Module 2:

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUN A!IONS OF CU""ICULUM

EARNING OUTCOMES When you complete this module you will be ble to! #efine what is philosophy OVERVIEW #efine what is educational philosophy 0"1 9econstructionism 0"8 2ntroduction )ompare and contrast the philosophical eliefs of perennialism, 0"1 0"8"1" *hat is *hat philosophy3 is reconstructionism3 essentialism, progressivism and reconstructionism 0"0 0"8"0 Philosophy The reconstructionist of education ,@plain the influence of the four educational philosophies on curriculum 0"4 Philosophy curriculum and curriculum 0"5 $ 0": Perennialism u ;asr al-<ara i List the main features of the educational philosophies of <ara i, )onfucius and Tagore 0"5"1 $l-<ara 0":"1 *hat is perennialism3 i on education #iscuss the implications of the philosophies of <ara i, )onfucius and 0"5"0 $l-<ara 0":"0 The perennialist i = curriculum 0"> )onfucius curriculum Tagore on curriculum
0"6 0">"1 ,ssentialism )onfucius on education 0"6"1 )onfucius 0">"0 *hat is essentialism3 = curriculum 0"11 0"6"0 9a indranath The essentialist Tagore 0"11"1curriculum Tagore on education 0"7 Progressivism 0"11"0 Tagore = curriculum 0"7"1 *hat is progressivism3 0"7"0 #iscussion The progressive ?uestions curriculum 9eadings

Consult Private Sector on Curriculum

()onsultation to get views of the Kuala Lumpur, Sat-The Prime Minister wants education officials to consult the private sector should e for Sijil Pelajaran private sector when drawing curriculum for Malaysia-level and onwards (Year 11 secondary and tertiary level education to onwards)" This approach is important produce the right people for the jo mar!et" ecause of the rapid and dynamic industrial #atu! Seri $ dullah $hmad %adawi said development ta!ing shape" *e cannot run that private sector&s manpower needs and away from supplying a wor!force needed uilding+" future trends would allow adjustments to y industries for nation $ dullah said after opening the two-day e made to the current curriculum" The curriculum must see that those second Malay ,ducation )ongress today" entering the wor! mar!et after completing their secondary education, diploma or -Source. New Straits Times, March, 27, degree courses are e'uipped with 2005/ !nowledge that is useful to the nature of their jo s, he added"

2%' Introduction 2n module "# we discussed the di$$e%ent de$initions o$ cu%%iculum& We lso b%ie$ly discussed the $ound tions o$ cu%%iculum# the cu%%iculum de'elopment p%ocess nd the %el tionship between cu%%iculum nd inst%uction& In this ch pte% nd the $ollowin( two ch pte%s# we will e) mine in (%e te% det il the $ound tions o$ cu%%iculum& In othe% wo%ds# how di$$e%ent t% dition l disciplines h 'e in$luenced cu%%iculum& A cu%%iculum is de'eloped b sed on ce%t in belie$s nd o%ient tions# conceptions o$ le %nin( nd the dem nds o$ society& In this ch pte%# we will $ocus on the philosophical beliefs th t in$luence cu%%iculum nd in Module * we will $ocus on the psychological perspectives th t imp ct cu%%iculum& In Module + we will discuss the %ole o$ society in dete%minin( wh t is to be included in cu%%iculum s well s the le( cy o$ si(ni$ic nt histo%ic l e'ents&

Let&s egin with 2%& ()at is P)iloso*)+, philosophy" The word philosophy is a com ination of the Bree! word (philos+ CloveD and (sophia+ CwisdomD which translated means (love of wisdom+" Philosophers are people who see! 0

AC!I#I!$ AC!I#I!$ 2%& 2%& 9ead 9ead the the newspaper newspaper report report on on A)onsult A)onsult Private Private Sector Sector on on )urriculum& )urriculum& 1" 1" *hat *hat do do you you understand understand y y the the phrase phrase ( (equipped equipped with with know know ed!e ed!e that is use"u to the nature o" their #o$s +3 Bive specific e@amples that is use"u to the nature o" their #o$s+3 Bive specific e@amples 0" 0" ( (%e %e cannot cannot run run awa& awa& "rom "rom supp supp &in! &in! a a work"orce work"orce needed needed $& $& industries industries "or "or nation nation $ui $ui din! din!+" +" To To what what e@tent e@tent do do you you agree agree that that this this should should e e the the role role and and functions functions of of schools schools and and universities3 universities3

after wisdom and curious a out the world see!ing to understand the nature of things" Eftentimes, the result of philosophy is not so much putting forward new philosophies or propositions ut ma!ing e@isting philosophies or propositions clearer" Philosophers study the wor!s of other philosophers and state anew what others have put forward as well as proposing new philosophies" $ philosopher can e a person who !nows philosophy even though he or she engages in little or no philosophising" Philosophy also refers to the collective wor!s of other philosophers" 2t can mean the academic e@ploration of various 'uestions raised y philosophers" <or centuries philosophers have een interested with such concepts as morality, goodness, !nowledge, truth, eauty and our very e@istence" $mong the 'uestions philosophers as! are. *hat is truth3 *hy do we say a statement is correct or false3 Fow do we !now what we !now3 *hat is reality3 *hat things can e descri e as real3 *hat is the nature of thought and thin!ing3 *hat is special a out eing a human eing3 2s there anything special a out eing alive at all3 *hat is ethics3 *hat does it mean when something is right or wrongG good or ad3 *hat is eauty3 Fow do eautiful things differ from others3 Philosophers use certain methods of in'uiry" They often frame their 'uestions as pro lems or puHHles a out su jects they find interesting and confusing" Popularly, the word philosophy may also refer to someone&s perspective on life C phi osoph& o" i"eD or the underlying principles or method of achieving something"

2%2 P)iloso*)+ o- .ducation ;ow, let&s e@amine a ranch of philosophy, namelyG philosophy of education" *hat is philosophy of education3 Philosophy of education is the study of 'uestions such as A*hat is education3& A*hat is the purpose of education3&, A*hat does it mean to !now something3& A*hat is the relationship etween education and society3& The philosophy of education recognises that the development of a civil society depends on the education of the young as responsi le, thoughtful and enterprising citiHens which is a challenging tas! re'uiring deep understanding of ethical principles, moral values, political theory, aesthetics and economicsG not to mention an understanding of children themselves" Most of the prominent philosophers in the last 0111 years were not philosophers of education ut have at some point considered and written on the philosophy of education" $mong them are Plato, $ristotle, 9ousseau, #ewey, $dler, )onfucius, $l

4 2%/ P)iloso*)+ and Curriculum

<ara i, Tagore and many others -we wi discuss their contri$utions to education ater in the chapter/" These philosophers have een !ey voices in philosophy of education and have contri uted to our asic understanding of what education is and can e" They have also provided powerful critical perspectives revealing the pro lems in education" *hat is the connection etween philosophy and curriculum3 <or e@ample, when you propose the teaching of a particular ody of !nowledge, course or su ject, you will e as!ed, (*hat is your philosophy for introducing that content3+ 2f you are una le to answer the 'uestion, you may not e a le to convince others to accept your proposal" Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision ma!ing and is the asis for all su se'uent decisions regarding curriculum" Philosophy ecomes the criteria for determining the aims, selection, organisation and implementation of the curriculum in the classroom" Philosophy helps us answer general 'uestions such as. A*hat are schools for3& A*hat su jects are of value3&, AFow should students learn the content3& 2t also helps us to answer more precise tas!s such as deciding what te@t oo!s to use, how to use them, what homewor! to assign and how much of it, how to test and use the results"

SELF-TEST SELF-TEST 2.1 2.1 *hat *hat do do philosophers3 philosophers3 List List the the concepts concepts philosophers philosophers have have een een interested interested in" in" *hat is philosophy of education3 Fow is it related to *hat is philosophy of education3 Fow is it related to the the curriculum curriculum of of a a school school system3 system3

In modern times there are opposing views about the practice of education. There is no general agreement about what the young should learn either in relation to virtue or in relation to the best life; nor is it clear whether their education ought to be directed more towards the intellect than towards the character of the soul. And it is not certain whether training should be directed at things useful in life, or at those conducive to virtue, or at non-essentials. And there is no agreement as to what in fact does tend towards virtue. Men do not all pri e most highly the same virtue. !o naturally they differ also about the proper training for it."

*ould you elieve that the a ove statement was written more that 0111 years ago y the Bree! philosopher $ristotle and we are still de ating the same issues today" Sometimes one wonders whether we !now what we wantI *e lament a out the poor

level of asic s!ills of students and call for a return to the asics" $t the same time we want students to develop critical thin!ing s!ills and call for lesser emphasis on rote learning" Through the centuries, many philosophies of education have emerged, each with their own eliefs a out education" 2n this chapter, we will discuss four philosophies, namelyG perennialism, essentialism, progressivism and reconstructionism proposed y *estern philosophers" $lso, discussed are the viewpoints of three ,astern philosophersG namely, al-<ara i, Tagore and )onfucius" ,ach of these educational philosophies is e@amined to see what curriculum is proposed and how teaching and learning should e conducted"

2%0 Perennialism

,&+&" Wh t is -e%enni lism. Perennial means Jeverlasting,J li!e a perennial flower that looms year after year" Perennialism, the oldest and most conservative educational philosophy has its roots in the philosophy of Plato and $ristotle" Two modern day proponents of perennialism are 9o ert Futchins and Mortimer $dler" The perennialists elieved that humans are rational and the aim of education is (to improve man as man+ CFutchins, 1>64D" The answers to all educational 'uestions derive from the answer to one 'uestion. *hat is human nature3 $ccording to them, human nature is constant and humans have the a ility to understand the universal truths of nature" Thus, the aim of education is to develop the rational person and to uncover universal truths y training the intellect" Towards developing one&s moral and spiritual eing, character education should e emphasised"

Perennialism is ased on the elief that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived" These ideas should e studied in school" $ list of the ABreat %oo!s& was proposed covering topics in literature, art, psychology, philosophy, mathematics, science, economics, politics and so forth" ,@amples of such oo!s are. 'o$inson (rusoe written y #aniel #efoe, %ar and )eace written y Leo Tolstoy, Mo$& *ick written y Ferman Melville, ,uclid&s oo! + ements on geometry, ;ewton&s oo! on ,ptics, The Se-ua +n i!htenment o" (hi dren written y Sigmund <reud, .n inquir& into the Nature and (auses o" the %ea th o" Nations y $dam Smith and many others" The oo! selected had to have contemporary significance, that is, it should e relevant to the pro lems and issues of present times" The oo! should espouse ideas and issues that have occupied the minds of thin!ing individuals in the last 0111 years" The oo! should attract people to read it again and again and enefit from it" The perennialists elieved that these are historyKs finest thin!ers and writers" Their ideas are profound and meaningful even today as when they were written" *hen students

are immersed in the study of these profound and enduring ideas, they will appreciate learning for its own sa!e as well as develop their intellectual powers and moral 'ualities" ,&+&, The -e%enni list Cu%%iculum %ased on the eliefs of perennialism, the curriculum proposed had the following characteristics. The ABreat %oo!s& programme or more commonly called the li eral arts will discipline the mind and cultivate the intellect" To read the oo! in its original language, students must learn Latin and Bree!" Students also had to learn grammar, rhetoric, logic, advanced mathematics and philosophy CFutchins, 1>47D" The study of philosophy is a crucial part of the perennialist curriculum" This was ecause they wanted students to discover those ideas that are most insightful and timeless in understanding the human condition" $t a much later time, Mortimer $dler C1>:0D in his oo! the )aideia )roposa , recommended a single elementary and secondary curriculum for all students" The educationally disadvantaged had to spend some time in pre-schools" Perennialists were not !een on allowing students to ta!e electives Ce@cept second languagesD such as vocational and life-adjustment su jects" They argued that these su jects denied students the opportunity to fully develop their rational powers" The perennialists criticised the vast amount of disjointed factual information that educators have re'uired students to a sor " They urge that teachers should spend more time teaching concepts and e@plaining how these concepts are meaningful to students"

Since, enormous amount of scientific !nowledge has een produced, teaching should focus on the processes y which scientific truths have een discovered" Fowever, the perennialists advise that students should not e taught information that may soon e o solete or found to e incorrect ecause of future scientific and technological findings" $t the secondary and university level, perennialists were against reliance on te@t oo!s and lectures in communicating ideas" ,mphasis should e on teacherguided seminars, where students and teachers engage in dialogueG and mutual in'uiry sessions to enhance understanding of the great ideas and concepts that have stood the test to time" Student should learns to learn, and not to e evaluated

Lniversities should not only prepare students for specific careers ut to pursue !nowledge for its own sa!e" (Lniversity students may learn a few trees, perennialists claim, ut many will e 'uite ignorant a out the forests. the timeless philosophical 'uestions ( CFutchins, 1>47D Teaching reasoning using the ABreat %oo!s& of *estern writers is advocated using the Socratic method to discipline the minds of students" ,mphasis should e on scientific reasoning rather than mere ac'uisition of facts" Teach science ut not technology, great AC!I#I!$ 2%2 AC!I#I!$ 2%2 ideas rather than vocational topics" The tt /oo0s The G%e G%e /oo0s Perennialists argue that the topics of the great oo!s descri e any society, at any time, and thus the oo!s are appropriate for $merican society" Students must learn to The and a list came The /reat /reat 0ooks 0ooks refer to to a a curriculum curriculum and oo!s a oo! oo! ecause list that thatthey came recognise controversy and refer disagreement in these reflect real a out as the result of a discussion among $merican academics and educators, a out as the result of a discussion among $merican academics and educators, disagreements etweenand persons" Students must thin! a out the disagreements and starting starting in in the the 1>01s 1>01s and 1>41s" 1>41s" 2t 2t was was initiated initiated y y Mohn Mohn ,rs!ine ,rs!ine on on how how to to reach a reasoned, defensi le conclusion" improve higher education y returning to the western li eral arts tradition of
improve higher education y returning to the western li eral arts tradition of road road cross-disciplinary cross-disciplinary learning" learning" ;ota ;ota le le among among the the academics academics and and School should teach religious or ethics" The difference etween right and educators was 9o Futchins and $dler" educators was 9o ert ert Futchinsvalues and Mortimer Mortimer $dler" They that on specialisation in $merican wrong should emphasiHed so that students will have definite that they must Theyefelt felt that the the emphasis emphasis on narrow narrow specialisation in rules $merican universities and colleges had harmed the 'uality of higher education universities and colleges had harmed the 'uality of higher education y y follow" failing failing to to e@pose e@pose students students to to the the important important products products of of *estern *estern civiliHation civiliHation and and thought" thought" The The /reat /reat 0ooks 0ooks started started out out as as a a list list of of 111 111 essential essential te@ts te@ts which which were were selected selected ased ased on on the the criteria criteria that that it it had had relevance relevance to to present present pro pro lems lems and it is relevant to a large num er of the great ideas and great and issues issues and and it is relevant to a large num er of the great ideas and great SELF-TEST SELF-TEST 2.2 2.2 issues occupied the minds of thin!ing individuals" issues that that have have occupied the minds of thin!ing individuals" 1" 2dentify the main features of the curriculum" 1" 2dentify the main features of the perennialist perennialist curriculum" The /reat 0ooks covered topics including fiction, history, poetry, The /reat 0ooks covered topics including fiction, history, poetry, in the $ccording to perennialism, what should e emphasised $ccording to perennialism, what should e emphasised in the natural science, mathematics, philosophy, drama, politics, religion, natural science, mathematics, philosophy, drama, politics, religion, classroom3 classroom3 economics ,@amples economics and and ethics" ethics" ,@amples of of the the oo!s oo!s are. are. Fomer&s Fomer&s The The 11 iad iad and and The The ,d&sse& ,d&sse& *or!s *or!s of of $ristotle $ristotle and and Plato Plato $rchimedes Measurement $rchimedes Measurement o" o" a a circ circ e e,, ,n ,n Spira Spira s s,, Treatin! Treatin! Mechanica Mechanica )ro$ ems )ro$ ems )haucer&s )haucer&s (anter$ur& (anter$ur& Ta Ta es es Sha!espeare&s Sha!espeare&s complete complete wor!s wor!s #escartes #escartes The The /eometr& /eometr& 2saac 2saac ;ewton&s ;ewton&s Mathematica Mathematica )rincip )rincip es es o" o" Natura Natura )hi )hi osoph& osoph& Karl Mar@&s *as 2apita Karl Mar@&s *as 2apita Leo Leo Tolstoy&s Tolstoy&s %ar %ar and and )eace )eace *illiam Mames& The *illiam Mames& The )rincip )rincip e e o" o" )s&cho )s&cho o!& o!& The The /reat /reat 0ooks 0ooks was was criticised criticised as as eing eing elitist elitist and and giving giving importance importance to to Adead Adead white white males&, males&, while while ignoring ignoring the the contri contri utions utions of of females females and and minorities Csuch as $fro-$mericansD" $nother harmful criticism was that minorities Csuch as $fro-$mericansD" $nother harmful criticism was that the the oo!s oo!s were were more more to to create create the the illusion illusion of of eing eing cultured cultured without without any any real real su su stance stance ehind ehind it" it" --Source3 Source3 Breat Breat %oo!s %oo!s of of the the *estern *estern *orld""www"answers"com/ *orld""www"answers"com/

*hat *hat other other oo!s oo!s of of The The /reat /reat 0ooks 0ooks do do you you !now3 !now3 *hat *hat were were the the main main arguments arguments put put forward forward y y the the perennialists perennialists for for using using The The /reat /reat 0ooks 0ooks3 3 #o #o you you agree agree with with the the criticisms criticisms of of The The /reat /reat 0ooks 0ooks3 3

2%1 .ssentialism ,&1&" Wh t is Essenti lism. ,ssentialism comes from the word Aessential& which means the main things or the asics" $s an educational philosophy, it advocates instilling in students with the JessentialsJ or ( asics+ of academic !nowledge and character development" The term :

essentialism as an educational philosophy was originally popularised in the 1>41s y *illiam %agley and later in the 1>61s y $rthur %estor and $dmiral 9ic!over" *hen it was first introduced as an educational philosophy in $merican schools, it was criticised as eing too rigid" 2n 1>68, the 9ussians launched Sputni! which caused a panic in educational circles as $mericans felt they had fallen ehind the Soviet Lnion technologically" $ rethin!ing of education followed that led to interest in essentialism" ,ssentialism was grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues that schools should not try to radically reshape society" 9ather, they should transmit traditional moral values and intellectual !nowledge that students need to ecome model citiHens" ,ssentialists elieve that teachers should instill traditional virtues such as respect for authority, fidelity to duty, consideration for others and practicality" ,ssentialism placed importance on science and understanding the world through scientific e@perimentation" To convey important !nowledge a out the world, essentialist educators emphasised instruction in natural science rather than non-scientific disciplines such as philosophy or comparative religion" ,&1&, The Essenti list Cu%%iculum %ased on the characteristics. eliefs of essentialism, the curriculum proposed has the following

The A asics& of the essentialist curriculum are mathematics, natural science, history, foreign language, and literature" ,ssentialists disapprove of vocational, lifeadjustment, or other courses with Jwatered downJ academic content" ,lementary students receive instruction in s!ills such as writing, reading, and measurement" ,ven while learning art and music Csu jects most often associated with the development of creativityD students are re'uired to master a ody of information and asic techni'ues, gradually moving from less to more comple@ s!ills and detailed !nowledge" Enly y mastering the re'uired material for their grade level are students promoted to the ne@t higher grade"

,ssentialist programs are academically rigorous, for oth slow and fast learners" )ommon su jects for all students regardless of a ilities and interests" %ut, how much is to e learned is adjusted according to student a ility" 2t advocates a longer school day, a longer academic year, and more challenging te@t oo!s" ,ssentialists maintain that classrooms should e oriented around the teacher, who serves as the intellectual and moral role model for students"

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Teaching is teacher-centred and teachers decide what is most important for students to learn with little emphasis on student interests ecause it will divert time and attention from learning the academic su jects" ,ssentialist teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores as a means of evaluating progress" 2n an essentialist classroom, students are taught to e Jculturally literate,J that is, to possess a wor!ing !nowledge a out the people, events, ideas, and institutions that have shaped society" ,ssentialists hope that when students leave school, they will possess not only asic s!ills and e@tensive !nowledge, ut also disciplined and practical minds, capa le of applying their !nowledge in real world settings" #iscipline is necessary for systematic learning in a school situation" Students learn to respect authority in oth school and society" Teachers need to e mature and well educated, who !now their su jects well and can transmit their !nowledge to students"

SELF-TEST SELF-TEST 2.3 2.3 1" 1" *hat *hat are are TF9,, TF9,, main main features features of of the the essentialist essentialist classroom3 classroom3 0" 2dentify the strengths and wea!nesses of an essentialist 0" 2dentify the strengths and wea!nesses of an essentialist curriculum3 curriculum3

2%2 Pro3ressivism ,&2&" Wh t is -%o(%essi'ism. Progressivism is a philosophical elief that argues that education must e ased on the fact that humans are y nature social and learn est in real-life activities with other people" The person most responsi le for progressivism was Mohn #ewey C1:6>-1>60D" The progressive movement stimulated $merican schools to roaden their curriculum, ma!ing education more relevant to the needs and interests of students" #ewey wrote e@tensively on psychology, epistemology Cthe ori!in o" know ed!eD, ethics and democracy" %ut, his philosophy of education laid the foundation for progressivism" 2n 1:>7, while a professor at the Lniversity of )hicago, #ewey founded the famous La oratory School to test his educational ideas" Fis writings and wor! with the La oratory School set the stage for the progressive education movement" $ccording to #ewey, the role of education is to transmit society&s identity y preparing young people for adult life" Fe was a !een advocate of democracy and for it to flourish, he felt that education should allow learners to realise their interests and 11

potential" Learners should learn to wor! with others ecause learning in isolation separates the mind from action" $ccording to him certain a ilities and s!ills can only e learned in a group" Social and intellectual interaction dissolves the artificial arriers of race and class y encouraging communication etween various social groups C#ewey, 1>01D" Fe descri ed education as a process of growth and e@perimentation in which thought and reason are applied to the solution of pro lems" )hildren should learn as if they were scientists using the scientific method proposed y #ewey C1>01D. 1" 0" 4" 5" 6" To e aware of the pro lem Ceg" plants need sunlight to growD #efine the pro lem Ceg" can plants grow without sunlightD Propose hypotheses to solve it Test the hypotheses ,valuate the est solution to the pro lem

Students should e constantly e@perimenting and solving pro lemsG reconstructing their e@periences and creating new !nowledge using the proposed five steps" Teachers should not only emphasise drill and practice, ut should e@pose learners to activities that relate to he real life situations of students, emphasising ALearning y doing&" ,&2&, The -%o(%essi'e Cu%%iculum Progressivists emphasise the study of the natural and social sciences" Teacher should introduce students to new scientific, technological, and social developments" To e@pand the personal e@perience of learners, learning should e related to present community life" %elieving that people learn est from what they consider most relevant to their lives, the curriculum should centre on the e@periences, interests, and a ilities of students" Teachers should plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push students towards higher order thin!ing and !nowledge construction" <or e@ample, in addition to reading te@t oo!s, students must learn y doing such as fieldtrips where they can interact with nature and society" Students are encouraged to interact with one another and develop social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view" Teachers should not e confined to focusing on one discrete discipline at a time ut should introduce lessons that com ine several different su jects" Students are to e e@posed to a more democratic curriculum that recognises accomplishments of all citiHens regardless of race, cultural ac!ground or gender" addition,

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%y including instruction in industrial arts and home economics, progressivists strive to ma!e schooling oth interesting and useful" 2deally, the home, wor!place, and schoolhouse lend together to generate a continuous, fulfilling learning e@perience in life" 2t is the progressivist dream that the dreary, seemingly irrelevant classroom e@ercises that so many adults recall from childhood will someday ecome a thing of the past" Students solve pro lems in the classroom similar to those they will encounter outside school"

SELF-TEST SELF-TEST 2.4 2.4 1" *hat are 1" *hat are the the main main arguments arguments of of the the progressive progressive movement3 movement3 "" 0" 0" List List some some of of the the main main features features of of the the progressive progressive curriculum curriculum 4" *hat are the main differences etween the progressive 4" *hat are the main differences etween the progressive curriculum curriculum and and the the essentialist essentialist curriculum3 curriculum3

2%4 "econstructionism ,&3&" Wh t is Reconst%uctionism. 9econstructionism was a philosophy uni'uely popular in the L"S" during the 1>41Ks through the 1>71Ks" 2t was largely the rain child of Theodore %rameld from )olum ia Teachers )ollege" Fe egan as a communist, ut shifted to reconstructionism" 9econstructionists favor reform and argue that students must e taught how to ring a out change" 9econstructionism is a philosophy that elieves in the re uilding of social and cultural infrastructures" Students are to study social pro lems and thin! of ways to improve society" $nother proponent of reconstructionism was Beorge )ounts C1>40D who in a speech titled *are the Schoo 0ui d a New Socia ,rder suggested that schools ecome the agent of social change and social reform" Students cannot afford to e neutral ut must ta!e a position"

Most advocates of reconstructionism are sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity and differences in socioeconomic status" 9elated to reconstructionism is another elief called critica peda!o!&" 2t is primarily a teaching and curriculum theory, designed y Fenry Birou@ and Peter McLaren, which focuses upon the use of revolutionary literature in classrooms that is aimed at Jli eration"J 9adical in its conception, critical pedagogy was ased on Mar@ist ideology which advocates e'uality in the distri ution of wealth and strongly against capitalism" More recent reconstructionists such as Paulo <reire in his oo! )eda!o!& o" the ,ppressed C1>7:D advocated a revolutionary pedagogy for poor students in which people can move through different stages to ultimately e a le to ta!e

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action and overcome oppression" Fe argued that people must ecome active participants in changing their own status through social action to change ring a out social justice" ,&3&, The Reconst%uctionist Cu%%iculum 2n the reconstructionist curriculum, it was not enough for students to just analyse interpret and evaluate social pro lems" They had to e committed to the issues discussed and encouraged to ta!e action to ring a out constructive change"

The curriculum is to e ased on social and economic issues as well as social service" The curriculum should engage students in critical analysis of the local, national AC!I#I!$ and international community" ,@amples of issues are poverty, AC!I#I!$ 2%/ 2%/ environment degradation, unemployment, crime, war, political oppression, Identi$y Identi$y the the Educ Educ tion tion ll -hilosophies -hilosophies hunger, etc" *hich *hich of of the the following following statements statements reflect reflect the the four four philosophical philosophical traditions traditions that that have have een een

discussed3 discussed3 Mar!. Mar!. There are many injustices in society and ine'ualities in terms of race, gender, and AA E4 essentialism, E4 for for essentialism, AA-4 progressivism, socioeconomic status" Schools are o liged to educate children towards resolution -4 for for progressivism, AA-N4 for perennialism and -N4 for perennialism andand students should not e afraid to e@amine controversial of these injustices AAR4 for reconstructionism" R4 for reconstructionism" issues" Students should learn to come to a consensus on issues and so group wor! )hec! your answers )hec! your answers for for your your score" score" Since Since the the statements statements are are su su jective, jective, it it is is possi possi le le that that was encouraged"

you you may may disagree disagree with with the the classification" classification" Support Support your your argument" argument" The curriculum should e constantly changing to meet the changes in society" 1" a common 1" $ $ school school curriculum curriculum should should include common ody ody of of !nowledge !nowledge Students e aware of include glo ala curriculum issues and the interdependence etween nations" that that all all students students should should !now0 !now0 The The curriculum should should focus focus on on the the great great ideas ideas that that have have survived survived ,nhancing mutual understanding and glo al cooperation should e the focus of through through the curriculum" time time and and related related to to present present day day challenges"4 challenges"4 Schools Schools should should prepare prepare students students for for analyHing analyHing and and

solving solving the the social social Teachers are they considered prime agents of social change, cultural renewal and pro will as ,ach should determine his her pro lems lems that that they will face face the as adults"5 adults"5 ,ach student student should determine his or or her individual individual curriculum, and curriculum, and internationalism" They are encouraged to challenge outdated structures and teachers should guide and Students must e a change and to teachers should guide and help help them"6 a Students must social e taught taught a out out change and how how to ring ring entrusted with the tas! of them"6 ringing out a new order which may e utopian a out change" 7" Teachers and schools should emphasise academic rigour, discipline, a out change" 7" Teachers and schools should emphasise academic rigour, discipline, in nature" hard hard wor! wor! and and respect respect for for authority"8 authority"8 Students Students must must e e 'uestioned 'uestioned and and pro pro ed ed until until they they discover discover the truth in the truth in 2n general, the curriculum emphasised the social sciences Csuch as history, the the te@ts te@ts selected":" selected":" Schools Schools should should develop develop students& students& a a ility ility to to thin! thin! deeply deeply and and analytically analytically political science, economics, sociology, religion, ethics, poetry, and philosophyD, rather than focus on temporary issues such as social s!ills and current rather than focus on temporary issues such as social s!ills and current rather than the sciences" trends" trends" >" >" <or <or a a country country to to e e competitive competitive in in the the glo glo al al mar!etplace, mar!etplace, schools schools should should see! see! to to produce produce more more competent competent wor!ers"11 wor!ers"11 Since Since students students learn learn effectively effectively though though social social interaction, interaction, schools schools should should plan plan for for increased increased social social interaction interaction in in the the curriculum"11" curriculum"11" Students Students are are too too immature immature to to decide decide what what they need to learn and so the they need to learn and so the school school should should decide decide for for them" them" 10 10 Teaching Teaching should should emphasise emphasise relating relating what what is is learned learned to to the the realrealworld world through through field field trips trips and and internship"14 internship"14 ,ducation ,ducation is is not not primarily primarily concerned concerned with with producing producing future future wor!ers wor!ers ut ut should should emphasise emphasise learning learning for for its its own own sa!e sa!e and and students students should should enjoy enjoy reading, reading, learning learning and and discussing discussing interesting interesting ideas"15 ideas"15 ,ducation ,ducation should should ena ena le le students students to to recognise recognise injustices injustices in in society, society, and and schools schools should should promote promote projects projects to to redress redress social social ine'ualities"16 ine'ualities"16 Students Students should should e e active active participants in the learning process, involved in participants in the learning process, involved in democratic democratic class class decision decision ma!ing ma!ing and and reflective reflective thin!ing"17 thin!ing"17 Students Students should should e e taught taught to to e e more more sensitive sensitive to to race, race, gender, gender, ethnicity, ethnicity, 14 and and differences differences in in general" general"

15

SELF-TEST SELF-TEST 2.5 2.5 1" *hat is the main 1" *hat is the main argument argument of of proponents proponents of of reconstructionism3 reconstructionism3 0" 0" *hat *hat are are the the recommendations recommendations of of the the reconstructionists reconstructionists with with regards regards to the curriculum3 to the curriculum3

2%5 A6u Nasr al7Fara6i $l-<ara i C:80->61 $#D was orn in *asij, in the province of <ara in Tur!estan, of a no le family" To understand the universe and human!ind he undertoo! the meticulous study of ancient philosophy Cparticularly Plato and $ristotleD which he integrated into his own 2slamic-$ra ic civiliHation whose chief source was the ?ur&an" $l-<ara i used a num er of terms to descri e education. discipline C ta4di$D, training Ctahdhi$D, guidance CtasdidD, instruction Cta4 imD, e@ercise or learning Cirti&adD and up ringing Ctar$i&aD C'uoted in $mmar al-Tal i, 1>>4D" Fe elieved that the first aim of !nowledge was !nowledge of Bod and Fis attri utes" Fe emphasised the need for unity of society and the State to e achieved y unity of thought, wisdom and religion" ,&5&" Al67 % bi on Educ tion $ccording to him the whole activity of education is the ac'uisition of values, !nowledge and practical s!ills leading to perfection and the attainment of happiness" The perfect human eing Ca insan a kami D is one who has ac'uired o theoretical virtue Cintellectual !nowledgeD and o practical moral virtues Cmoral ehaviourD" Nirtue is the state of mind in which the human eing carries out good and !ind deeds such as wisdom, common sense, inventiveness, cleverness, temperance, courage, generosity and justice C. 56ara$i, Ta khis, cited in $mmar al-Tal i, 1>>4D" Theoretical and practical virtue can only e o tained within society, for it is society that nurtures the individual and prepares him or her to e free" Thus, one of the goals 16

of education is the creation of the ideal community, Athe one whose cities all wor! together in order to attain happiness& C. 56ara$i, Ma$adi ah a 5madina a 5"adi a, cited in $mmar al-Tal i, 1>>4D" $nother aim of education is to educate political leaders, ecause ignorance among them is more harmful than it is in the common person" Fe considered the method of dialogue or de ate as important in instruction" The method of argument and the method of discourse which can e used orally or in writing" <or the common people, the methods used must e closely related to what they can grasp and understand" Fe also emphasised on the need for scientific discourseG that y which the !nowledge of something is o tained either through as!ing 'uestions a out the thing, or from the replies o tained, or y resolving a scientific pro lem C. 56ara$i, 2ita$ a 5hura", cited in $mmar al-Tal i, 1>>4D" 2n this oo! $l-$lfaH, <ara i argues that there are two types of learning. learning through speech and learning y imitation Co serving other people&s actions with the intention of imitating or applying themD" The method of instruction must e appropriate to the level of learners" <or e@ample, the method of imagination is encouraged for teaching the hard to grasp concepts to common people" The educator resorts to metaphors and illustrations in teaching especially for people who are reluctant to learn C. 56ara$i, Tahsi , cited in $mmar alTal i, 1>>4D" $ccording to $l-<ara i, understanding is etter than memoriHation ecause the former deals mainly with details which could go on forever and hardly useful" %ut the action of understanding concerns meanings, universals and laws which are valid for all"

,&5&, Al67 % bi on Cu%%iculum $l-<ara i classified the sciences and learning not just for the sa!e of listing them, ut with an educational o jective in mind" )ontent to e taught as suggested y $l-<ara i o Language and its structure Cto e@press oneself and understand othersD o Logic CmantiqD which includes ver al e@pression and intellectual procedures o Mathematics Che divided into 8 partsD - arithmetic C egin with num ers and proceeding to measuresD

17

- geometry Cuse of geometric shapes to stimulate imaginationD - the science of optics - astronomy Cstudy of instruments and o servation s!illsD - music Cma!ing and listening to musical instrumentsD - dynamics Ceg" momentumD - science of machines o ;atural sciences

o 9eligion and scholastic theology Cka amD o Political scienceOcivics o Murisprudence C"iqhD and law CqanunD Mathematics called Athe teachings& Cta4a imD was given importance ecause it trains students toward the path of precision and clarity" The student is to egin with studying arithmetic Cnum ersD followed y geometry, optics, astronomy, music, dynamics and last of all mechanics" The student moves in stages from the immaterial and the immeasura le to what needs some matter" C. 56ara$i, 1hsa4 a 57u um, cited in $mmar al-Tal i, 1>>4D" En evaluation, $l-<ara i emphasised that the aim of an e@amination is to find out a learner&s level in the field eing studied" Fe elieved that the 'uestions students as! could have either an educationa or an e-perimenta character" ,ducational is when students demonstrate that they have mastered something" ,@perimental is when students test themselves using instruments Csuch as compass, a acus, ruler, ta lesD to determine whether they !now the rules" $l-<ara i drew attention to the purpose of educational games and the role of play in human activity" Fe recommended games that stimulate creativity" Play should e used appropriately to restore the learner&s strength to underta!e more serious activity"

SELF-TEST SELF-TEST 2.6 2.6 1" *hat are some of 1" *hat are some of al-<ara al-<ara i&s i&s views views on on teaching3 teaching3 Fow Fow relevant relevant are are they they today3 today3 0" 0" *hat *hat are are main main features features of of the the curriculum curriculum proposed proposed y y al-<ara al-<ara i3 i3

18

2%8 Con-ucius )onfucius C661-58> %)D, orn in ?uyi in the principality of Lu, is one of )hina&s most famous philosophers" Fe spent a lifetime learning as well as teaching" Fe stated that education plays a fundamental role in the development of society and of individuals ali!e" ,ducation should see! to produce virtuous individuals which will alter human nature" %y raising individual moral standard, society will ecome more virtuous and the country will e well-governed and its citiHens law-a iding" Fe rejected feudalism in which the status of an individual was passed from one generation to the ne@t ased on irth which was prevalent during his time" Fis recommendations are in the .na ects CLun PuD which is a %eco%d o$ his speeches nd his disciples# s well s the discussions they h d& It lite% lly me ns 8discussions o'e% wo%ds9& Con$uci n thou(ht w s not con$ined to Chin & It sp%e d to : p n# Vietn m# No%th nd South ;o%e # nd p %ts o$ Southe st Asi & ,&<&" Con$ucius nd Educ tion $ccording to )onfucius, education is to produce c p ble indi'idu ls =ziancai> whom he c lled shi =(entlemen> o% ?un@i =men o$ Au lity> who combined competence with 'i%tue& They would se%'e the (o'e%nment nd b%in( bout n ide l m n (ed by men o$ 'i%tue& The culti' tion o$ 'i%tue w s to be th%ou(h obse%' tion# study nd %e$lecti'e thou(ht& $mong the virtues given priority are. filial piety Cxiao># %espect $o% the elde%ly =ti># loy lty =zhong># %espect$ulness =gong># m (n nimity =kuan>B $idelity =xin># dili(ence =min># lt%uism =hui># 0indness =liang># $%u( lity =jian># tole% nce =rang># wisdom =zhi> nd cou% (e =yong>& ,ducation was to e made availa le to all, regardless of socioeconomic status or social standing" Fe denounced favouritism and the passing of office from one generation o$ nobles to the ne)t =C n( Du nyin# "<<*>& $ccording to )onfucius# EStudy without thou(ht is l bou% lostB thou(ht without study is d n(e%ous4& De s w le %nin( s p%ocess o$ obse%' tion o$ some type o$ sub?ect m tte%# whethe% it be boo0s# ob?ects o% people# $ollowed by %e$lection& Fe saw learning as a highly personal and individual activity but when w 0ened by %e l le %nin( would be %epe ted by the student& Te che%s should be committed to thei% wo%0 nd h 'e (ood m ste%y o$ the 0nowled(e to be imp %ted&

1:

$ good teacher must love his students, !now them well, understand their psychological uniAueness# (i'e thou(ht to w ys nd me ns o$ $ cilit tin( thei% ccess to 0nowled(e =C n( Du nyin# "<<*>& $ mista!e is acting on premature !nowledge ased on insufficient o servation and insufficient processing" $ lie is having full !nowledge and deli erately misrepresenting that !nowledge"

,&<&, Con$ucius on Cu%%iculum )onfucius stipulated that the main emphasis of the curriculum should e moral instruction and the imparting of !nowledge" Mo% l educ tion w s thus $o% Con$ucius the me ns whe%eby his ide s conce%nin( 'i%tue mi(ht be %e lised& )ontent to e taught as proposed y )onfucius o Fis si) boo0sB the Book of Odes# the Book of History# the Book of Rites# the Book of Music# the Book of Changes nd the pring and !utumn !nnals F which de lt with sub?ects such s philosophy# politics# economics# cultu%e nd musici nship& o Music, o The )ode and Manner of Proper )onduct CLiD, o Poetry, o Literature o Fistory" Fis emphasis on political and moral principles led to ignoring the natural sciences, trade and agriculture" Fis cu%%iculum se%'ed s the cu%%iculum $o% ,GGG ye %s in $eud l Chin nd the $ollowin( ped (o(ic l st% te(ies we%e p%oposed! o to match learning with the aptitudes of students =conside% the (e o$ le %ne%s> o to inspire and guide le %ne%s by st (es o to instruct onesel$ while te chin( othe%s o to e@plain the present in the li(ht o$ the p st o to combine theo%y with p% ctice o to encourage independent thought o to set (ood e) mple o to correct one4s e%%o%s nd imp%o'e onesel$ o to welcome c%iticism o to cur evil and e@alt the good"

SELF-TEST SELF-TEST 2.7 2.7 *hat *hat are are the the main main features features of of the the )onfucian )onfucian system system of of education3 education3 Fow relevant are the ideas of )onfucius in today&s schools3 Fow relevant are the ideas of )onfucius in today&s schools3

1>

2%&' "a6indranat) !a3ore 9a indranath Tagore C1:71-1>51D orn in )alcutta, 2ndia was !nown for his socio-religious and cultural innovations" 2n 1>11 he founded a school at Santini!etan Cthat developed into a universityD ased on the ancient forest schools which emphasised three asic elements of 2ndian culture, namely Advaita (non-duality) in the field of
knowledge, friendship for all in the field of feeling, and fulfillment of ones duties without concern for the outcomes in the field of action (Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994)

,&"G&" T (o%e nd Educ tion ,ducation should aim for the all-round development of the individual personality through interaction and union with the environment" , ducation should pro!ide the
indi!idual with a satisfactory means of li!elihood followed "y fulfillment and completeness #chools should "e made more li!ely and en$oya"le %hey should "e more attracti!e and producti!e

The ideal school should e esta lished away from the turmoil of human ha itation under an open s!y and surrounded y the fields, trees and plants" )lasses were held outdoor Cwhenever the weather permittedD so that students gained from eing in a natural setting while learning (Tagore, Siksha cited in Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994) Fe was against oo!ish learning ecause it deprieves one of learning from the real-world #tudents should gather knowledge and materials from different sources of nature through their own efforts En university education he suggested that it should e ased on !nowledge of economics, agriculture, health, medicine and other su"$ects that reflects life in the
surrounding !illages &ni!ersities should attempt to push for the growth of rural areas (Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994)

,mphasis should e more on self-motivation rather than on discipline, and on fostering intellectual curiosity rather than competitive e@cellence"
'e insisted on open de"ate on e!ery issue and distrusted conclusions "ased on a mechanical formula, no matter how attracti!e that formula might seem in isolation

01

,&"G ( %agore and )urriculum Fe put great emphasis on the use of the national language as the medium of instruction at all stages of education" The youn(e% (ene% tion should be w %e o$ thei% cultural heritage "ut at the same time they should "e e*posed to the cultures of other
countries and learn from them

Fe wanted women and men to e offered similar theoretical courses with separate practical courses for women, since their roles in life differed from those of men" 2n his view, education was not intellectual development alone" 2t should also develop a student&s aesthetic nature and creativity" The 'uest for !nowledge and physical activity in an agreea le environment were integral parts of the process" ;ature wal!s and e@cursions were part of the curriculum and students were encouraged to follow the life cycle of insects, irds and plants" $esthetic development was important as intellectual de!elopment+ if not more so %his would include music, art, literature, drama and dance which should "e gi!en prominence in the daily life of the school (,)onnell, (--.) l Fe advocated a teaching system that analysed history and culture for the progress that had een made in rea!ing down social and religious arriers" Such an approach will integrate individuals of diverse ac!grounds and narro w the gap "etween rich
and poor (Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994)

The curriculum was fle@i le" )lass discussion

would mo!e from /ndian traditional literature to contemporary as well as classical 0estern thought, and then to the culture of )hina or Japan or elsewhere

SELF-TEST SELF-TEST 2.8 2.8 *hat are the main aims *hat are the main aims of of education education according according to to Tagore3 Tagore3 *hat *hat are are the the main main features features of of the the curriculum curriculum proposed proposed y y Tagore3 Tagore3

01

Answe% ;ey to ACTVITC ,&*! Progressivism. 5, 11, 10 = 16 ,ssentialism. 1, 7, > = 11 Perennialism. 0, 8, : = 14 9econstructionism. 4, 6, 15 = 17

HISCUSSION IUESTIONS!
1" *rite down your personal philosophy of education and share it with others" 0" *hat is the current (status+ of the essentialist orientation to curriculum3 Fow widespread is this approach in curriculum planning at the elementary, middle, secondary, and higher education levels3 4" *hat is the current (status+ of the progressive orientation to curriculum in primary and secondary schools3 5" To what e@tent do you agree with the reconstructionist perspective on curriculum3 6" *hich ideas of al-<ara i, )onfucius and Tagore are practiced in the school curriculum in your country3 REAHINSGS $listair, 9" C0111D" )urriculum. )onstruction and )riti'ue" London. <almer Press" (hapter 13 %hat is the curricu um8 -availa le at e%rary/" Feslep, 9" C1>>8D" Philosophical thin!ing in educational practice" London. Breenwood Pu lishing" (hapter 13 The stud& o" educationa phi osoph& -availa le at e%rary/ Ernstein, $" and Fun!ins, <" )urriculum. <oundations, principle and issues" C1>>:D" %oston, M$. $llyn = %acon" (hapter 23 )hi osophica "oundations" Tanner, ," and Tanner, L C1>:1D" )urriculum #evelopment. Theory into practice" ;ew Por!. Macmillan Pu lishing )o" (hapter 93 (urricu ar sources and in" uences)3 (on" ictin! educationa theories:

00