APPLIED INDUSTRIAL ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Z. K. Morvay, D. D. Gvozdenac Part III: FUNDAMENTALS FOR ANALYSIS AND CALCULATION OF ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE

Applied Industrial Energy and Environmental Management Zoran K. Morvay and Dusan D. Gvozdenac John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Toolbox 8 PUMPS and FANS

PUMPS
1. There are two types of modern pump applied in industry: (a) Velocity head and (b) Positive displacement. The following categorization of pumps could be applied:
(a) Velocity head Centrifugal: Axial flow (single or multistage) Radial flow (single or double suction) Mixed flow (single or double suction) - Peripheral (single or multistage) Special effect: Gas lift Jet Hydraulic ram Electromagnetic (b) Positive displacement: Reciprocating: Piston plunger Diaphragm (mechanically or fluid driven, simplex or multiplex) Rotary: Single rotor (vane, piston, screw, flexible member, peristaltic) Multiple rotor (gear, lobe, screw, circumferential piston)

Centrifugal pumps are used in more industrial applications than any other kind of pump. The main reason is than these pumps offer low investment and maintenance costs. These pumps have been limited to low-pressure-head applications, but modern pumps are designed for quite high pressures. These pumps have a smooth flow and the ability to tolerate non-flow conditions. The main parts of the centrifugal pump are the impeller and volute (Fig. 8.1). An impeller can take many forms. This device imparts a radial velocity to the fluid that has entered the pump perpendicular to the impeller. The volute performs the function of slowing the fluid and increasing the pressure. There may be one or more more volutes. The number of stages in the pump greatly affects the pumps output characteristics. Several stages can be incorporated into the same casing, with an associated increase in pump output. Multistage pumps are often used for applications with a total developed head of over 50 bar. Whether or not a pump is self-priming can be important. If a centrifugal pump is filled with air when it is turned on, the initiation of pumping action may not be sufficient to bring the fluid into the pump. Pumps can be specified with features that can minimize priming problems.

Part III Toolbox 8: PUMPS and FANS

Discharge valve

Impeller

Rotation

H Suction valve Piston

Volute

Figure 8.1: Schema of a Centrifugal Pump

Figure 8.2: Scheme of Positive-Displacement Pump (Piston Type)

Positive-displacement pumps demonstrate high discharge pressure and low flow rates and, usually, this is accomplished with some flow pulsation. A piston pump (Fig. 8.2) is a classic example of this type of pump. Reciprocating pumps offer very high efficiencies. For the larger sizes of these pumps it reaches 90 %. These types of pump are more appropriate for pumping abrasive liquids than are centrifugal pumps. Rotary pumps (Fig. 8.3) are one type of positivedisplacement pump that does not impart pulsations to the exit flow.

Figure 8.3: Scheme of Rotary pump

Positive-displacement pumps require special seals to contain the fluid. The costs are higher for both investment and for maintenance compared with most pumps that operate on a velocity head basis. Positive-displacement pumps demonstrate an efficiency that is nearly independent of the flow rate, in contrast to the velocity head types. For positive-displacement it is important to stress that the output flow is proportional to pump speed. This allows this type of pump to be used for metering applications. Also, a positive aspect of these pumps is that they are self-priming, except at initial start-up. If the downstream flow is blocked, high head pressure can be developed in a positivedisplacement pump and the pump could be damaged. For this reason, a pressure relief valve bypass must be used when a positive-displacement pump is used. 2. Pumps are applied mainly for the following purposes: circulation of fluids; supplying the processes; transferring the fluids. Typical percentages for industrial pump application are presented in Fig. 8.4.

Part III Toolbox 8: PUMPS and FANS

Transfer 6%

Supply 36%

Circulation 58%

Figure 8.4: Pump Application in Industrial Practice 3. The number of pumps versus a pump's power in industrial practice is presented in Fig. 8.5. Peak pump powers range from 3.5 to 15.0 kW.
14.0
Analysis was performed on the sample of 3500 pumps

12.0 10.0
Percentage [%]

8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0

11.00 15.00 18.50 22.00 30.00 37.00 45.00 55.00 75.00 90.00 0.25 0.40 0.75 1.50 2.20 3.70 5.50 7.50

Output power of the motor [kW]

Figure 8.5: Pump Power Occurrences in Industry 4. The cost of electricity for running the pump is shown in Table 8.1. The calculation is performed for 4600 and 8500 operating hours of the pump per year and for the most frequently used power of the pump. The life cycle of a pump can be estimated as 10 or 15 years. In this case the investment and maintenance cost of the pump can be estimated as 5 % of the total cost for running the pump in that period with operating hours of between 4600 and 8500 per year. That means that if some reasonable investment is made for improving the energy efficiency of the pump, the pay back period will be very short.

Part III Toolbox 8: PUMPS and FANS

Table 8.1: Cost of Electrical Energy of Pump [US$] (1kWh = 0.045 US$)
Power of pump kW 2.2 3.7 5.5 7.5 11.0 15.0 18.5 22.0 Annual operating hours of pump 4600 h/year 1 year 5 years 10 years 15 years 455 2277 4554 6831 766 3830 7659 11 489 1139 5693 11 385 17 078 1553 7763 15 525 23 288 2277 11 385 22 770 34 155 3105 15 525 31 050 46 575 3830 19 148 38 295 57 443 4554 22 770 45 540 68 310 Annual operating hours of pump 8500 h/year 1 year 5 years 10 years 15 years 842 4208 8415 12623 1415 7076 14 153 21 229 2104 10 519 21 038 31 556 2869 14 344 28 688 43 031 4208 21 038 42 075 63 113 5738 28 688 57 375 86 063 7076 35 381 70 763 106 144 8415 42 075 84 150 126 225

5. The relation that determines the total head developed by the pump is as follows:
H p2 p1 g Hg h

(8.1)

where: H

Total head developed by pump in meters of the column of the liquid being pumped, [m] p2, p1 = Pressure in delivery and suction space, respectively, [Pa] = Density of the liquid being pumped, [kg/m3] Hg = Geometrical height to which liquid is lifted, [m] h = Head of the pump required for creating a velocity and for overcoming friction resistance in the pipes and local obstacles in both suction and delivery lines, [m] g = Acceleration due to gravity, = 9.81 [m/s2] commonly Eq. (1) is used when designing pump installation. The notations used in Eq. (1) are presented in Fig. 8.6.

p2

Hg pd H ps p1

Figure 8.6: Pump Installation

Part III Toolbox 8: PUMPS and FANS

6. Total head (H) can be also calculated by using the network equation:
H pd ps g H0
2 wd 2 ws

(8.2)

where: pd = Delivery pressure at the outlet of the pump, [Pa] ps = Suction pressure of the pump, [Pa] H0 = Vertical distance between the measuring points of pressure pd and ps, [m] wd = Velocity of fluid in the delivery (supply) pipeline, [m/s] ws = Velocity of fluid in the suction pipeline, [m/s] This equation is used for network characteristic determination. 7. The possible piping arrangements. Some possible piping arrangements are presented in Fig. 8.7. Total static head is defined as the vertical distance from the surface of the source of the liquid supply to the free surface of the liquid in the discharge receiver or to the point of free discharge from the discharge pipe. When both the suction and discharge surfaces are open to the atmosphere, the total static head equals the vertical difference in elevation. For calculations one must use the free-surface elevations that cause the maximum suction lift and discharge head. That means that the lowest possible level in the supply tank and the highest possible level in the discharge tank or pipe have to be used. If the supply source is below the pump shaft line, the vertical distance is called static suction head. With supply above the pump shaft line, the vertical distance is called static suction head. If the liquid level varies during the pump operation, the lowest liquid level has to be used for calculating the total static head.

Part III Toolbox 8: PUMPS and FANS

Free discharge

Total static head

Static discharge head

Total static head

Static discharge head

Pump shaft

Pump shaft

Static suction head

Static suction head

(a) Suction lift and submerged discharge

(b) Suction lift and free discharge

Total static head

Maximum level
Total static head

Pump shaft

Static discharge head

Static discharge head

Pump shaft
Static suction head Static suction head

(c) Suction lift and varying discharge head Pressurized tank

(d) Static suction head and submerged discharge

Total static head

Total static head

Maximum level

Static suction head

Static discharge head (Tank pressure has to be added)

Static discharge head

Pump shaft Pump shaft

Static suction head

(e) Static suction head and discharge head due to elevation and pressure in the tank

(f) Static suction head and varying discharge

Figure 8.7: Typical Pump Suction and Discharge Piping Arrangements 8. There are numbers of combinations of how the elements of network and pumps can be connected. A number of characteristic connections are as follows: friction losses without static head (Fig. 8.8); friction losses with static head (Fig. 8.9); system with two discharge heads (Fig. 8.10); negative lift (gravity head) (Fig. 8.11).
Head
System friction curve Friction losses Flow rate

Figure 8.8: Friction Losses without Static Head

Part III Toolbox 8: PUMPS and FANS

Head

System friction curve Friction losses

Hs

Hs Flow rate

Figure 8.9: Friction Losses with Static Head

Head

System friction curve Friction losses

Hs

Hs Flow rate

Figure 8.10: System with Two Different Discharged Heads

Head

Hs

Hs

Flow rate

Figure 8.11: Negative Lift (Gravity Head) 9. Plotting Eqs (8.1) and (8.2), the intersection of the two curves gives the Working Point of the system formed by the network and pump which serve the given network. Generally, the characteristics of the network can be expressed by the following equation:

p Hg

a V2

(8.3)

Part III Toolbox 8: PUMPS and FANS

where: p = a = Hg =

Pressure drop in meters of liquid is being pumped, [m] Characteristics of the network, [m s2/m6] Geometrical height to which liquid is lifted, [m]

An example of pump and network characteristics for Hg = 0 is presented in Fig. 8.12.

40
Head and pressure losses of network [m]

35 Head of pump 30 25 20 15 10 Network characteristic 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5

3

Volume flow rate [m /s]

Figure 8.12: Head and Networks Pressure Losses versus Flow Rate 10. Mass and volume flow rates relation:

(8.4)

where: m = = V =

Mass flow rate of fluid, [kg/s] Density, [kg/m3] Volume flow rate of fluid, [m3/s]

11. The power of the electrical motor of the pump is:

N V g H 1000

(8.5)

where: V = H = =

Volume output (delivery) of the pump, [m3/s] Total head developed by pump in meters of the column of the liquid being pumped, [m] Overall efficiency of the pump installation equal to the product of the efficiencies of the pump p, the transmission tr, and the electrical motor m (= p tr m)

The motor installed for a pump has a somewhat greater power Ninst than that needed by the pump in order to provide a reserve for possible overloading:
N inst N

(8.6)

Part III Toolbox 8: PUMPS and FANS

The power reserve factor

is taken depending on the value of N and is given in Table 8.2.

Table 8.2: Power reserve factor

N [kW] <1 15 5 50 > 50 2.01.5 1.51.2 1.21.15 1.1

12. Power of three-phase electrical motors. Asynchronous three-phase electrical motors are the most common motors used in industry. The power taken from grid for these motors (and synchronous also) is as follows:
N 3 U l I l cos [W]

(8.7)

where: Ul Il cos or,

N 3 Up

= = =

line voltage, [V] line current, [A] power factor, [-]

Ip

cos

[ W]

(8.8)

where: Up = phase voltage, [V] Ip = phase current, [A] An example of a three-phase symmetric circuit is presented in Fig. 8.13.
Phase 3 220 V Up = 220 V Zero 220 V Phase 2

Ul = 380 V

220 V

Phase 1

Figure 8.13: Three-Phase Symmetric Circuit 13. By changing the speed of a centrifugal pump within a limited range, the changes in its flow rate, head and power consumed are defined by the following relations:
V1 V2 n1 n2

(8.9)
2

H1 H2

n1 n2

(8.10)

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N1 N2

n1 n2

(8.11)

Where: V = H = [m] N = n =

Volume output (delivery) of the pump, [m3/s] Total head developed by the pump in meters of the column of the liquid being pumped, Power of electrical motor of pump, [kW] Speed of pump, [rpm]

14. The suction height of a centrifugal pump is calculated by using the following relation:
Hs Pa h sat h 1,s h cav

(8.12)

where: Pa = hsat = h1,s = hcav =

Atmospheric pressure Saturated vapor pressure of the liquid being sucked in at the pumping temperature Hydraulic resistance of the suction line including the energy needed for imparting a velocity to the flow of liquid Cavitation correction (a reduction in the suction height to avoid cavitation) depending on the volume flow rate of the pump [m3/s] and the speed [rpm].

The cavitation correction can be determined by using the following equation:

h cav

0.00125 V n 2

0.67

(8.13)

All values in Eq. (8.12) are expressed in meters of the column of the liquid being pumped. 15. Cavitation is a local condition that allows liquid to boil and form a vapor. The pump application shown in Fig. 14 is a once-through system. However, the leg of piping though pressure drop 1 shown there can have some important implications related to net positive suction head. Net positive suction head (NPSH) is the difference between the local absolute pressure of a liquid and the thermodynamic saturation pressure of the liquid based upon the temperature of the liquid. If NPSH = 0, the liquid can vaporize, and this can result in a variety of outcomes from noisy pump operation to outright failure of components. Cavitation, if it occurs, will take place at the lowest pressure point and this point is located at the inlet of the pump or inside the pump. Most manufacturers specify how much NSPH is required for the satisfactory operation of their pumps. Actual net positive suction head (NPSHA) is the NPSH at the given state of operation of a pump and must be larger than the required net positive suction head (NPSHR) specified by the manufacturer for a given application.

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FLOW

PUMP Pressure drop 1

Pressure drop 2

TANK
Figure 8.14: Typical Pump Application 16. The output of piston pump V [m3/s] is: Single acting and differential (trim) pumps:

A s n 60
Double-acting pumps:

(8.14)

2 A Ar s n 60

(8.15)

where:
V

A Ar s n

= = = = =

Delivery factor (from 0.8 to 0.9), [-] Cross-sectional area of the piston, [m2] Cross-sectional area of the road, [m2] Piston stroke, [m] Speed of rotation (number of double piston strokes per minute), [rpm]

17. The output of a gear pump V [m3/s] is:

2 A1 b z n 60

(8.16)

where: = A1 =
V

b z n

= = =

Delivery factor, [-] Cross-sectional area of a tooth restricted by addendum circle of the matrix gear wheel, [m2] Width of a tooth, [m] Number of teeth on a gear wheel, [-] Speed of rotation (number of double piston strokes per minute), [rpm]

18. There are many possibilities for reducing the energy consumption of pumps. All of these energy conservation measures can be specified in two groups (Fig. 8.15):

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12

a) Effective operation b) Increasing the efficiency of the motor and/or pump However, the effect of the possible technical measures which can be applied is different and always has to be analyzed simultaneously with: (a) operational conditions of pump, (b) economical aspects and (c) possible influence of its application on process. Adjusting pump performance to meet process requirements is the most effective way of reducing energy cost (Fig. 8.16) and improving the efficiency of both motor and pump (Fig. 8.17) can result only in energy cost reduction by a small percentage.
Reduce Impeller Diameter Adjust Speed Change Model Select Running Pump(s)

Adjust Pump Performance

Effective Operation
Improve System

Reduce Pipe Loss

Pump Efficiency

Raise Up Efficiency
Motor Efficiency

Figure 8.15: Ways to Reduce the Energy Consumption of a Pump

Head [mWC] and Shaft Power [kW]

HEAD

Head [mWC], Efficiency [%] and Shaft Power [kW]

HEAD

Lo ss

es

EFFICIENCY

POWER

POWER

Volume flow rate [m3/s

Volume flow rate [m3/s]

Figure 8.16: Adjustment of Pump Performance

Figure 8.17: Increasing Efficiency of Pump and/or Motor

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19. Check list of centrifugal pump faults and their causes:

SYMPTOM POSSIBLE CAUSE OF TROUBLE
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Wrong direction of rotation Pump not primed Suction line not filled with liquid Air or vapor pocket in suction line Inlet to suction pipe not sufficiently submerged Available net positive suction head (NPSH) not high enough Height from suction liquid level to pump shaft too great Distance from suction liquid level to pump shaft too small Difference between suction pressure and vapor pressure too small Pump not up to rated speed Total head greater that head for which pump is designed Wrong direction of rotation Suction line not filled with liquid Air or vapor pocket in suction line Air leaks in suction line or through stuffing boxes Suction pipe intake not submerged enough Available NPSH not sufficient Height from liquid level to pump shaft too great Distance from suction liquid level to pump shaft too small Difference between suction pressure and vapor pressure too small Pump not up to rated speed Total head greater than head for which pump was designed Foot valve too small Foot valve clogged with trash Viscosity of liquid greater than that for which pump was designed Mechanical defects (wearing rings worn, impeller damaged, internal leaks caused by defective gaskets) 1. Gas or vapor in liquid 2. Pump not up to rated speed 3. Greater discharge pressure needed than that for which pump was designed 4. Liquid thicker than that for which pump was designed 5. Wrong rotation 6. Mechanical defects (wearing rings worn, impeller damaged, internal leaks caused by defective gaskets) 1. Packing too tight 2. Packing not lubricating 3. Wrong grade of packing 4. Not enough cooling water to jacket 5. Stuffing box improperly packed 1. Suction line not filled with liquid 2. Air leaks in suction line or through stuffing boxes 3. Gas or vapor in liquid 4. Air or vapor pocket in suction line 5. Inlet to suction line not submerged far enough 6. Available NPSH not sufficient 7. Height from liquid level to pump shaft too great 8. Distance from suction liquid level to pump shaft too small 9. Difference between suction and vapor pressure too small 10. Liquid seal piping to lantern ring plugged 11. Lantern ring not properly placed in stuffing box 1. Speed too high 2. Total head lower than rated head 3. Either the specific gravity or viscosity of liquid or both different from that for which pump is rated 4. Mechanical defects (misalignment, shaft bent, rotating elements dragging, packing too tight) 1. Starved suction (gas or vapor in liquid, available not positive suction head not high enough, inlet to suction line not submerged enough, gas or vapor pockets in suction line) 2. Misalignment 3. Warn or loose bearings 4. Rotor out of balance (impeller being plugged or damaged) 5. Shaft bent 6. Control valve in discharge line improperly placed 7. Foundation not rigid 1. Oil level too low 2. Improper or poor grade of oil 3. Dirt in bearings 4. Dirt in oil 5. Moisture in oil 6. Oil cooler clogged or scaled

FAILS TO DELIVER LIQUID

PUMP DOES NOT DELIVER RATED CAPACITY

PUMPS DISCHARGE PRESSURE LOW

STUFFING BOXES OVERHEAT

PUMP LOSSES PRIME AFTER STARTING

PUMP OVERLOADS DRIVER

VIBRATION

BEARINGS OVERHEAT

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BEARINGS WEAR RAPIDLY

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Any failure of oiling system Not enough cooling water Bearing too tight Oil seats fitted too closely on shaft Misalignment Misalignment Shaft bent Vibration Excessive thrust resulting from mechanical failure inside the pump Lack of lubricant Bearings improperly installed Dirt in bearings Moisture in oil Excessive cooling of bearings

FANS
20. Generally, fans are classified according to how the gas flows through the impeller. These flows may be axial, radial, mixed and cross. The typical characteristics of fans are shown in Fig. 8.18. Fan efficiency variations indicate a sharp maximum value at the design point. That means that choosing the fan must be tuned carefully to the required conditions.

Total p

Efficiency

Power

Volume flow rate

Figure 8.18: Typical Characteristics of a Centrifugal Fan Two typical fans, most frequently used in industry, are presented in Figs 8.19 and 8.20. There are a number of vane types and these types can also be used for fan classification. Axial fans (Fig. 8.20) usually have vanes of an airfoil shape or vanes of uniform thickness. Some types of vane that can be found on centrifugal fans are presented in Fig. 8.19. Most industrial applications use centrifugal type of fans. Compared with axial fans they have a higher pressure rise, but a lower flow rate.

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Some possible vane types:

Backward inclined Radial

Impeller Van

Airfoil

Backward curved

Rotation

Tubular

Impeller

Forward curved Volute

Figure 8.20: Axial Fan

Figure 8.19: Some Vane Types that Might be Used on a Centrifugal Fan

21. The pressure increase created by a fan (Fig. 8.21) or total head of fan (H) is:
p p2 p1 ( ps pd ) w2 2 (
air )

g z

(8.17)

or
p p st ,d
2 wd 2

p st ,s

2 ws 2

(8.18)

where: p1 p2 ps, pd w pst,d, pst,s wd, ws

air

= = = = = = = = =

Pressure in the volume from which the fan takes the gas, [Pa] Pressure in the volume into which the fan delivers the gas, [Pa] Pressure drops in suction and delivery lines, [Pa] Velocity of gas at the outlet from the installation, [m/s] Static pressures directly after the fan and before it, [Pa] Velocities of gas in delivery and suction pipelines, [m/s] Density of gas, [kg/m3] Density of ambient air, [kg/m3] Difference between heights of the delivery and suction places, [m]

22. The power of the fan is:

N V P 1000 [kW]

(8.19)

where: V = P = =

Volume flow rate, [m3/s] Total head of fan, [Pa] Overall efficiency of the fan installation equal to the product of pump efficiency transmission tr, and the electrical motor m (= p tr m)

p,

the

Part III Toolbox 8: PUMPS and FANS

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w P2

Pp

z Ps
P1

Figure 8.21: Fan Installation 23. Fan flow control is a very important design and operation concern. There are five types of controls used for forced- and induced- draft fans: damper in the duct with constant-speed fan drive; two-speed fan driver; variable inlet vanes or inlet louvers with a constant-speed drive; multiple-step variable fan drive; variable speed drive. Dampers are the least expensive to install, but also the most inefficient in terms of energy use. A variable speed drive control system is the preferred control system, when a combination of initial and operating costs is considered. 24. EXAMPLES 1120 kg / m 3 ) has to be fed at a flow rate of 115 m3/h from a tank Example 1: A solution ( into an apparatus at a height of 10.8 m above the liquid level in the tank. The gauge pressure in the apparatus is 0.4 barg and the pressure in the tank is atmospheric. The pipeline has diameter of 140 4.5 mm . Its total equivalent length (the actual length plus the equivalent length of the local obstacles) is 140 m. The coefficient of friction resistance in the pipeline is 0.03 . The centrifugal pump envisaged for this job was tested at a speed of 1200 rpm and the following results were obtained:
V H P [l/s] [m] [kW] 0 23.5 5.16 10.8 25.8 7.87 21.2 25.4 10.1 29.8 22.1 11.3 40.4 17.3 12.0 51.1 11.9 18.5

1120 kg / m 3 . The liquid density during the testing of the pump was It needs to be checked as to whether is it possible to use this pump for the proposed pumping under the prescribed conditions.

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Solution: Pump The efficiency of the pump is (see Eq. (8.3)):

V g H 1000 P
V [l/s] [-] 0 0.000 10.8 0.389 21.2 0.586 29.8 0.640 40.4 0.640 51.1 0.361

(8.20)

The pumps characteristics are presented in Fig. 8.22 and the poly trend line are as follows:
H 3.0219 10
6

V 4 - 1.5357 10

V 3 - 1.1604 10
3

V 2 + 3.6455 10
2

V + 2.3480 101
2

N 1.3111 10
-4.3201 10

V 4 - 1.0747 10
V 4 + 4.1539 10

V 3 + 2.3995 10
V 3 - 1.8843 10
3

V 2 + 9.1191 10
2

V + 5.1756

V 2 + 5.2564 10

V - 8.1892 10 -4

(8.21 ) (8.22 ) (8.23 )

35 Efficiency [-] 30
Head [m] and Power [kW]

0.700 0.600 Head [m] 0.500 0.400 0.300 Power [kW] 0.200 n=1200 rpm Density = 1120 kg/m3 0.100 0.000 0 10 20 30 Volume flow rate [l/s] 40 50 60
Efficiency [-]

25 20 15 10 5 0

Figure 8.22: Pump Characteristics Pump and system characteristics The fluid velocity is:
115 3600 0.1312 4

2.37 [m / s];

hw

2.37 2 2 9.81

0.2863 [m]

(8.24 )

The loss of head for overcoming the pipe resistance and local obstacles is:

Part III Toolbox 8: PUMPS and FANS

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hf

(L L eq )
l

hw

0.03 140 0.2863 0.131

9.1791 [m]

(8.25 )

The required total head of the pump is (Eq. (8.1)):

0.4 100,000 10.8 9.1791 0.2863 9.81 1120

23.9060 [m]

(8.26 )

This total head is calculated for a volume flow rate of 31.94 [l/s]. The tested pump has to be used for a described duty, but, plotting the working point (V = 31.94 l/s; H = 23.906 m) in Fig. 8.22 one can see that this point is above the curve of the pump characteristics and, consequently, the pump at n = 1200 rpm cannot ensure the required output. At H = 23.906 m the pump delivered only 25.67 l/s (poly trend curve H = f(V) can be used too). However, by increasing the pumps speed, it will be possible to reach the desired working point. Using Eqs (8.6) and (8.7) the experimental data can be recalculated for a new speed of pump. If the speed is n new = 1260 rpm, the recalculated pump characteristics are as follows:
V H P [l/s] [m] [kW] [-] 0.00 25.91 5.97 0.000 11.34 28.44 9.11 0.389 22.26 28.00 11.69 0.586 31.29 24.37 13.08 0.640 42.42 19.07 13.89 0.640 53.66 13.12 21.42 0.361

The working point and new head-volume flow rate curve for a speed of pump of 1260 rpm are presented in Fig. 8.23.
35.00 30.00 25.00

n = 1260 rpm n = 1200 rpm

Working point

Head [m]

20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00 0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

20.00

25.00

30.00

35.00

40.00

45.00

Volume flow rate [l/s]

Figure 8.23: Pump Characteristics for 1200 and 1260 rpm and Working Point By increasing the speed of pump from 1200 to 1260 rpm, the pump can ensure the required flow rate of 31.94 l/s (115 m3/h) and head of 23.91 m. The power of the pump is, taking the power from the Fig. 8.22 or calculating the power from the poly trend line for real volume flow rate (31.94 l/s):

Pnew

n new n

11.194

1260 1200

12.96 [kW]

(8.27 )

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Example 2: A centrifugal fan was tested at a speed of n = 1440 rpm. The following results were obtained:
V p m3/h Pa 100 449 350 424 700 432 1000 427 1600 387 2000 316

The resistance of the network calculations shows that when air flows through it at a rate of 1350 m3/h, the pressure losses are p w 85 Pa and p f p l 288 Pa . The difference between the pressures in the delivery and the suction spaces for the calculated network is p p 128 Pa . If the testing fan is installed in a described network, the volume flow rate of air has to be calculated. Solution: Network A parabola expresses the characteristics of the network:
p a b V2

(8.28 )

The first addend in the right-hand side does not depend on the flow rate and is the difference between the pressures in the delivery and suction spaces. The second is equal to the sum of pressure losses pw pf p l and changes proportionally to the square of the flow rate. That means that characteristics of the network are:

p 128 (85 288)

V Vt

128 373

V 1350

(8.29 )

where p is in Pa and (V/1350) is the ratio of the actual flow rate and the calculated value of flow rate based on the resistance of the network.
1000 900 800

Pressure drop [Pa]

700 600 500 400 300 200 Network 100 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 Volume flow rate [m3/h] Fan Working point

Figure 8.24: Fan and Network Head versus Flow Rate

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The working point is the intersection of two characteristics (fan and network) and it shows that in operation for the given network the fan will deliver 1187 m3/h. The head of fan will be 416 Pa. Example 3: The motor driving a fan is rated at a current of 15 A. During the energy audit the current of 11 A was measured and the speed of the fan was 900 rpm. The airflow rate delivered by the fan is to be increased as much as possible. What is the permissible speed of the fan within the rating of the motor, and what percentage increase in airflow can be expected? Solution: By Eq. (10) one can find that speed of the fan can be increased up to:

n new

n old

I new I old

900

15 11

998 rpm

(8.30 )

3 VL I L cos . In the equation above it is The power of a three-phase electrical motor is N assumed that line voltage and cos are constant. The power of the electrical motor will increase by 36.4 % as compared to the present conditions for driving the fan. Since flow rate is proportional to the fans speed, the percentage increase in flow rate is:

Vnew Vold 100 Vold

998 900 100 900

10.9 %

(8.31 )

The fans speed can be increased, for example, by simply replacing the fans or electrical motors pulley. Example 4: A centrifugal pump feeds 50 m3/h of water temperature 60 oC into the tank. The inner diameter of the suction pipeline is 100 mm and its length is 6 m. The friction factor is 0.028 and the sum of loss obstacles is 2.5. The speed of the pump is 1450 rpm. The suction head (height) has to be calculated (Fig. 8.25).
Hs din
FLOW

PUMP
Pump shaft

Figure 8.25: Pump Application

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Solution: The velocity of water in the suction pipe is:

50 3600 0.12 4

ws

V d2 4

1.768 [m / s]

(8.32 )

The hydraulic resistance of the suction line including the energy needed for imparting a velocity to the flow of liquid is as follows:
h 1,s 1 L d
2 ws 2 g

1 2.5 0.028

6 0.1

1.768 2 2 9.80665

0.8256 [m]

(8.33 )

The cavitation correction can be determined by using Eq. (13):

h cav 0.00125 V n 2
0.67

0.00125
2

50 1450 2 3600

0.67

1.2267 [mWC ]

(8.34 )

or, h cav

1.2267 9.80665 10

0.120 bar .

The suction head of a centrifugal pump is calculated by using the following relation:

Hs

Pa

h sat

h 1,s

h cav

1.0 0.0980665

0.19917 0.0980665

0.8256 1.2267

6.11 [m]

(8.35 )

where: Pa = 1.0 bar (atmospheric pressure) hsat = 0.19917 bar (saturated vapor pressure of the water at the pumping temperature see Toolbox III-4 (Eq. 4.6) or Software 5). Example 5: The delivery factor of a gear pump has to be determined for a speed of 440 rpm. The number of teeth on a gear wheel is 12, the width of a tooth is 42 mm, and the cross-sectional area of a tooth restricted by the addendum circle of the mating gear wheel is 960 mm2. The actual flow rate of the pump is 0.312 m3/min. Solution: The theoretical flow rate of the pump is:

2 0.00096 0.042 12 440 60

0.007096 [m 3 / s] 0.312 60

(8.36 )

The actual (measured) flow rate is Va

0.0052 [m 3 / s] . The delivery factor is now:

(8.37 )

0.0052 0.007096

0.733

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Example 6: The characteristics of a centrifugal fan are:

V p m3/s Pa 0 165 0 2 170 0.36 4 170 0.49 6 160 0.51 8 135 0.44 10 110 0.32 12 55 0.16

This fan operates in a network defined by the following equation:

pn 20 V 2

(8.38 )

Where: V = pn =

Flow rate of air, [m3/s] Pressure losses in network, [Pa]

The comparison of power has to be analyzed for the following cases: a) defined working point; b) when speed of fan is reduced to meet the flow rate of 6 m3/s.; c) when throttling is used to reduces the flow rate.; d) when two fans are connected in line. The resulting flow rate has to be found. Solution: By fitting the values from fan characteristics given in the table above, the following analytical equations are obtained:

p -8.28598 10-2 V 4 + 1.46780 V3 - 1.88920 10 V 2 + 6.77489 10 V + 1.64556 10

N
3

(8.39 ) (8.40 ) (8.41 )

-7.48625 10 -3 V 4 + 1.99293 10 -1 V 3 - 1.63695 V 2 + 7.32905 V - 3.75190 10 -2

8.68056 10 -4 V 3 - 2.76190 10 -2 V 2 + 2.19623 10 -1 V + 6.66667 10 -3

The table's values and values calculated from the above mentioned equations are presented in Fig. 8.26.

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1800

Head

60

1500

50

1200

Efficiency

40

900

30

600 Power 300

20

10

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Flow rate [m3/s]

Figure 8.26: Characteristics of Fan versus Flow Rate a. The working point is defined as a cross-section of head curve and network curve (Fig. 8.27). The following values are obtained at the working point: Va = 8.25 m3/s Ha = 1360 Pa Na = 26.22 kW a = 0.43 The power per unit flow rate is:
N V 26.22 8.25 3.178 [kW /( m 3 / s)]

Power [kW] and Efficiency [%]

Head [Pa]

(8.42 )

The working point is presented in Fig. 27.

2500

Head and Pressure losses of network [Pa]

2000 Working point 1500 Head V = 8.25 [m3/s] H = 1360 [Pa]

1000

500 Network 0 0 2 4 6 Flow rate [m3/s] 8 10 12

Figure 8.27: Working Point for Case a

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b. In this case the flow rate of air is 6 m3/s. The network pressure drop curve is not changed. By reducing the speed of the fan from na to nb the power of the fan will also be reduced. From Eqs (8.9)(8.11) the following relation can be obtained:
Na Nb Va H a Vb H b

(8.43 )

where subscripts a and b are related to two different speeds of fan. Comparing this relation to the fan power relation (Eq. (8.5)), it is obvious that this relation is valid only if the efficiency for these two speeds are the same ( a 0.43 ). b For flow rate 6 m3/s the pressure losses of network are:
p n ,b 20 6 2 720 [Pa ]

(8.44 )

The power of the fan for a reduced speed and flow rate is as follows:

Nb

6 720 10.05 [kW] 1000 0.43

(8.45 )

The power per unit flow rate in this case is:

N V 10.05 1.675 [kW /( m 3 / s)] 6.00

(8.46 )

c. By throttling the flow without changing the speed of the fan, the new flow rate will be 6 m3/s. The head and efficiency of the fan can be calculated by using analytical expressions. The results are: Vc = 6.00 m3/s Hc = 1582 Pa Nc = 18.35 kW c = 0.52 The power per unit flow rate in this case is:
N V 18.35 6.00 3.058 [kW /( m 3 / s)]

(8.47 )

d. By connecting two fans in a line (serial connection), the head is doubled for the same flow rate (Fig. 8.28). The working point in this case is as follows: Vd = 11.66 m3/s Hd = 2719 Pa Nd = 2 40.42 = 80.82 kW d = 0.19

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The power per unit flow rate in this case is:

N V 2 40.42 11.66
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Flow rate [m3/s]
V = 6.00 [m3/s] H = 720 [Pa] N = 10.05 kW = 0.43 V = 6.00 [m /s] H = 1852 [Pa] N = 18.35 kW = 0.52
3

6.933 [kW /( m 3 / s)]

(8.48 )

Head (two fans in line) Network

Head [Pa]

(d) (c)

V = 11.66 [m3/s] H = 2719 [Pa] N = 80.82 kW = 0.19

(b)

(a)
V = 8.25 [m3/s] H = 1360 [Pa] N = 26.22 kW = 0.43

Head (one fan)

Figure 8.28: Working Points for Case a, b, c and d Comparing the results one can conclude that regulating flow by changing the speed of the fan is more efficient than throttling the flow. The power per unit of flow rate is, in the first case, 1.675 [kW/(m3/s)] and, in the second, 3.058. By using two fans to increase the flow rate, the power per unit flow rate is quite high (6.933). That means that some other solution has to be analyzed (for example, increasing speed and replacing the electrical motor or replacing the fan).

References
Chopey, N.P., Hicks, T.G. (Eds) (1984) Handbook of Chemical Engineering Calculations, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Elonka, S.M. (1980) Standard Plant Operators' Manual, McGraw-Hill. Pavlov, K.F., Romankov, P.G., Noskov, A.A. (1979) Examples and Problems in the Course of Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, Moscow. Stoecker, W.F., Jones, J.W. (1984) Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, McGraw-Hill.