in4uries" This author is hopefu- for reater insi ht and further =uestionin "
Technica- advances in portabi-it/ wi-- broaden the
wi-- be presented here"

The *chi--es& tendon and its insertion are fre=uent sites of chronic in4ur/ in ath-etes" Pain a-on the course of the tendon is the most fre=uent presentin com; p-aint" Tenderness with or without swe--in a-on its course is common" *cute ruptures are a-most a-wa/s preceded b/ a prodroma- period of -ow rade pain
scope of app-ication" !aci-ities with the combination of ade=uate testin space% three dimensiona- computeri.ed data atherin and reduction% data ac=uisition speeds in the ran e of 15) (F) G. testin speeds% and the breadth of technica-% en ineerin % and c-inica- $now-; ed e to uti-i.e the e=uipment wi-- contribute the most to the 1e-d" 0f a -ar e cohort of runners underwent d/; namic ana-/sis and then were fo--owed for the deve-op; ment of subse=uent in4ur/% perhaps some insi ht into predisposin biomechanicafactors for in4ur/ wou-d be ained"
7iomechanica- mode-s must be improved" The need
?1)%11@"
The *chi--es& tendon is one of the anatomic struc; tures that stretches durin the 1rst ha-f of stance phase and recoi-s -ater in a sprin ;-i$e fashion" 0t stores ener / as it is stretched and ef1cient-/ returns 9)K at the time of push off ?(1@" 0f initiacontact is on the
forefoot% the eccentric function of the astroso-eus:

*chi--es& tendon comp-e2 is e2a erated as the hee- is -owered to the round" The astroso-eus enerates -ar e an$-e p-antar Me2or moments durin runnin compared to those enerated durin wa-$in (!i " 9)" *s men; tioned% because there are few other structures invo-ved% pea$ *chi--es& tendon forces have been estimated to be
seems reatest in three overa-- areas" !irst-/% we must improve the abi-it/ to ca-cu-ate individua- bone and musc-e forces" ,econd-/% improvements in the measure; ment of subt-e transverse p-ane motions wi-- 1na--/ a--ow =uanti1cation and understandin of the ro-e of this t/pe of motion in the enesis of in4ur/" !ina--/ (and probab-/ most important-/)% improvements in the ana-; /sis of the comp-e2 three dimensiona- movements of the foot and an$-e wi-- un-oc$ the secrets that are hidin inside the runner&s shoe" Ce need accurate B;J foot mode-s and a testin methodo-o / that is readi-/ avai-; ab-e to a -ar e number of -aboratories"
9F
"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95 ?9@ 7rewer 7" Dechanism of in4ur/ to the muscu-otendinous unit" **N, 0nstructiona- Iourse Aectures% 19')+1F" ?1)@ I-ement J7% Taunton E6% ,mart GC" *chi--es tendinitis and
peritendinitis+ etio-o / and treatment" *m E ,ports Ded
Di--er a-so points out the continuin need to eva-uate individua- bod/ se ment contributions to runnin ?B8@"
Perhaps the techni=ues reported b/ 3epp-e ?8F@ ho-d promise in determinin contributions of 4oint moments to vertica- and forward pro ression of the bod/&s center
of mass"
!ina--/% we must c-ose the ap between practitioners and biomechanists" 0t wi-- be important to standardi.e termino-o / and to a ree on reportin conventions% e" " is fu-- $nee e2tension )Q or 18)QO 0f information is presented in a format fami-iar to c-inicians% more prac; tisin ph/sicians wi-- use it" Jata presented as tab-es of numbers is essentia--/ meanin -ess for the c-inician" P-ots on raphs are not much better" 6-ectronic com; munication wi-- au ment the use of animation% video% and -ive action to disp-a/ data" Nnce new biomechani; ca- $now-ed e is ained% it is the responsibi-it/ of the research communit/ to present it to c-inicians in an understandab-e manner" Duch can be ained if the biomechanist and pathoph/sio-o ist come out of the
-aborator/% the c-inician pu--s him:herse-f out of the c-inic% and the/ a-- meet on the trac$"
Ac no-led!ements The author withes to ac$now-ed e Eo/ce Phe-ps Trost% RPT for her he-p in co--ectin % ana-/.in % and formattin this data (as we-- as her assistance in the deve-opment of this artic-e)% Dar/ Trost for her assis; tance in the preparation of this manuscript% the staff of the Dotion *na-/sis Aaborator/ at Gi--ette Ihi-dren&s ,pecia-t/ Gea-thcare (()) 6ast Lniversit/ *ve"% ,t" Pau-% D# 551)1) for atherin the data on which this artic-e is based% and *nna 7ittner for photo raphic and
198F+1((B)9179 8F" ?11@ Ga--owa/ DT% Eo$- P% Ja/ton JC" *chi--es tendon overuse in4uries" I-in ,ports Ded 199(+11(F)9771 8(" ?1(@ Goeberi s EG" !actors re-ated to the incidence of runnin in; 4uries" ,ports Ded 199(+1B(')9F)8 ((" ?1B@ EaUrvinen D" 6pidemio-o / of tendon in4uries in sports" I-in ,ports Ded 199(+1111(B)9F9B 5)F" ?1F@ 3ib-er C7" I-inica- imp-ications of e2ercise9 in4ur/ and perfor; mance" **N, 0nstructiona- Iourse Aectures 199F+FB(F)917 (F" ?15@ Guten G#" Runnin 0n4uries% Guten% G#% editor" Phi-ade-phia% P*9 C"7" ,aunders% 1997" ?1'@ 8au han IA" 7iomechanics of runnin ait" Irit Rev 6n 198F+1((1)91 F8" ?17@ Iavana h PR" The biomechanics of -ower e2tremit/ action in distance runnin " !oot *n$-e 1987+7(F)9197 (17" ?18@ Ci--iams 3R" 7iomechanics of runnin " 62er ,port ,ci Rev 1985+1B9B89 F(1" ?19@ *nderson T" 7iomechanics and runnin econom/" ,ports Ded 199'+(((()97' 89" ?()@ *de-aar R," The practica- biomechanics of runnin " *m E ,ports Ded 198'+1F(')9F97 5))" ?(1@ *-e2ander RD" Runnin " The human machine" #atura- Gistor/ Duseum Pub-ications% Aondon 199(97F 87" ?((@ Iavana h PR" 7iomechanics of distance runnin % Iavana h PR% editor" Ihampai n% 0A9 Guman 3inetics% 199)" ?(B@ Eames ,A% 7ruba$er I6" 7iomechanics of runnin " Nrthop I-in #orth *m 197B+F(B)9')5 15" ?(F@ Eames ,A" Runnin in4uries to the $nee" **N, E 1995+B(')9B)9 18" ?(5@ *ndriacchi TP% 3ramer GD% Aandon GI" The biomechanics of
runnin and $nee in4uries" !inerman G% editor" **N, ,/mpo; sium on ,ports Dedicine9 The 3nee" ,t" Aouis% I8 Dosb/%
19859(B B(" ?('@ Cinter J*% 7ishop PE" Aower e2tremit/ in4ur/;biomechanicafactors associated with chronic in4ur/ to the -ower e2tremit/"
,ports Ded 199(+1F(B)91F9 5'" ?(7@ 3err 7*% 7eauchamp A% !isher 8% #ei- R" !ootstri$e patterns in
distance runnin " #i 7D% 3err 7*% editors" 7iomechanica*spects of ,port ,hoes and P-a/in ,urfaces" Ia- ar/% Ianada9
computer raphics support"
.e(erences
?1@ 6nc/c-opedia 7ritannica% 195(9(BF"
?(@ Iavana h PR" The mechanics of distance runnin 9 a historica-
Lniversit/ Printin " 198B91B5 1F(" ?(8@ Ga e ER" *n overview of norma- wa-$in " **N, 0nstructionaIourse Aectures 199)+B99(91 B)B" ?(9@ Je8ita P" The se-ection of a standard convention for ana-/.in
ait data based on the ana-/sis of re-evant biomechanicafactors"
perspective" 0n9 Iavana h PR% editor" 7iomechanics of Jistance Runnin " Ihampai n% 0A% Guman 3inetics Pub-ishers% 199)+ Ihapter 191 BF"
?B@ Gan$s G*% 3a-ena$ *" Runnin in4uries" 0n9 Grana C*% 3a-e;
E 7iomech 199F+(7(F)95)1 8" ?B)@ Nunpuu ," The biomechanics of runnin 9 a $inematic and $inetic ana-/sis" **N, 0nstructionaIourse Aectures 199)+B99B)5 18" ?B1@ #ovachec$ T!" Ca-$in % runnin % and sprintin 9 a three;dimen;
siona- ana-/sis of $inematics and $inetics" **N, 0nstructiona-
na$ *% editors" I-inica- ,ports Dedicine" Phi-ade-phia9 C"7" ,aunders Iompan/% 198(9F58 '5"
?F@ Renstrom P*" Dechanism% dia nosis% and treatment of runnin
in4uries" **N, 0nstructiona- Iourse Aectures 199B+F(9((5 BF"

?5@ N&7rien D" !unctiona- anatom/ and ph/sio-o / of tendons" I-in
,ports Ded 199(+11(B)95)5 ()"

?'@ 7ooth !C% Gou-d 6C" 6ffects of trainin and disuse on connec;
tive tissue" 62er ,port ,ci Rev 1975+B98B 11("

?7@ Aeadbetter C7" Ie--;matri2 response in tendon in4ur/" I-in
,ports Ded 199(+11(B)95BB 78"

?8@ Eames ,A% Eones JI" 7iomechanica- aspects of distance runnin
Iourse Aectures 1995+FF9F97 5)'" ?B(@ Dann R*% Ga / E" 7iomechanics of wa-$in % runnin % and sprintin " *m E ,ports Ded 198)+8(5)9BF5 5)" ?BB@ 0nmann 8T% Ra-ston GE% Todd !" Guman wa-$in " 7a-timore9 Ci--iams and Ci-$ins% 1981+1)B 117" ?BF@ Nunpuu ," The biomechanics of wa-$in and runnin " I-in ,ports Ded 199F+1B(F)98FB 'B" ?B5@ Dann R*" 7iomechanics of wa-$in % runnin % and sprintin " *m E ,ports Ded 198)+8(5)9BF5 5)" ?B'@ ,herif DG% Gre or RE% Aiu AD% Ro/ RR% Ga er IA" Iorre-a;
tion of m/oe-ectric activit/ and musc-e force durin se-ected cat
in4uries" 0n9 Iavana h PR% editor" 7iomechanics of distance runnin " Guman 3inetics 7oo$s% 199)9(F9 ('9"
treadmi-- -ocomotion" E 7iomech 188B+1'9'91 7)1"
"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95 ?B7@ Grieve JC" The assessment of ait" Ph/siotherap/ 19'9+559F5( ')" ?B8@ Di--er J0" 7iomechanics of runnin 9 what shou-d the future ho-dO" Ian E ,port ,ci 1978+B9((9 B'"
?B9@ #ovachec$ T!" The biomechanics of runnin and sprintin " 0n9
95
,ociet/ of Gait and I-inic Dovement *na-/sis% (nd *nnuaDeetin % Ihica o% 0A% 9 1( *pri- 1997" ?'B@ *bu;!ara4 SN% ,ampath G% ,mith P*" * c-inica- s/stem for
ana-/sis of pediatric foot and an$-e motion" *bstract presented at #orth *merican ,ociet/ of Gait and I-inica- Dovement
Guten G#% editor" Runnin 0n4uries" Phi-ade-phia% P*9 C"7" ,aunders% 1997+(9F 19"
?F)@ #ovachec$ T!% Trost EP" Runnin 9 0n4ur/ mechanisms and
*na-/sis (nd *nnua- Deetin % Ihica o% 0A% 9 1( *pri- 1997" ?'F@ *reb-ad E% #i 7D% 6$strand E% N-sson 3N% 6$strom G"
Three;dimensiona- measurement of rearfoot motion durin run;
trainin strate ies% 1997% 0nstructiona- 8ideotape% Gi--ette Ihi-; dren&s ,pecia-t/ Gea-thcare !oundation"
?F1@ Dunro I!% Di--er J0% !u -evand *E" Ground reaction forces in
nin " E 7iomech 199)+(B(9)99BB F)" ?'5@ ,cott ,G% Cinter J*" Ta-ocrura- and ta-oca-canea- 4oint $ine;
matics and $inetics durin the stance phase of wa-$in " E
runnin 9 a ree2amination" E 7iomech 1987+()(()91F7 55"

?F(@ Iavana h PR" Ground reaction forces in distance runnin " E
7iomech 1991+(F(8)97FB 5(" ?''@ 6n sber ER% *ndrews EG" 3inematic ana-/sis of the ta-oca-;
canea-:ta-ocrura- 4oint durin runnin support" Ded ,ci ,ports
7iomech 198)+1B(5)9B97 F)'"

?FB@ Ci--iams 3R% Iavana h PR% Siff EA" 7iomechanica- studies of
e-ite fema-e distance runners" 0nt E ,ports Ded 1987+8(()91)7 18"

?FF@ Ginrichs R#" Lpper e2tremit/ function in distance runnin " 0n9
62er 1987+19(B)9(75 8F" ?'7@ ,outas;Aitt-e RC% 7eavis GI% 8erstraete DI% Dar$us TA"
*na-/sis of foot motion durin runnin usin a 4oint co;ordinate
Iavana h PR% editor" 7iomechanics of Jistance Runnin " Ihampai n% 0A9 Guman 3inetics% 199)+F91)7 1BB"
?F5@ #ovachec$ T!% Trost EP% ,chutte A" Runnin and ,printin 9 *
s/stem" Ded ,ci ,ports 62er 1987+19(B)9(85 9B" ?'8@ I-ar$e T6% !rederic$ 6I% Gammi-- IA" The stud/ of rearfoot
movement in runnin " !rederic$% 6I% editor" ,port ,hoes and
J/namic *na-/sis (8ideo:IJ;RND)" ,t" Pau-% D#% Gi--ette Ihi-dren&s Gospita-% 199'"
?F'@ Roberts TE% Darsh RA% Ce/and PG% Ta/-or IR" Duscu-ar force
P-a/in ,urfaces" Ihampai n% 0A9 Guman 3inetics% 198F91'' 189" ?'9@ Genni 6D% Iavana h PR% DacDi--ian #G" * pie.oe-ectric
method of measurin the vertica- contact stress beneath the
in runnin tur$e/s9 the econom/ of minimi.in wor$" ,ci Da 1997+(759111B 5"

?F7@ DcDahon T*" ,prin ;-i$e properties of musc-es and reMe2es in
runnin 9 mu-tip-e musc-e s/stems" 7iomech Dovement Nr 199)+B79578 9)"

?F8@ 3er R!% 7ennett D7% 7ibb/ ,R% 3ester RI% *-e2ander RD"
human foot" E 7iomed 6n 198(+F(B)9(1B ((" ?7)@ Iavana h PR" The Runnin ,hoe 7oo$% *nderson Cor-d% Ia-ifornia% 198)" ?71@ #i 7D% Jenoth E% Auethi ,% ,tacoff *" Dethodo-o ica- as;
pects of sport shoe and sport Moor ana-/sis" Presented at 8th 0nternationa- Ion ress on 7iomechanics% #a o/a% () (F Eu-/
The sprin in the arch of the human foot" #ature 1987+B(591F7 9"
?F9@ !ar-e/ IT% Gon.a-e. N" Ae stiffness and stride fre=uenc/ in
1981" ?7(@ #i 7D" 62terna- force measurements with sport shoes and
p-a/in surfaces" #i JD% 3err 7*% editors" 7iomechanica*spects of ,port ,hoes and P-a/in ,urfaces" Lniversit/ of
human runnin " E 7iomech 199'+(9(()9181 '"

?5)@ Eacobs R% 7obbert D!% van 0n en ,chenau GE" Dechanica-
output from individua- musc-es durin e2p-osive -e e2tensions9 the ro-e of biarticu-ar musc-es" E 7iomech 199'+(9(F)951B (B"
?51@ Pri-uts$/ 70% Satsiors$/ 8D" Tendon action of two;4oint mus;
Ia- ar/% Ianada% 198B911" ?7B@ 7ates 7T% Nsterni AR% ,awhi-- E*% Eames ,A" *n assessment of
sub4ect variabi-it/% sub4ect;shoe interaction and the eva-uation of runnin shoes usin round reaction force data" E 7iomech
c-es9 transfer of mechanica- ener / between 4oints durin 4ump; in % -andin % and runnin " E 7iomech 199F+(7(1)9(5 BF"
?5(@ Robertson G6% Cinter J*" Dechanica- ener / eneration% ab;
198B+1'9181" ?7F@ 7ates 7T% Nsterni AR% ,awhi-- E*% Eames ,A" Jesi n of run;
nin shoes" Proceedin s of the 0nternationa- Ionference on Dedica- Jevices ,ports 6=uipment" ,houp and Thac$er% editors"
sorption and transfer amon st se ments durin wa-$in " E 7iomech 198)+1B98F5 5F"
?5B@ Dartin P6% Dor an JC" 7iomechanica- considerations for eco; nomicawa-$in and runnin " Ded ,ci ,ports 62er
*,D6% #ew Vor$% 198)" ?75@ I-ar$e T6% !rederic$ 6I% Iooper A7" 7iomechanica- measure;
ment of runnin shoe cushionin properties" #i JD% 3err 7*% editors" 7iomechanica- *spects of ,port ,hoes and P-a/in
199(+(F(F)9F)7 7F"
?5F@ Iavana h PR% Ci--iams 3R" The effect of stride -en th variation
on o2/ en upta$e durin distance runnin " Ded ,ci ,ports 62er 198(+1F9B) 5"
?55@ Gi-- *8" The ma2imum wor$ and mechanica- ef1cienc/ of
,urfaces" Lniversit/ of Ia- ar/% Ianada% 198B9(5" ?7'@ Pin$ DD% Eobe !C" The foot:shoe interface" 0n9 Guten G#%
editor" Runnin 0n4uries" Phi-ade-phia% P*9 C"7" ,aunders%
human musc-es% and their most economica- speed" E Ph/sio19((+5'919 F1"

?5'@ ,horten DR% Cootton ,*% Ci--iams I" Dechanica- ener / chan es and the o2/ en cost of runnin " 6n in Ded
1981+1)9(1B 7"
?57@ 3ram R% Ta/-or IR" 6ner etics of runnin 9 a new perspective"
#ature 199)+BF'9('5 8'"

?58@ I.erniec$i ED" !oot and an$-e biomechanics in wa-$in and
runnin " * review" *m E Ph/s Ded Rehab 1988+'7(')9(F' 5("

?59@ Ihan IC% Rudine *" !oot biomechanics durin wa-$in and
1997+B9() (9" ?77@ Ioo$ ,J% 3ester D*% 7runet D6% Gaddad RE Er" 7iomechanics of runnin shoe performance" I-in ,ports Ded 1985+F(F)9'19 ('" ?78@ ,horten DR" The ener etics of runnin and runnin shoes" E 7iomech 199B+('(1)9F1 51" ?79@ Cinter J*" Doments of force and mechanica- power in 4o in " E 7iomech 198B+1'(1)991 7" ?8)@ ,cott ,G% Cinter J*" 0nterna- forces at chronic runnin in4ur/ sites" Ded ,ci ,ports 62er 1989+(((B)9B57 '9" ?81@ Nrchard EC% !ric$er P*% *bud *T% Dason 7R" 7iomechanics
of i-iotibia- band fraction s/ndrome in runners" *m E ,ports
runnin " Da/o I-in Proc 199F+'9(5)9FF8 '1"

?')@ Rod ers DD" J/namic biomechanics of the norma- foot and
an$-e durin wa-$in and runnin " Ph/s Ther 1988+'8(1()918(( B)"
?'1@ Dann R*" 7iomechanics of the foot and an$-e" Dann R*%
Ded 199'+(F(B)9B75 9" ?8(@ 3ib-er C7% Go-dber I% Ihand-er TE" !unctiona- biomechanicade1cits in runnin ath-etes with p-antar fasciitis" *m E ,ports
editor" ,ur er/ of the !oot% 5th 6d" I8 Dosb/% 198'+191 B)"
?'(@ *bu..ahab !, Er% Garris G!% 3idder ,D" * $inetic mode- of
Ded 1991+19(1)9'' 71" ?8B@ #i 7D% 7obbert D" Nn the potentia- of various approaches in
-oad ana-/sis to reduce the fre=uenc/ of sports in4uries" E
the foot and an$-e" *bstract presented at #orth *merican
7iomech 199)+B(,upp- 1)9B 1("

Biomechanics of Running

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Biomechanics of Running

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Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

The biomechanics of runnin

1. Introduction:history To avoid the misconception that the ana-/sis of

"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

ferent-/ as we-- ?5 7@"

sense out of wh/ and how in4uries occur"

hindfoot to forefoot initia- contact"

"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

Chi-e stance wi-- be p-otted before swin for the

in is from 8au han ?1'@"

"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

the -ac$ of musc-e activation at the time of toe off (TN)"

and 6DG activit/ are reater at the transition from

c/c-es ad4acent to one another"

Iomments here wi-- be brief"

"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

runnin and sprintin " Gowever% as speed increases% the

the propu-sion phase is ma2imi.ed"

1B)Q of ma2imum $nee Me2ion (!i " 'b)"

"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

Moat where it is the most ob-i=ue" *s the -imb be ins

durin an/ wei ht acceptance phase+

e=ui-ibrium to be maintained" F"B" rans'erse plane "ine%atics

wh/& of the movement we observe" 5"1" Center of pressure (C(P)

potentia- -oss of speed"

ward and the pe-vis is neutra-"

p-ane component of pronation:supination is incorpo;

def/ accurate -oca-i.ation (see -ater section)"

"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

because initia- contact is on the forefoot fo--owed b/

!i " 8" ,chematic of a t/pica- round reaction force (vertica- compo;

tion (absorption) and the be innin of acce-eration ( eneration)"

the foot" 5"(" #aw force plate data

ca-cu-ation is <inverse d/namics&"

"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

contribution from each pea$ inc-uded in the ca-cu-ation"

eneratin power" *t the $nee and an$-e% moments are

sources of power eneration are from

p-antarMe2ors durin stance phase eneration"

"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

is primari-/ maintained in two wa/s ?1'%B1%B9@"

femoris and the hamstrin s"

Jurin runnin % potentia- and $inetic ener / pea$ in

?7@ (see subse=uent <in4uries& section)"

". #endons as s$rin!s *s mentioned above% each of these muscu-otendinous

0n wa-$in % the/ are out of phase" 0n runnin % the/ are in phase"

"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

of the stance phase of the ait c/c-e and recoi-s to

bac$ to the s/stem"

when runnin at F"5 m:s ?F8@" Ge estimated that B5 E are

musc-es must sti-- e2ert the tension% but the/ shorten:

'. Economy o( motion

creased stride fre=uenc/"

an$-e (!i " 1B)"

"!" No'achec" : Gait and Posture 7 (1998) 77 95

-imbs (i"e" the cost of supportin wei ht) and an inverse

unanswered& (p" F7()" 1). *oot biomechanics

!i " 1F" N curve"

tia- aspects of this topic b/ Dartin and Dor an ?5B@"

variabi-it/ of about 915K difference in wa-$in speed without compromisin ef1cienc/"

wa-$ at speeds e2ceedin B m:s" *s previous-/ dis;

the foot and an$-e" bstract presented at #orth merican