CHAPTER 9 POLYPHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

9.1 Introduction The direct-current (dc) and synchronous motors we have discussed thus far have one thing in common: both are the doubly-fed type. These motors have direct current in their field windings and alternating current (ac) in their armature windings. We now consider a motor in which the rotor receives its power not by conduction but by induction and is therefore called an induction motor. A winding t !t r"c"i#"$ it$ %ow"r "&c'u$i#"'( )( induction con$titut"$ ! tr!n$*orm"r. T "r"*or"+ !n induction motor i$ ! tr!n$*orm"r wit ! rot!ting $"cond!r( winding. From the above discussion, the following must be evident: !n induction motor is a singly-fed motor. Therefore, it does not re"uire a commutator, slip-rings, or brushes. #n fact, there are no moving contacts between the stator and the rotor. This results in a motor that is rugged, reliable, and almost maintenance free. $. The absence of brushes eliminates the electrical loss due to the brush voltage drop and the mechanical loss due to friction between the brushes and commutator or the slip-rings. Thus, an induction motor has a relatively high efficiency. %. !n induction motor carries alternating current in both the stator and the rotor windings. &. !n induction motor is a rotating transformer in which the secondary winding receives energy by induction while it rotates. There are two basic types of induction motors: $ing'",% !$" induction motor$ !nd %o'(% !$" induction motor$. 'ingle-phase induction motors are favored for domestic application. ! large number of these motors are built in the fractional-horsepower range. (n the other hand, polyphase induction motors cover the entire spectrum of horsepower ratings and are preferably installed at locations where a polyphase power source is easily accessible. (wing to the widespread generation and transmission of three-phase power, most polyphase induction motors are of the three-phase type. #n this .

chapter, we confine our discussion e)clusively to three-phase induction motors. The theoretical development, however, can be easily e)tended to an n-phase induction motor where n $. 9. - Con$truction The essential components of an induction motor are a $t!tor and a rotor. St!tor The stationary member of an induction motor is called the stator and is formed by stac*ing thin-slotted, highly permeable steel laminations inside a steel or cast-iron frame. The frame provides mechanical support to the motor. !lthough the frame is made of a magnetic material, it is not designed to carry magnetic flu). #dentical coils are wound (or placed) into the slots and then connected to form a balanced three-phase winding. Rotor The rotor is also composed of this-slotted, highly permeable steel laminations that are pressed together onto a shaft. There are two types of rotors: a $.uirr"',c!g" rotor and a wound rotor. The $.uirr"',c!g" rotor is commonly used when the load re"uires little starting tor"ue. For small motors, such a winding is molded by forcing a molten conducting material ("uite often, aluminum) into the slots in a die-casting process. +ircular rings called the "nd,ring$ are also formed on both sides of the stac*. These end-rings short-circuit the bars on both ends of the rotor, as e)plained in +hapter ,, where we referred to the s"uirrel-cage winding as a damper winding. For large motors, the s"uirrel-cage winding is formed by inserting heavy conducting bars (usually of copper, aluminum, or their alloys) into the slots and then welding or bolting them to the end-rings. -ach pair of poles has as many rotor phases as there are bars because each bar behaves independently of the other. #t is a common practice to $/"w the rotor laminations to reduce cogging and electrical noise in the motor. #t becomes necessary to use a wound rotor when the load re"uires a high starting tor"ue. ! wound rotor must have as many poles and phases as the stator. #n fact, the placement of coils in a wound rotor is no different from that in the stator. The three-phase windings on the rotor are internally connected to form an int"rn!' n"utr!' connection. The other three ends are connected to the slip-rings, as e)plained in +hapter ,. With the brushes riding on the slip-rings, we can add e)ternal resistances in the rotor circuit. #n this way the total resistance in the rotor
$

circuit can be controlled. .y controlling the resistance in the rotor circuit we are, in fact, controlling the tor"ue developed by the motor. We will show that the speed at which an induction motor develops the ma)imum tor"ue (called the )r"!/down $%""d) depends upon the rotor resistance. !s the rotor resistance increases, the brea*down speed decreases. Therefore, it is possible to obtain ma)imum tor"ue at starting (/ero speed) by inserting 0ust the right amount of resistance in the rotor circuit. 1owever, a wound-rotor induction motor is more e)pensive and less efficient than a s"uirrel-cage induction motor of the same rating. For these reasons, a wound-rotor induction motor is used only when a s"uirrel-cage induction motor cannot deliver the high starting tor"ue demanded by the load. 9. 0 Princi%'" o* O%"r!tion When the stator winding of a three-phase induction motor is connected to a three-phase power source, it produces a magnetic field that (a) is constant in magnitude and (b) revolves around the periphery of the rotor at the synchronous speed. The details of how the revolving field is produced and the tor"ue is developed are given in +hapter %. ! brief review is presented here. #f f is the fre"uency of the current in the stator winding and P is the number of poles, the synchronous speed of the revolving field is
Ns = $2 f P

(3. a)

in revolutions per minute (rpm), or

s = & f P

(3. b)

in radians per second. The revolving field induces electromotive force (emf) in the rotor winding. 'ince the rotor winding forms a closed loop, the induced emf in each coil gives rise to an induced current in that coil. When a current-carrying coil is immersed in a magnetic field, it e)periences a force (or tor"ue) that tends to rotate it. The tor"ue thus developed is called the $t!rting tor.u". #f the load tor"ue is less than the starting tor"ue, the rotor starts rotating. The force developed and thereby the rotation of the rotor are in the same direction as the revolving field. T i$ i$ in !ccord!nc" wit 1!r!d!(2$ '!w o* induction. 4nder no load, the rotor soon achieves a speed nearly e"ual to the synchronous speed. 1owever, the rotor can never rotate at the synchronous speed because the rotor coils would appear stationary with respect to the revolving field and there would be no induced emf in them.
%

#n the absence of an induced emf in the rotor coils, there would be no current in the rotor conductors and conse"uently no force would be e)perienced by them. #n the absence of a force, the rotor would tend to slow down. !s soon as the rotor slows down, the induction process ta*es over again. #n summary, the rotor receives its power by induction only when there is a relative motion between the rotor speed and the revolving field. 'ince the rotor rotates at a speed lower than the synchronous speed of the revolving field, an induction motor is also called an !$(nc ronou$ motor. 5et Nm (or m) be the rotor speed at a certain load. With respect to the motor, the revolving field is moving ahead at a relative speed of
Nr = Ns Nm

(3.$a) (3.$b)

or

r = s m

The relative speed is also called the $'i% $%""d. This is the speed with which the rotor is slipping behind a point on a fictitious revolving pole in order to produce tor"ue. 1owever, it is a common practice to e)press slip speed in terms of the slip (s), which is a ratio of the slip speed to the synchronous speed. That is,
s= Nr r = Ns s

or
s=

Ns Nm s m = Ns s

(3.%)

!lthough the above e"uation yields the slip on a per-unit basis, it is customary to e)press it as a percentage of synchronous speed (%"rc"nt $'i%). #n terms of the synchronous speed and the per-unit slip, we can e)press the rotor speed as
N m = ( s) N s

(3.&a) (3.&b)

or

m = ( s) s

When the rotor is stationary, the per-unit slip is and the rotor appears e)actly li*e a short-circuited secondary winding of a transformer. The fre"uency of the induced emf in the rotor winding is the same as that of the revolving field. 1owever, when the rotor rotates, it is the relative speed of the rotor Nr (or r) that is responsible for the induced emf in its windings. Thus, the fre"uency of the induced emf in the rotor is

&

fr =

P Nr $2 P( N s N m ) PN s N s N m = = $2 $2 Ns
= sf

(3.6)

The above e"uation highlights the fact that the rotor fre"uency depends upon the slip of the motor. !t standstill, the slip is and the rotor fre"uency is the same as that of the revolving field. 1owever, the rotor fre"uency decreases with the decrease in the slip. !s the slip approaches /ero, so does the rotor fre"uency. !n induction motor usually operates at low slip. 1ence the fre"uency of the induced emf in the rotor is low. For this reason, the core loss in the rotor magnetic circuit is most often ignored. 9. 3 D"#"'o%m"nt o* !n E.ui#!'"nt Circuit When a balanced three-phase induction motor is e)cited by a balanced three-phase source, the currents in the phase windings must be e"ual in magnitude and $2o electrical apart in phase. The same must be true for the currents in the rotor windings as the energy is transferred across the air-gap from the stator to the rotor by induction. The fre"uency of the induced emf in the rotor is proportional to its slip 7-". (3.6)8. 'ince the stator and the rotor windings are coupled inductively, an induction motor resembles a three-phase transformer with a rotating secondary winding. The similarity becomes even more stri*ing when the rotor is at rest ()'oc/"d,rotor condition, s 9 ). Thus, a three-phase induction motor can be represented on a per-phase basis by an e"uivalent circuit at any slip s as depicted in Figure 3. . #n this figure,
: V

R L ; Rr Lb ;b ;r

9 applied voltage on a per-phase basis 9 per-phase stator winding resistance 9 per-phase stator winding lea*age inductance 9 $fL 9 per-phase stator winding lea*age reactance 9 per-phase rotor winding resistance 9 per-phase rotor winding lea*age inductance 9 $fLb 9 per-phase rotor winding lea*age reactance under bloc*edrotor condition (s 9 ) 9 $sfLb 9 sXb 9 per-phase rotor winding lea*age reactance at slip s.

;m 9 per-phase magneti/ation reactance Rc 9 per-phase e"uivalent core-loss resistance N 9 actual turns per phase of the stator winding N$ 9 actual turns per phase of the rotor winding * 9 winding factor for the stator winding *$ 9 winding factor for the rotor winding m 9 amplitude of the per-phase flu) : E 9 &.&&fN * m 9 per-phase induced emf in the stator winding

1igur" 9.1 <er-phase e"uivalent circuit of a balanced three-phase induction motor. 9 &.&&fN$ *$m 9 per-phase induced emf in the stator winding under bloc*ed-rotor condition (s 9 ) : : E r 9 s Eb 9 per-phase induced emf in the rotor winding at slip s : I r 9 per-phase rotor winding current : I 9 per-phase current supplied by the source : : : I = I c + I m 9 per-phase e)citation current : I c 9 per-phase core-loss current : I m 9 per-phase magneti/ation current From the %"r,% !$" ".ui#!'"nt circuit (Figure 3. ), it is evident that the current in the rotor circuit is
: Ir = : : Er sEb = Rr + j X r Rr + j sX r
: Eb

: Eb = ( Rr = s) + j X b

(3.>)

>

.ased upon the above e"uation, we can develop another circuit of an induction motor as given in Figure 3.$. #n this circuit, the hypothetical resistance Rr=s in the rotor circuit is called the "**"cti#" r"$i$t!nc". The effective resistance is the same as the actual rotor resistance when the rotor is at rest (standstill or bloc*ed-rotor condition). (n the other hand, when the slip approaches /ero under no-load condition, the effective resistance is very high (Rr=s ). .y defining the ratio of transformation, the a-ratio, as
a= N k N $ k $

(3.?)

we can represent the induction motor by its per-phase e"uivalent circuit as referred to the stator. 'uch an e"uivalent circuit is shown in Figure 3.%, where
R$ = a $ Rr X$ = a$ Xb

(3.,a) (3.,b) (3.,c)

and

: Ir : I$ = a

1igur" 9.- @odified e"uivalent circuit of a balanced three-phase motor on a perphase basis. For this e"uivalent circuit
: I R : : E = $ $ + jI $ X $ s
?

: : : I = Ic + Im

where
: E : Ic = Rc

and

: E : Im = J Xm

The per-phase stator winding current and the applied voltage are
: : : I = I + I$

and

: : : V = E + I (R + j X )

The e"uivalent circuit of the rotor in Figure 3.% is in terms of the hypothetical resistance A$=s. #n this circuit, I $$ R$ = s represents the per-phase power delivered to the rotor. 1owever, the %"r,% !$" co%%"r 'o$$ in the rotor $ R$ . Thus, the per-phase power developed by the motor is must be I $
I $$ R$ s I $$ R$ = I $$ R$ s s
R$ s = R$ + R$ s s

or

(3.3)

1igur" 9. 0 P"r,% !$" ".ui#!'"nt circuit of a balanced three-phase induction motor as referred to the stator side.

The above e"uation establishes the fact that the hypothetical resistance R$=s can be divided into two components: the actual resistance of the rotor A $ and an additional resistance R$7( - s)=s8. The additional resistance is called the 'o!d r"$i$t!nc" or the d(n!mic r"$i$t!nc". The load resistance depends upon the speed of the motor and is said to represent the load on the motor because the mechanical power developed by the motor is proportional to it. In ot "r word$+ t " 'o!d r"$i$t!nc" i$ t " "'"ctric!' ".ui#!'"nt o* ! m"c !nic!' 'o!d on t " motor. !n e"uivalent circuit of an induction motor in terms of the load resistance is given in Figure 3.&. This circuit is proclaimed as the "&!ct ".ui#!'"nt circuit o* )!'!nc"d t r"",% !$" induction motor on ! %"r,% !$" )!$i$.

1igur" 9.3 The e"uivalent circuit of Figure 3.% modified to show the rotor and the load resistance. Pow"r R"'!tion$ 'ince the load resistance varies with the slip and the slip ad0usts itself to the mechanical load on the motor, the power delivered to the load resistance is e"uivalent to the power developed by the motor. Thus, the performance of the motor at any slip can be determined from its e"uivalent circuit, as given in Figure 3.&. For a balanced three-phase induction motor
Pin = %V I cos
:

(3. 2)

where is the phase difference between the applied voltage V and the stator : winding current I . 'ince the power input is electrical in nature, we must account for the electrical losses first. The immediate electrical loss that must be ta*en into consideration is the stator copper loss.
3

The tot!' $t!tor co%%"r 'o$$ is

Pscl = %I $ R

(3. )

#f the core loss is modeled by an e"uivalent core-loss resistance, as shown in the figure, we must also ta*e into account the total core loss (magnetic loss) as
Pm = %I c$ Rc

(3. $)

The net power that is crossing the air-gap and is transported to the rotor by electromagnetic induction is called the !ir,g!% %ow"r. #n this case, the air-gap power is
Pag = Pin Pscl Pm

(3. %a)

The air-gap power must also e"ual the power delivered to the hypothetical resistance R$=s. That is,
%I $$ R$ Pag = s

(3. %b)

T " "'"ctric!' %ow"r 'o$$ in t " rotor circuit i$

Prcl = %I $$ R$ = sPag

(3. &)

1ence, the power developed by the motor is

Pd = Pag Prcl

%I $$ ( s) R$ = ( s) Pag = SPag s
Nm m = Ns s

(3. 6)

where
S= s=

i$ t " %"r,unit 4norm!'i5"d6 $%""d o* t " motor.

1igur" 9.7 <ower-flow diagram when the core loss is (!) simulated by Rc, and ()) treated as a part of the rotational loss. T " "'"ctrom!gn"tic tor.u" d"#"'o%"d )( t " motor i$
Td = P Pd R = ag = %I $$ $ m s s s

(3. >)

.y subtracting the rotational loss from the power developed, we obtain the power output of the motor as
P2 = Pd Pr

(3. ?)

'ince the core loss has already been accounted for, the rotational loss includes the friction and windage loss Pf and the stray-load loss Pst. The corresponding power-flow diagram is given in Figure 3.6a. When the core loss Pm is also considered a part of the rotational loss, the core-loss resistance Rc in Figure 3.& must be omitted, the -d. (3. %!) becomes Pag 9 Pin -

Pscl. The power-flow diagram when the core loss is a part of the rotational loss is given in Figure 3.6). S%""d,Tor.u" C !r!ct"ri$tic -"uation (3. >) reveals that the tor"ue developed by an induction motor is directly proportional to the s"uare of the current in the rotor circuit and the e"uivalent hypothetical resistance of the rotor. 1owever, the two "uantities, the rotor current and the hypothetical rotor resistance, are inversely related to each other. For instance, if the rotor resistance is increased, we e)pect the tor"ue developed by the motor to increase linearly. .ut any increase in the rotor resistance is accompanied by a decrease in the rotor current for the same induced emf in the rotor. ! decrease in the rotor current causes a reduction in the tor"ue developed. Whether the overall tor"ue developed increases or decreases depends upon which parameter plays a dominant role. 5et us e)amine the entire speed-tor"ue characteristic of the motor. !t stand-still, the rotor slip is unity and the effective rotor resistance is R$. The magnitude of the rotor current, from Figure 3.%, is
I$ = E R + X $$
$ $

(3. ,)

Bote that the rotor winding resistance R$ is usually very small compared with its lea*age reactance ;$. That is, R$ CC ;$. The $t!rting tor.u" developed by the motor is
Tds = %I $$ R$ s

(3. 3)

!s the rotor starts rotating, an increase in its speed is accompanied by a decrease in its slip. !s s decreases, R$=s increases. !s long as R$=s is smaller than ;$, the reduction in the rotor current is minimal. Thus, in this speed range, the rotor current may be appro)imated as
I$ E X$

(3.$2)

'ince the rotor current is almost constant, the tor"ue developed by the motor increases with the increase in the effective resistance R$=s. Thus, the tor"ue developed by the motor *eeps increasing with the decrease in the slip as long as the rotor resistance has little influence on the rotor current.

When the slip falls below a certain value called the )r"!/down $'i% sb, the hypothetical resistance becomes the domin!ting *!ctor. #n this range, R$=s DD ;$ , and the rotor current can be appro)imated as
I$ = sE R$

(3.$ )

The tor"ue developed by the motor is now proportional to the slip s. !s the slip decreases, so does the tor"ue developed. !t no load, the slip is almost /ero, the hypothetical rotor resistance is nearly infinite, the rotor current is appro)imately /ero, and the tor"ue developed is virtually /ero. With this understanding, we are able to s*etch the speed-tor"ue curve of an induction motor. 'uch a curve is depicted in Figure 3.>.

1igur" 9.8 Typical speed-tor"ue characteristic of a three-phase induction motor.

APPLICATION

A 8,%o'"+ -09,:+ 89,H5+ Y,conn"ct"d+ t r"",% !$" induction motor !$ t " *o''owing %!r!m"t"r$ on ! %"r,% !$" )!$i$; R1 < 9.7 + R- < 9.-7 + =1 < 9.>7 + =- < 9.7 + =m < 199 + !nd Rc < 799 . T " *riction !nd wind!g" 'o$$ i$ 179 ?. D"t"rmin" t " "**ici"nc( o* t " motor !t it$ r!t"d $'i% o* -.7@. SOLUTION The synchronous speed of the motor is
Ns = ( $2 >2) = $22 rpm or >

s = $6.>> rad = s

The per-phase applied voltage is

V = $%2 = %$.?3 V %

The effective rotor impedance as referred to the stator is

$ = R$ + j X $ = 2.$6 + j 2.6 = 2 + j 2.6 Z s 2.2$6

The stator winding impedance is

= R + j X = 2.6 + j 2.?6 Z

'ince Rc, 0;m, and as Z e

$ Z

are in parallel, we can compute the e"uivalent impedance

e Z

+ + 622 j 22 2 + j 2.6 = 2. 2$ j 2.2 6 S

e = 3.> 3 + j .& ? Z

1ence, the tot!' in%ut im%"d!nc" i$

=Z +Z = 2. 3 + j $. >? Z in e

: : V I = = $.,%$ $.23 2 A T " $t!tor curr"nt: in Z T " %ow"r *!ctor: pf = cos( $.23 2 ) = 2.3?, lagging

Pow"r in%ut: Pin = %V I cos = &33,.6&

&

St!tor co%%"r 'o$$: Pscl = % I $ R = $&>.33

: : E Cor",'o$$ curr"nt: I c = = 2.$6 %.? 2 A Rc : E : I = = .$&, 3%.? M!gn"ti5!tion curr"nt: m j Xm

: : :: E = V I Z = $&.?>% %.?

: : : 2 E&cit!tion curr"nt; I = I c + I m = .$?% ,$.%, A

: : : H"nc"+ t " rotor curr"nt: I $ = I I = $.&> >.63 2 A

Cor" 'o$$; Pm = %I c$ Rc = 3%.?6 Air,g!% %ow"r;

Pag = Pin Pscl Pm = &>6?.,

Rotor co%%"r 'o$$; Prcl = % I $$ R$ =

>.&>

Pow"r d"#"'o%"d: Pd = Pag Prcl = &6& .%& Pow"r out%ut; P2 = Pd 62 = &%3 .%&
2 . !r ,?.3E E**ici"nc(; = P = 2,?3 in

9. 7 An A%%ro&im!t" E.ui#!'"nt Circuit ! well-designed three-phase induction motor usually meets most of the following guidelines: . The stator winding resistance is *ept small in order to reduce the stator copper loss. $. The stator winding lea*age reactance is minimi/ed by reducing the meanturn length of each coil.

1igur" 9.> !n appro)imate e"uivalent circuit on a per-phase basis of a balanced three-phase induction motor. %. Thin laminations of low-loss steel are used to cut down the core loss. Thus, the e"uivalent core-loss resistance is usually high. &. The permeability of steel selected for laminations is high, and the operating flu) density in the motor is *ept below the *nee of the magneti/ation curve. Thus, the magneti/ation reactance is usually high. !n induction motor conforming to the above stipulations can be represented by an appro)imate e"uivalent circuit, as shown in Figure 3.?. #n this case, we have placed the parallel branch (the e)citation circuit) across the power source. We admit that the analysis of an induction motor using the appro)imate e"uivalent circuit is somewhat inaccurate, but the inaccuracy is negligible for a well-designed motor. (n the other hand, the appro)imate e"uivalent circuit not only simplifies the analysis but also aids in comprehending various characteristics of the motor. For instance, we use the appro)imate e"uivalent circuit to determine the speed at which (a) the tor"ue developed is ma)imum, (b) the power developed is ma)imum, and (c) the motor efficiency is ma)imum. <rior to proceeding further, let us e)amine the error introduced when an induction motor is analy/ed using an appro)imate e"uivalent circuit. 9. 8 M!&imum Pow"r Crit"rion From the e"uivalent circuit as given in Figure 3.?, the rotor current is
: I$ = : V Re + j X c + R$ ( s) = s

(3.$$)

where and

Re = R + R$

Xc = X + X$

The power developed by the three-phase induction motor, from -". (3. 6), is
%V $ R$ ( s) = s Pd = $ $ Rc + X e$ + [ R$ ( s) = s] + $ Rc R$ ( s) = s

(3.$%)

From the above e"uation it is evident that the power developed by a threephase induction motor is a function of slip. Therefore, we can determine the slip sp at which the power developed by the motor is ma)imum by differentiating the

>

above e"uation and setting the derivative e"ual to /ero. !fter differentiating and canceling most of the terms, we obtain
R R + X = $ ( sp ) sp
$ e $ e $

or

(3.$&)

R Ze = $ ( s p ) sp

where Ze is the magnitude of the e"uivalent impedance of the stator and the rotor windings at rest. That is
Ze = Re + j X e

(3.$6)

E.u!tion 49.-36 $t!t"$ t !t t " %ow"r d"#"'o%"d )( ! t r"",% !$" induction motor i$ m!&imum w "n t " ".ui#!'"nt 'o!d 4d(n!mic6 r"$i$t!nc" i$ ".u!' to t " m!gnitud" o* t " $t!nd$ti'' im%"d!nc" o* t " motor. This, of course, is the well-*nown result we obtained from the m!&imum %ow"r tr!n$*"r t "or"m during the study of electrical circuit theory. From -". (3.$&) we obtain the slip at which the induction motor develops ma)imum power as
sp = R$ R$ + Ze

(3.$>)

'ubstituting for the slip in -". (3.$%), we obtain an e)pression for the ma)imum power developed by a three-phase induction motor as
Pdm = % V$ $ Re + Ze

(3.$?)

The net power output, however, is less than the power developed by an amount e"ual to the rotational loss of the motor. 9.> M!&imum Tor.u" Crit"rion The tor"ue developed by a three-phase induction motor, from -". (3.$%), is
%V $ R$ s Td = $ $ R$ ( s) + $ Re R$ ( s) $ R + X + e s e s s

(3.$,)

where Re 9 R F R$ and Xe 9 X F X$.

1igur" 9.A -ffect of rotor resistance on the brea*down slip. Gifferentiating the above e"uation with respect to s and setting it e"ual to /ero, we obtain an e)pression for the brea*down slip sb at which the motor develops the m!&imum 4)r"!/down6 tor.u" as
sb = R$ R + ( X + X $ )$
$

(3.$3)

Bote that the brea*down slip is directly proportional to the rotor resistance. 'ince the rotor resistance can be easily ad0usted in a wound-rotor induction motor by means of an e)ternal resistor, we can obtain the ma)imum tor"ue at any desired speed, including the /ero speed (starting). 'ubstituting the above e)pression for the brea*down slip in -". (3.$,), we obtain an e)pression for the ma)imum tor"ue developed by the motor as
,

Tdm =

%V $ $ s

R +

R$ + ( X + X $ )$

(3.%2)

Bote that the ma)imum tor"ue developed by the motor is independent of the rotor resistance. #n other words, the motor develops the same ma)imum tor"ue regardless of its rotor resistance. The rotor resistance affects only the brea*down slip (or brea*down speed) at which the tor"ue is ma)imum, as illustrated in Figure 3.,. 9. A M!&imum "**ici"nc( Crit"rion When the core loss is considered a part of the rotational loss the power input to the motor using the appro)imate e"uivalent circuit, is
Pin = %V I $ cos

(3.%>)

: where is the power-factor angle between the applied voltage V and the rotor : current I $ . The power output is

P2 = %V I $ cos % I $$ ( R + R$ ) Pr

(3.%?)

The motor efficiency is

= %V I $ cos % I $$ ( R + R$ ) Pr %V I $ cos

(3.%,)

Gifferentiating with respect to I$ and setting the derivative e"ual to /ero, we obtain
% I $$ ( R + R$ ) = Pr

(3.%3)

as the criterion for the ma)imum efficiency of an induction motor. It $im%'( $t!t"$ t !t t " "**ici"nc( o* !n induction motor i$ m!&imum w "n t " $um o* t " $t!tor !nd t " rotor co%%"r 'o$$"$ i$ ".u!' to t " rot!tion!' 'o$$.

9. 9 Som" Im%ort!nt Conc'u$ion$

<rior to proceeding further, let us pause and ma*e the following observations regarding the tor"ue developed, the rotor current, and the motor efficiency. T " Tor.u" D"#"'o%"d When the motor is operating at or near its rated slip, which is usually less than 2E, the hypothetical rotor resistance is considerably greater than the rotor lea*age reactance. That is, R$=s DD ;$. We can, therefore, appro)imate -". (3.%&) as
Td %V $ s s R$

(3.&2)

The tor"ue developed by the motor is proportional to the slip when the applied voltage and rotor resistance are held constant. #n this 'in"!r r!ng", the ratio of tor"ues developed is e"ual to the ratio of the slips. $. The tor"ue developed is inversely proportional to the rotor resistance at a given slip when the applied voltage is *ept the same. In ot "r word$+ t " tor.u" d"#"'o%"d !t !n( $'i% c!n )" !dBu$t"d )( #!r(ing t " rotor r"$i$t!nc". T i$ c!n )" "!$i'( !ccom%'i$ "d in ! wound, rotor motor. %. !t a define value of slip and rotor resistance, the tor"ue developed by the motor is dir"ct'( %ro%ortion!' to t " $.u!r" o* t " !%%'i"d #o't!g". &. For a constant-tor"ue operation under fi)ed applied voltage, t " motor $'i% i$ dir"ct'( %ro%ortion!' to t " rotor r"$i$t!nc". T " Rotor Curr"nt From -". (3.%%) it is obvious that the rotor current is directly proportional to the applied voltage as long as the rotor resistance and the slip are held the same. When R$=s DD ;$, the rotor current can be appro)imated as
I$ = V s R$

(3.& )

(a)

T " rotor curr"nt #!ri"$ 'in"!r'( wit t " $'i% w "n t " motor
$2

o%"r!t" !t 'ow $'i%. (b) T " rotor curr"nt #!ri"$ in#"r$"'( wit t " rotor r"$i$t!nc". T " Motor E**ici"nc( For an ideal motor we can assume that (a) the stator copper loss is negligible and (b) the rotational loss is /ero. #n this case, the air-gap power is e"ual to the power input. That is, Pin " Pag. 1owever, the power developed is Pd " ( - s)Pag" Spag, where S is the perunit speed. 'ince the rotational loss is /ero, the power output is e"ual to the power developed. 1ence, the motor efficiency under the ideal conditions is
= s=S

(3.&$)

The above e"uation places a ma)imum limit on the efficiency of a threephase induction motor. This e"uation highlights the fact that if a motor is operating at >2E of its synchronous speed, the ma)imum efficiency under the ideal conditions (theoretically possible) is >2E. Thus, the higher the speed of operation, the higher the efficiency. For e)ample, a motor operating at 6E slip can theoretically have an efficiency of 36E. APPLICATION , E = A M P L E ! $%2-H, >2-1/, &-pole, -connected, three-phase induction motor operates at a full-load speed of ? 2 rpm. The power developed at this speed is $ hp and the rotor current is &.6 !. #f the supply voltage fluctuates 2E, determine (!) the tor"ue range and ()) the current range. SOLUTION
Ns = $2 >2 = ,22 rpm & ,22 ? 2 = 2.26 ,22 $ ? 2 = ?3.2? rad = s >2

s=

m =

The tor"ue developed at the rated voltage of $%2 H is

Td = $ ?&> = ,.%% N m ?3.2?
$

When the supply voltage is down by 2E, the tor"ue developed by the motor is
2.3 $%2 TdL = ,.%% = >.?6 N m $%2
$

The corresponding rotor current is

2.3 $%2 I $ L = &.6 = &.26 A $%2

'imilarly, when the supply voltage is up by 2E, the tor"ue developed by the motor is
Td# = ,.%%[ .

]$

= 2.2, N m

and the rotor current is

I $ # = &.6 . = &.36 A

1ence, the tor"ue varies from >.?6 Bm to 2.2, Bm, and the rotor current fluctuates between &.26 ! and &.36 !.

9.19 E.ui#!'"nt Circuit P!r!m"t"r$ The e"uivalent circuit parameters and the performance of a three-phase induction motor can be determined by performing four tests. These are thr followings: (a) the stator resistance test, (b) the bloc*ed-rotor test, (c) the no-load test, and (d) the load test. T " St!tor,R"$i$t!nc" T"$t
$$

This test is performed to determine the resistance of each phase winding of the stator. 5et R be the dc value of the resistance between any two terminals of the motorI then the per-phase resistance is A 9 2.6 A for J-connection A 9 .6 A for -connection The measured value of the resistance may be multiplied by a factor ranging from .26 to .$6 in order to convert it from its dc value to its ac value. This is done to account for the $/in "**"ct. The multiplying factor may be debatable at power fre"uencies of 62 or >2 1/, but it does become significant for a motor operating at a fre"uency of &22 1/. T " C'oc/"d,Rotor T"$t This test, also called the loc*ed-rotor test, is very similar to the shortcircuit test of a transformer. #n this case, the rotor is held stationary by applying e)ternal tor"ue to the shaft. The stator field winding is connected to a variable three-phase supply. The voltage is carefully increased from /ero to a level at which the motor draws the rated current. !t this time, the readings of the line current, the applied line voltage, and the power input are ta*en by using the twowattmeter method, as illustrated in Figure 3.3. 'ince the rotor-circuit impedance is relatively small under bloc*ed-rotor condition (s 9 ), the applied voltage is considerably lower than the rated voltage of the motor. Thus, the e)citation current is "uite small and can be neglected. 4nder this assumption, the appro)imate e"uivalent circuit of the motor is given in Figure 3. 2 on a per-phase basis. The total series impedance is
= R + R + j(X + X ) = R + jX Z e $ $ e e

(3.&%)

5et Vbr, Ibr, and Pbr be the applied voltage, the rated current, and the power input on a per-phase basis under the bloc*ed-rotor conditionI then
Re = Pbr $ I br

(3.&&)

$%

1igur" 9.9 Typical connections to perform test on a three-phase induction motor.

1igur" 9.19 !n appro)imate per-phase e"uivalent circuit of an induction motor under bloc*ed-rotor condition. 'ince R is already *nown from the stator-resistance test, the e"uivalent rotor resistance is
R$ = Re R

(3.&6)

1owever,
Ze = Vbr I br

(3.&>)

Therefore,
$&

Xe =

Ze$ Re$

(3.&?)

#t is rather difficult to isolate the lea*age reactances ; and ;$. For all practical purposes, these reactances are usually assumed to be e"ual. That is
X = X $ = 2.6 X e

(3.&,)

T " No,Lo!d T"$t #n this case the rated voltage is impressed upon the stator windings and the motor operates freely without any load. This test, therefore, is similar to the opencircuit test on the transformer e)cept that friction and windage loss is associated with an induction motor. 'ince the slip is nearly /ero, the impedance of the rotor circuit is almost infinite. The per-phase appro)imate e"uivalent circuit of the motor with the rotor circuit open is shown in Figure 3. . 5et !c, I!c, and V!c be the power input, the input current, and the rated applied voltage on a per-phase basis under no-load condition. #n order to represent the core loss by an e"uivalent resistance Rc, we must subtract the friction and windage loss from the power input. The friction and windage loss can be measured by coupling the motor under test to another motor with a calibrated output and running it at the no-load speed of the induction motor. 5et Pf be the friction and windage loss on a perphase basis. Then, the power loss in Rc is
P!c =
!c

Pf

(3.&3)

1ence, t " cor",'o$$ r"$i$t!nc" is

Rc =
$ V!c P!c

(3.62)

The power factor under no load is

cos !c =
!c

V!c I !c

(3.6 )

The magneti/ation reactance is

$6

Xm =

V!c I !c sin !c

(3.6$a)

The magneti/ation reactance can also be computed as follows:

S!c = V!c I !c
$!c =
$ S!c $ !c

and
Xm =
$ V!c $!c

(3.6$b)

When using the two,w!ttm"t"r m"t od to measure the power under no load the reading on one wattmeter may actually be negative because the power factor of the motor under no load may be less than 2.6. #f this is the case, the total power input is simply the difference of the two wattmeter readings. T " Lo!d T"$t To e)perimentally determine the speed-tor"ue characteristics and the efficient of an induction motor, couple the motor to a dynamometer and connect the times phase stator windings to a balanced three-phase power source. #f need be the direction of rotation may be reversed by interchanging any two supply terminals. 'tarting from the no-load condition, the load is slowly increased and the corresponding readings for the motor speed, the shaft tor"ue, the power input the applied voltage, and the line current are recorded. From these data, the motor performance as a function of motor speed (or slip) can be computed. 4sing analog-to-digital converters, the data can be stored on a magnetic dis* for further manipulations. APPLICATION The test data on a $2,-H, >2-1/, &-pole, J-connected, three-phase induction motor rated at ? 2 rpm are as follows: The stator resistance (dc) between any two terminals 9 $.& <ower input 5ine current 5ine voltage Bo-5oad Test &62 W .6>$ ! $2, H .loc*ed-Aotor Test 63.& W $.?? ! $? H

$>

Friction and windage loss 9 , W +ompute the e"uivalent circuit parameters of the motor. SOLUTION For J-connected motor, the per-phase resistance of the stator winding is
R = $.& = .$ $

K
Ze = 66,, . = 6.>$? $.??

X e = 6.>$? $ $.6,$ = 6

Thus,

X = X $ = $.6

9. 11 St!rting o* Induction Motor$

!t the time of starting, the rotor speed is /ero and the per-unit slip is unity. Therefore, the starting current, from the appro)imate e"uivalent circuit given in Figure 3.?, is
: I$s = V Re + j X e

(3.6%)

where Re 9 R F R$ and ;e 9 ; F ;$. The corresponding value of the starting tor"ue is

Tds = %V $ R$ s Re$ + X e$

(3.6&)

'ince the effective rotor resistance, R$, is very small at the time of starting compared with its value at rated slip, R$=s, the starting current may be as much as &22E to ,22E of the full-load current. (n the other hand, the starting tor"ue may only be $22E to %62E of the full-load tor"ue. 'uch a high starting current is usually unacceptable because it results in an e)cessive line voltage drop which in turn, may affect the operation of other machines operating on the same power source.
$?

'ince the starting current is directly proportional to the applied voltage, -". (3.6%) suggests that the starting current can be reduced by impressing a low voltage across motor terminals at the time of starting. 1owever, it is evident from -". (3.6&) that a decrease in the applied voltage results in a decline in the starting tor"ue. T "r"*or"+ w" c!n "m%'o( t " 'ow,#o't!g" $t!rting on'( *or t o$" !%%'ic!tion$ t !t do not r".uir" ig $t!rting tor.u"$. 1or in$t!nc"+ ! *!n 'o!d r".uir"$ !'mo$t no $t!rting tor.u" "&c"%t *or t " 'o$$ du" to *riction. T " induction motor dri#ing ! *!n 'o!d c!n )" $t!rt"d u$ing 'ow,#o't!g" $t!rting. The starting current can also be decreased by increasing the rotor resistance. !s mentioned earlier, an increase in the rotor resistance also results in an increase in the starting tor"ue which, of course, is desired for those loads re"uiring high starting tor"ues. 1owever, a high rotor resistance (a) reduce the tor"ue developed at full load, (b) produces high rotor copper loss, and (c) causes a reduction in motor efficiency at full load. These drawbac*s, however, do not represent a problem for wound-rotor motors. For these motors, we can easily incorporate high e)ternal resistance in series with the rotor windings at the time of starting and remove it when the motor operates at full load.

1igur" 9.1- (!) Geep-bar and ()) double-cage rotors.

$,

For rotors using s"uirrel-cage winding, the change in resistance from a high value at starting to a low value at full load is accomplished by using "uite a few different designs, as shown in Figure 3. $. In "!c d"$ign+ t " und"r'(ing %rinci%'" i$ to !c i"#" ! ig rotor r"$i$t!nc" !t $t!rting !nd ! 'ow rotor r"$i$t!nc" !t t " r!t" $%""d. !t starting, the fre"uency of the rotor is the same as the fre"uency of the applied source. !t full load, however, the rotor fre"uency is very low (usually less than 2 1/). Thus, the s*in effect is more pronounced at starting than at full load. 1ence, the rotor resistance is higher at starting than at full load owing to the s*in effect alone. !lso, as the currents are induced in the rotor bars, they produce a secondary magnetic field. <art of the secondary magnetic field lin*s only the rotor conductor and manifests itself as the lea*age flu). The lea*age flu) increases as we move radially away from the air-gap toward the shaft, and is "uite significant at starting. Thus, in a multicage rotor at starting, the inner cage presents a high lea*age reactance compared with the outer cage. (wing to the high lea*age reactance of the inner cage, the rotor current tends to confine itself in the outer cage. #f the cross-sectional area of the outer cage is smaller than that of the inner cage, it presents a comparatively high resistance at starting. ? "n t " motor o%"r!t"$ !t *u'' 'o!d+ t " rotor *r".u"nc( i$ 'ow. T "r")(+ t " '"!/!g" *'u& i$ 'ow. In t i$ c!$"+ t " curr"nt t"nd$ to di$tri)ut" ".u!''( !mong !'' t " c!g"$. A$ ! r"$u't+ t " rotor r"$i$t!nc" i$ 'ow.

1igur" 9.10 <er-phase e"uivalent circuit of a double-cage induction motor. The appro)imate e"uivalent circuit of a double-cage induction motor is given in Figure 3. %. The subscripts ! and i correspond to the outer and the inner cage of a dou)'",c!g" rotor shown in Figure 3. $). The change in the speedtor"ue curve for a single-cage to a double-cage rotor is depicted in Figure 3. &.

$3

1igur" 9.13 'peed-tor"ue characteristics for single-cage and double-cage rotors.

1igur" 9.17 4ns*ewed and ()) s*ewed rotor bars.

(!)

!nother techni"ue that is commonly used to increase the rotor resistance and lessen the effects of harmonics in an induction motor is called $/"wing. #n

%2

this case, the rotor bars are s*ewed with respect to the rotor shaft, as illustrated in Figure 3. 6. '*ew is usually given in terms of bars. The minimum s*ew must be one bar to avoid cogging. '*ews of more than one bar are commonly used. 9. 1- Rotor Im%"d!nc" Tr!n$*orm!tion Thus far we have tacitly assumed for both the s"uirrel-cage and wound rotors that the rotor circuit impedance can be transformed to the stator side in terms of an a-ratio. The a-ratio was defined on a per-phase basis as the ratio of the effective turns in the stator winding to the effective turns in the rotor winding. That is
a= k N E = k $ N $ Eb

(3.6>)

For a wound rotor having the same number of poles and phases as that of the stator winding, the total turns per phase N$ and the winding factor k$ can be calculated the same way as that for the stator winding. 1owever, the problem is somewhat more perple)ing for the s"uirrel-cage (die-cast) rotor. 5et us suppose that there are P poles in the stator and $ bars on the rotor. 5et us assume that one of the bars is under the middle of the north pole of the stator at any given time. !nother bar also e)ists which is in the middle of the ad0acent south pole. The induced emf in both bars is ma)imum but of opposite polarity. Thus, these two bars carry the ma)imum current and can be visuali/ed as if they form a single turn. 1ence, the total number of turns on the rotor is $=$. The emfs are also induced in other bars. #f the flu) is distributed sinusoidally, the induced emfs and thereby the induced currents also follow the same pattern. 1owever, the root-mean-s"uare (rms) value of the induced emf in each turn is the same. 'ince each turn is offset by one slot on the rotor, the induced emf in each bar is offset by that angle. Therefore, we can assume that each turn is e"uivalent to a phase group, and there are $=$ phase groups in all. 'ince there are $ bars and P poles, the number of bars per pole is $=P. !s each bar identifies a different phase group, the number of bars per pole is then e"uivalent to the number of phases m$ on the rotor. That is
m$ = $ P

(3.6?)

This reali/ation highlights the fact that the number of bars per pole per phase is

. 'tated differently, the number of turns per pole per phase is L. Bow we can determine the total number of turns per phase by multiplying the number of turns per pole per phase by the number of poles. That is,
N$ = P $

(3.6,)

'ince the two bars that are displaced by ,2o electrical form a turn, the winding factor is unity because (a) the pitch factor is unity as each turn is a fullpitch turn and (b) the distribution factor is unity as there is only one turn in each phase group. 'ince we are trying to transform the rotor circuit elements to the stator side, let m be the number of phases on the stator side, E$ the induced emf, and I$ the e"uivalent rotor current. For the e"uivalent representation to be valid, the apparent power associated with the rotor circuit on the rotor side must be the same for the e"uivalent rotor circuit as referred to the stator side. Thus,
m E$ I $ = m$ Ebar I bar

(3.63)

where Ebar is the induced emf in the rotor bar and Ibar is the induced current. 'ince the induced emf on the stator side is E , E$ must be e"ual to E . 1ence,
I$ = m$ k $ N $ I bar m k N

(3.>2)

!lso the rotor copper loss prior to and after the transformation must be e"ual. That is,
$ m I $$ R$ = m$ I bar Rbar
$

(3.> ) (3.>$)

m k N R$ = Rbar m$ k$ N $

where Rbar is the resistance of a rotor bar. Finally, the magnetic energy stored in the rotor lea*age inductance before and after the transformation must also be the same. Therefore,
$
$ m I$

X$ X bar $ = m$ I bar $ f $ $ f

%$

m k N X$ = X bar m$ k $ N $

(3.>%)

where ;bar is the lea*age reactance of each rotor bar. -"uations (3.>$) and (3.>%) outline how the actual rotor parameters for a s"uirrel-cage rotor can be transformed into e"uivalent rotor parameters on the stator side. R$ and ;$ are the rotor resistance and lea*age reactance that we have used in the e"uivalent circuit of an induction motor.

From the above e"uations, it is evident that the a-ratio is

a= m k N m$ k $ N $

(3.>&)

Bote that for a wound rotor m 9 m$.

9. 10 S%""d Contro' o* Induction Motor$

#t was pointed out in the preceding sections that the speed of an induction motor for a stable operation must be higher than the speed at which it develops ma)imum tor"ue. #n other words, the slip at full load must be less than the brea*down slip. For an induction motor having a low rotor resistance, the brea*down slip is usually less than 2E. For such a motor, the speed regulation may be within 6E. For all practical purposes, we can refer to a low-resistance induction motor as a constant-speed motor. Therefore, we must devise some methods in order to vary its operating speed. We already *now that the synchronous speed is directly proportional to the fre"uency of the applied power source and inversely proportional to the number of polesI the motor speed at any slip is
Nm = $2 f ( s) P

(3.>6)

From this e"uation it is evident that the operating speed of an induction motor can be controlled by changing the fre"uency of the applied voltage source and=or the number of poles. 'peed can also be controlled by either changing the applied voltage, the armature resistance, or introducing an e)ternal emf in the rotor circuit. 'ome of these methods are discussed below. 1r".u"nc( Contro'

%%

The operating speed of an induction motor can be increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing the fre"uency of the applied voltage source. This method enables us to obtain a wide variation in the operating speed of an induction motor. The only re"uirement is that we must have a variable-fre"uency supply. To maintain constant flu) density and thereby the ma)imum tor"ue developed, the applied voltage must be varied in direct proportion to the fre"uency. This is due to the fact that the induced emf in the stator winding is directly proportional to the fre"uency. The speed-tor"ue characteristics of an induction motor at four different fre"uencies are given in Figure 3. ?. !lso shown in the figure is a typical load curve. !t each fre"uency the motor operates at a speed at which the load line intersects the speed-tor"ue characteristic for that fre"uency.

1igur" 9.1> 'peed-tor"ue characteristics for various fre"uencies and ad0usted supply voltages C !nging St!tor Po'"$ This method is "uite suitable for an induction motor with a s"uirrel-cage rotor. #n this case, the stator can be wound with two or more entirely independent windings. -ach winding corresponds to a different number of poles and therefore different synchronous speed. !t any time, only one winding is in operation. !ll other windings are disconnected. For e)ample, an induction motor wound for & and > poles at a fre"uency of >2 1/ can operate either at a

%&

synchronous speed of operation).

,22 rpm (&-pole operation) or at

$22 rpm (>-pole

This method of speed control, although somewhat limited, is very simple, provides good speed regulation, and ensures high efficiency at either speed setting. 4se has been made of this method in the design of traction motors, elevator motors, and small motor driving machine tools. !n induction motor is usually wound such that the current in each phase winding produces alternate poles. Thus, the four coils for each phase of a &-pole operation motor produce two north poles and two south poles, with a south pole located between the two north poles and vice versa. 1owever, if the phase coils are reconnected to produce either four north poles or four south poles, the winding is said to constitute a conse"uent-pole winding. .etween any two li*e poles an unli*e pole is induced by the continuity of the magnetic field lines. Thus, a &-pole motor when reconnected as a conse"uent-pole motor behaves li*e an ,pole motor. Therefore, by simply reconnecting the phase windings on an induction motor, a speed in the ratio of $: can be accomplished by a single winding. Rotor R"$i$t!nc" Contro' We have already discussed the effect of changes in the rotor resistance on the speed-tor"ue characteristic of an induction motor. This method of speed control is suitable only for wound-rotor induction motors. The operating speed of the motor can be decreased by adding e)ternal resistance in the rotor circuit. 1owever, an increase in the rotor resistance causes (a) an increase in the rotor copper loss, (b) an increase in the operating temperature of the motor, and (c) a reduction in the motor efficiency. .ecause of these drawbac*s, this method of speed control can be used only for short periods. St!tor :o't!g" Contro' 'ince the tor"ue developed by the motor is proportional to the s"uare of the applied voltage, the (reduction=augmentation) in operating speed of an induction motor can be achieved by (reducing=augmenting) the applied voltage. The speed-tor"ue characteristics for two values of the applied voltage are depicted in Figure 3. ,. The method is very convenient to use but is very limited in its scope because to achieve an appreciable change in speed a relatively large change in the applied voltage is re"uired.

%6

1igur" 9.1A 'peed-tor"ue characteristics as a function of supply voltage. InB"cting !n EM1 in t " Rotor Circuit The speed of a wound-rotor induction motor can also be changed by in0ecting an emf in the rotor circuit, as shown in Figure 3. 3. For proper operation, the fre"uency of the in0ected emf must be e"ual to the rotor fre"uency. 1owever, there is no restriction on the phase of the in0ected emf. #f the in0ected emf is in phase with the induced emf in the rotor, the rotor current increases. #n this case, the rotor circuit manifests itself as if it has a low resistance. (n the other hand, if the in0ected emf is in phase opposition to the induced emf in the rotor circuit, the rotor current decreases. The decrease in the rotor current is analogous to the increase in the rotor resistance. Thus, changing the phase of the in0ected voltage is e"uivalent to changing the rotor resistance. The change in the rotor resistance is accompanied by the change in the operating speed of the motor. Further control in the speed can also be achieved by varying the magnitude of the in0ected emf.

%>

1igur" 9.19 !n e"uivalent circuit of an induction motor with an e)ternal source in the rotor circuit. 9.13 T(%"$ o* Induction Motor$ The Bational -lectrical @anufacturers !ssociation (B-@!) has categori/ed s"uirrel-cage induction motors into si) different types by assigning them the letter designations

C'!$$ A Motor$
A c'!$$ A motor is considered a $t!nd!rd motor and is suitable for constant-speed applications. The motor can be started by applying the rated voltage. #t develops a starting tor"ue of $6E to ?6E of full-load tor"ue. The starting current at the rated voltage is 6 to ? times the rated current. The full-load slip is usually less than 6E because the rotor resistance is relatively low. The speed regulation is $E to &E. The rotor bars are placed close to the surface of the rotor laminations in order to reduce the lea*age reactance. These motors drive low-inertia loads and possess high accelerations. T "( !r" "m%'o("d in $uc !%%'ic!tion$ !$ *!n$+ )'ow"r$+ c"ntri*ug!' t(%" %um%$+ !nd m!c in" too'$.

C'!$$ C Motor$

%?

! class . motor is considered a general-purpose motor and can be started by applying the r!t"d #o't!g". The rotor resistance for a class . motor is somewhat higher than for a class ! motor. T " rotor conductor$ !r" %'!c"d d""%"r in t " $'ot$ t !n *or t " c'!$$ A motor. Therefore, the rotor reactance of a class . motor is higher than that of a class ! motor. The increase in the rotor reactance reduces the starting tor"ue, whereas an increase in the rotor resistance increases the starting tor"ue. Thus, the starting tor"ue range for a class . motor is almost the same as that of the class ! motor. (wing to the increase in reactance, the starting current is about &.6 to 6.6 times the full-load current. The low starting current and almost the same starting tor"ue ma*e class . motors appropriate for class ! applications as well. T "r"*or"+ c'!$$ C motor$ c!n )" $u)$titut"d in !'' !%%'ic!tion$ u$ing c'!$$ A motor$. T " $%""d r"gu'!tion *or c'!$$ C motor$ i$ 0@ to 7@. C'!$$ C Motor$ A c'!$$ C motor u$u!''( !$ ! dou)'",c!g" rotor !nd i$ d"$ign"d *or *u'',#o't!g" $t!rting. The high-resistance rotor limits the starting current to %.6 to 6 times the full-load current. The starting tor"ue is $22E to $?6E of the full-load tor"ue. The speed regulation is &E to 6E. C'!$$ C motor$ !r" u$"d in !%%'ic!tion$ t !t r".uit" ig $t!rting tor.u"$+ $uc !$ com%r"$$ion %um%$+ cru$ "r$+ )oring mi''$+ con#"(or ".ui%m"nt+ t"&ti'" m!c in"r(+ !nd wood,wor/ing ".ui%m"nt. C'!$$ D Motor$ ! class G motor is a high-resistance motor capable of developing a starting tor"ue of $62E to %22E of the rated tor"ue. The high rotor resistance is created by using high-resistance alloys for the rotor bars and by reducing the crosssectional area of the bar. Gepending upon the design, the starting current may be % to , times the rated current. The efficiency of a class G motor is lower than that of those discussed above. The speed regulation may be as high as 2E. T "$" motor$ !r" u$"d in $uc !%%'ic!tion$ !$ )u''do5"r$+ $ "!ring m!c in"$+ %unc %r"$$"$+ $t!m%ing m!c in"$+ '!undr( ".ui%m"nt+ !nd oi$t$. C'!$$ E Motor$ +lass - motors in general have low starting tor"ue and operate at low slip at rated load. The starting current is relatively low for motors below ?.6

%,

horsepower. These motors may be started at rated voltage. 1owever, for motors above ?.6 horsepower the starting current may be high enough to re"uire a lowvoltage starting circuit. C'!$$ 1 Motor$ ! class F motor is usually a double-cage motor. #t is a low-tor"ue motor and re"uires the lowest amount of starting current of all motors. The starting tor"ue is usually .$6 times the rated tor"ue, whereas the starting current is $ to & times the rated current. The speed regulation is over 6E. These motors can be started by applying the rated voltage. They are designed to replace class . motors and are built in si/es above $6 horsepower. SUMMARY #n this chapter we shed some light on a three-phase induction motor, which essentially consists of a stator and a rotor. The stator is wound using double-layer winding 0ust li*e the stator of a synchronous machine. There are two types of rotors: a s"uirrel-cage rotor and a wound rotor. ! wound rotor, although e)pensive, is wound for the same number of poles as the stator. #t provides means to add e)ternal resistance in series with the rotor circuit. ! s"uirrel-cage rotor uses bars in the slots that are shorted at either end by the end-rings. For a low-horse power motor, the bars and the end-rings are formed in a die-casting process. When the three-phase stator winding is connected to a balanced threephase source, it sets up a revolving field that rotates around the periphery of the rotor at the synchronous speed given by the following e"uation:
Ns = $2 f P

where f is the fre"uency of the applied voltage source and P is the number of poles in the stator. The uniform revolving field induces emf in the rotor conductors. 'ince the rotor winding forms a closed circuit, the induced emf gives rise to a current the rotor conductors. The interaction of the current in the rotor conductors with the magnetic field in the motor creates a tor"ue in accordance with the 5orent/ force e"uation. Therefore, the rotor starts rotating and attains a speed slightly less than the synchronous speed. For this reason, an induction motor is also called an asynchronous motor. The difference between the synchronous speed and the rotor speed is called the slip speed. The per-unit slip is then defined as

%3

s=

N s Nm Ns

.y using the transformer analogy we developed an e"uivalent circuit of an induction motor as referred to the stator side. The rotor circuit parameters were transformed to the stator side by using the a-ratio given as
a= m m$ k N k N $ $

where m and m$ are the number of phases, k and k$ are the winding factors and N and N$ are the number of turns in each phase of the stator and the rotor windings. For s"uirrel-cage rotor, k$ 9 , m$ 9 $%P, and N$ 9 P=$, where $ is the number of bars in the rotor. For a wound-rotor induction motor m 9 m$. We defined R$( - s)=s as the dynamic (or effective) resistance because the power developed is proportional to it. Bote that R$ is the rotor resistance. From the per-phase e"uivalent circuit, we can compute the power input as
Pin = %V I cos

where V and I are the per-phase applied voltage and the input current. is the power factor angle between the two. The stator copper loss can be computed as
Pscl = %I $ R

#f Ic is the core-loss current through Rc, the core loss is

Pm = %I c$ Rc

The air-gap power is

%I $$ R$ Pag = Pin Pscl Pm = s

The rotor copper loss is

Prcl = %I $$ R$

1ence, the power developed is

&2

Pd = Pag Pscl = ( s) Pag =

%I $$ R$ ( s) s

The tor"ue developed is

Td = Pag %I $$ R$ Pd = = m s ( s s )

4sing the appro)imate e"uivalent circuit, we found out that t " "**ici"nc( of an induction motor is ma)imum when
%I $$ [ R + R$ ] = Pr

The motor develops m!&imum tor.u" at a slip *nown as the brea*down slip such that
sb = R$ R + X e$
$

where ;e 9 ; F ;$. The e)pression for the ma)imum tor"ue developed is

%V $ Tdm = $ s R + R $ + X e$

When the stator winding impedance is negligible, the appro)imate e)pressions for the brea*down slip and the brea*down tor"ue are
sb = R$ X$

Tdm =

%V $ $ s X $

#f Td is the tor"ue developed at a slip s, then

Td $ss = $ b$ Tdm s + sb

The power developed by an induction motor is ma)imum when

Pdm = %V $ $ [ Re + Ze ]
&

The motor circuit parameters can be determined by performing the bloc*ed-rotor test, the no-load test, and the stator-resistance test. From the bloc*ed-rotor test
Re = Pbr $ I br

where Pbr and Ibr are the per-phase power input and the current. The test is conducted when the rotor is held stationary and the motor draws the rated current from a carefully applied low voltage, Vbr. The magnitude of the stator and the rotor winding impedance is
Ze = Vbr I br
Ze$ Re$

Thus,
Xe =

The individual values of t " '"!/!g" r"!ct!nc" are

X = X $ = 2.6 X e

and the rotor resistance is A$ 9 Ae - A . The no-load test is conducted at the rated voltage when the rotor is free to rotate without load. #f !c, I!c and V!c are the power input, the current, and the applied voltage on a per-phase basis, then
P!c =
!c

Pf

where Pf is the per-phase friction and windage loss. The core-loss resistance is
$ V!c Rc = P!c

The magneti/ation reactance is

Xm =
$ V!c $!c

where
$!c =
$ S!c $ !c

and

S!c = V!c I !c

&$

We have also e)amined the effect of changes in the rotor resistance on the speed-tor"ue characteristic of an induction motor. !n increase in the rotor resistance increases the starting tor"ue, reduce the starting current, and enables the operation of the motor at a somewhat lower speed. #n a wound motor, the rotor resistance is increased by adding e)ternal resistance to the rotor circuit via slip-rings. #n a s"uirrel-cage induction motor, the change in the rotor resistance is reali/ed by using a multicage rotor. We also e)amined various schemes that enable us to control the speed of an induction motor. 'ome of the methods we have discussed are fre"uency control, changing stator poles, rotor resistance control, stator voltage control, and in0ecting an emf in the rotor circuit.

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