Evidence Based Environmental Policy and Management 1: 1-34 (2008)

Evidence Based Environmental Policy and Management 1: 1-34 (2008)
Blue Gold: A Deadly Gift

An Earth Systems Approach to Uncover the Genesis of Arsenic
Contamination in the Groundwater of Bangladesh
Picture: The majestic plains of the Bengal delta, Bangladesh

Source NASA image gallery
Ame Alexandra Plant

Student ID: 301024848
Contact email: ame_p_@hotmail.co.uk
Environmental Studies, School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences,

Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand.
Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 1

University of Wellington, New Zealand
Introduction
Water, ‘blue gold’ is infinite, all the water that will ever be is, right now (National
Geographic, 1993). The freshwater that we as the human race depend on amounts to
less than one half of one percent of all water on earth(). With global trends set to see
a human population of nine billion in 2050 the threat of water security is
imminent(). The United Nations has addressed this threat in their Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) under goal seven, a difficult task in which they have
stated “it will require extraordinary efforts” to achieve(). A pressing issue of the
global water crisis is concerned with water quality as it is the quality of water that
determines its purpose(). Many pollutants both human and natural contaminate water
undermining its quality(). The effect on humans specifically can be devastating. The
United Nations states that contaminated drinking water and poor sanitation kill 1.5
million children a year(). The contamination of water supplies via anthropogenic
processes is generally easy to rectify once the causational problem has been
identified. Identifying contamination via natural processes on the other hand is much
more difficult(). One such problem is the contamination of water with arsenic. The
effects on its consumers are horrific; acute poisoning results in a series of
unfortunate events that result in a coma followed by death, whilst chronic poisoning
causes skin lesion, abnormal growth, and cancers. Much concern is for the later form
of poisoning as it may take up to ten years before any symptoms are revealed(). This
was the case for millions of people in Bangladesh. For years the people of
Bangladesh had suffered epidemics of cholera, typhoid and dysentery as a result of
drinking from pools and streams that where contaminated with harmful microbial
pathogens(). During the 1970s UNICEF and the Government of Bangladesh
encouraged its people to drink water from tube wells(). These tube wells accessed
the abundant reservoirs of groundwater below their feet and promised high quality
water. Regrettably the water contained the deadly poison arsenic(). By 1993 when
the first symptoms of arsenic poisoning began to appear there were millions of tube
wells throughout Bangladesh supplying water to around 90% of its total
population(). The British Geological Survey was asked to test a proportion of these
wells for arsenic contamination. The results where final about fifty percent of the
tube wells tested where over the World Health Organization standard of ten parts per
billion, and in many cases where over the recommended by a long shot(). Both the
Government and UNICEF amongst others had to counteract their approach and now
try to encourage people not to drink from contaminated tube wells(). Many
Bangladeshi’s today prefer to drink from the tubes and be slowly poisoned than to
drink from the pools and streams that previously caused villages so much grief, a
tough choice().
There are gaps in the scientific knowledge of as to how arsenic safely trapped inside
rocks ends up contaminating an area the size of New Zealand(). The purpose of this
study is to try and bridge that gap of knowledge. By studying the hydrological,
atmospherical, biological and lithospheric processes occurring in Bangladesh and
these processes relate to the occurrence of arsenic in the groundwater of Bangladesh.

_____________________________________________________________
Problem Analysis
1 General Problem: The Global Water Crisis
“All the water that will ever be is, right now”

National Geographic 1993
Earth has been named by many as ‘The Blue Planet’, and accordingly so since 71%
of its entire surface is submerged below water(). Therefore it would seem that the
Earth has an abundant reservoir of water stored in the oceans, seas, rivers and lakes,
but this is not totally correct. The water that we as humans depend on has been
classified as freshwater, which contains less dissolved elements than the sea water
which fills the ocean basins(). Only 2.53% of all water on Earth is fresh and can be
found to be; locked up in the ice caps at the Poles, buried deep underground as
groundwater, or present at the Earth’s surface in its liquid state. For this reason the
already small quantity of fresh water available is further reduced leaving only 0.01%
of freshwater available for use by terrestrial animal and plant life (Figure 1.1)
Figure 1.1: The distribution of the World's water resources with emphasis on the distribution of
fresh water.
Source from ()
From figure 1.1 we can safely conclude that the amount of water in the world is
infinite. The cause for concern arises when we address the growing human
population and the even faster growth of our water consumption().
At present six billion people on this planet need access to the 0.01% of freshwater
readily available. Every year and additional 130 million people (about the current
population of Japan ()) are added into the equation(). It has been predicted by some,
if current trends continue, by 2050 the human population will reach almost nine
billion(). One estimate suggests that on reaching this milestone seven billion of these
people, 78% of the entire human race, in 60 different countries will be short of
water().
The expanding human popultaion poses a serious threat to current and future water
security, though it is not just the global population that is driving the demand for
water. Consumption of water per capita is rising across the globe as living standards
increase as a by product of economic development. The global demand for water has
been estimated to have risen six fold over the last 100 years. This is more than
double the rate of population growth(). As a result more water is being drained from
the earths rivers, lakes and groundwater at a rate exceeding the pace of natural
replacement().
Our diminishing supply of water is taken for granted by many people. Unbeknown
to those that fall into this category water is essential for; all life on earth, the
integrity and sustainability of the earths ecosystems and for the functioning of a
modern developed society().
In regard to the above, the percentage of available freshwater is inadequate to say
the least. Thus, extraction of the 24.99% (figure1.1) of freshwater stored
underground has become a main source of water for many countries(). Water across
the globe is used extensivley for a myriad of purposes; drinking, washing, sanitation,
industrial and agricultural practices, power generation and recreation (). The major
categories of global water use of illustrated below.
Figure1.2: Graph showing the four main categories of global water use. Data from 1990-1995 is
accurate. Figures from 1995 onwards are projected.
Source()

From the graph it is evident that the most significant use of water worldwide is in
the agricultural sector. We can therefore not only expect to see a water crisis in the
future but we can also expect to see a global reduction in food supply, the details of
which are beyond the scope of this study.
Such predictions for a water crisis seem a lifetime away, but for many people across
the globe it is a daily experience and has become an integral part of their daily
lives().
So why is it that some areas are experiencing surplus and others a water crisis? In
short, the world’s atmospheric circulation produces distinctive climatic zones due to
variations in the amount of precipitation received across different areas of the globe.
Studying Table 1.1 below, it is clear that fresh water is unevenly distributed across
the planet and those areas that have surplus are predominantly more economically
developed (MEDCs) than those countries experiencing deficiencies.
Continent Portion of worlds Human Portion of the World’s

Population (%) Available Fresh Water
Australia and Oceania 1 5
Asia 60 36
Europe 13 8
Africa 13 11
South America 6 26
North and Central 8 15
America
Table 1.1 Distributions of the world's human population and freshwater resources across the six
populated continents of the world.
Source()
In addition, the less economically developed countries (LEDCs) although being the
most vulnerable have the least influence as to the management and allocation of
water supplies(). It is the governments and countries of the MEDCs which are
responsible for the above, and are prone to bias towards their own nations().
Furthermore the lack of infrastructure in LEDCs means substantial expenses would
need to be spent on adequate sanitation services which are generally viewed as
uneconomical().

The focus on our water resources is often on the volume of water available which
has been the subject of this chapter. However water quality determines the suitability
of water for a practical purpose().
The next chapter brings the study into a more refined focus with the water quality
issue being chosen for further review.
........................................................................................................................................
2 Component of Problem Focused on by this Study: The Quality of Water
“High quality water is more than the dream of conservationists, more than a
political slogan... it is essential to human health”
Edmund S. Muskie US Senator Speech 1st March 1966
Good quality water depends on dissolved salts and minerals that are essential to
human health(). Animals and plants need on average 20-32 naturally occurring
element to function. If these needs are significantly over or under supplied, ill health
may result().
The dependence of health on the concentration of a particular element can be
represented schematically on a dose response curve (Figure 2:1)
Figure 2.1 A generalised dose response curve for an element according to its concentration. The
label ‘growth rate or yield’ can be thought of as effects with increasing micronutrient supply
Source()
Below the severe level (figure 2.1) the organism presents symptoms of some form of
deficiency disease (a well known example of a deficiency is anaemia a disease
caused by the lack of iron in ones diet). Subclinical is reference to the harmful effect
of a deficiency where symptoms go unnoticed. The optimum concentrations of an
element for heath lie in the narrow region labelled ‘adequate’ (figure 2.1).
Concentrations higher than this cause declining befits to health until harmful effects
are noticed. At even higher levels death may result, such issues come under the label
‘toxic’. The concentrations between sever to subclinical and toxicity onwards are of
concern for the health of organisms()
The concept of a dose response curve is useful but it is not easily quantifiable for all
people, as every individual will respond differently(). It is rarely possible to define
precisely the points from severe deficiency to toxic for any element. The World
Health Organisation (WHO) tries to establish recommended minimum and
maximum concentrations of such elements(). The WHO recommendations for
elements in drinking water are illustrated in table 2.1 below with the effects of
deficiencies and excess concentrations.
Element WHO maximum safe Effects of Deficiency Chronic effects of excess

limits/mg1-1
Aluminium, Al Alzheimer’s syndrome?
Antimony, Sb None Heart disease
Arsenic, As 0.01 Possible link to retarded See later text

growth
Barium, Ba 0.07 None High blood pressure,

muscular weakness
Beryllium, Be None None Lung cancer industrial

over exposure, bone
damage
Cadmium, Cd 0.003 Reduced growth? Sever Hypertension, kidney

joint pains cancers damage
Chromium, Cr 0.05 Corneal opacity, poor Lung cancer

glucose metabolism
Copper, Cu 2.0 Anaemia Jaundice, Wilsons

disease
Fluorine, F 1.5 Poor bone and tooth Mottled teeth, sclerosis

development
Lead, Pb 0.01 None Anaemia, brain

damage, nerve
inflammation
Manganese, Mn 0.05 Bones deformed, Brain damage and lack

gonads effected, hair of coordination

reddens
Mercury, Hg 0.002 None Chronic brain

inflammation, memory
loss dementia
Molybdenum, Mo 0.07 Reduced urine acid Growth depression

production and build up
of toxins
Nickel, Ni 0.02 Dermatitis, liver Dermatitis, lung cancer

changes
Selenium, Se 0.01 Infertility, liver necrosis, Cancer

muscular dystrophy
Thallium, Tl 0.002 None Hair loss, general

numbness
Zinc 3.0 Dwarfism, immature Anaemia

gonads
Table 2.1 WHO recommended guidelines to elemental quantities expectable in drinking water,
with the chronic effects and deficiency effects outlined.
Source ()
Setting maximum safe limits for a contaminant in drinking water is a difficult task.
The approach used by the WHO is based on the lowest amount that is regularly
ingested in milligrams relative to body mass in kilograms().
Table 2.1 exemplifies the importance of the right concentrations of the elements
needed for life. It is essential therefore that the quality for water ingested by humans
is of an adequate standard.
As with the problem associated with water quantity, the quality of water varies
around the world, with many having inadequate access to safe drinking water(). It is
estimated that half of the world’s human population do not have access to safe
drinking water. The problem has been highlighted in the United Nations MDGs in
Goal 7: ensure environmental sustainability, within target 3 (or 10) “half by 2015 the
proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water”()
Many processes both human and natural can cause the pollution of water supplies
which is the theme of the following chapter.
........................................................................................................................................
3 Casual Factors: The Causes of Poor Water Quality

“Man did not weave the web of life; he is merely a strand on it. Whatever he does to
the web he does to himself”
Chief Seattle Speech 1854
3.1 The Pollution of Water
The quality of water can be undermined in many ways. As noted previously LEDCs
generally have a limited volume of water and limited access to safe water. One of
the main causes is the lack of adequate sanitation and waste disposal().
Contaminates from human waste, industrial practices and agricultural activities enter
freshwater resources transforming them into breeding grounds for water-borne
parasites and bacteria(). Millions of people in the world’s poorest countries have no
other choice than to drink water which could result in their own death(). Unsafe
water and poor sanitation cause an estimated 80% of all diseases in the developing
world. They cause an annual death toll in excess of five million people half of which
are children below the age of five().
Water is said to be polluted when undesirable changes in its physical, chemical, or
biological quality results in the release of synthetic or naturally occurring
chemicals(). These chemicals can be classified as organic, inorganic, radioactive or
as acid or alkaline(). The term pollution often refers to the result of human activity
which generally falls into two categories of direct and indirect pollution.
Direct pollution of water sources are due to effluent fallouts, from industrial
processes, refineries, waste treatment plants and poor sanitation practices which
result in the polluted fluids entering water supplies directly().
Indirect sources are contaminants which enter the water supply from soils,
groundwater and the atmosphere via rainwater. Soils and groundwater can contain
the residue of agricultural practices; fertilisers and pesticide. Fertilisers particularly
can contain the element nitrogen. When flushed into water ways the nutrients
accumulate in ponds and lakes. Primary producers such as plants and bacteria use
this nutrient as a form of food. The abundance of the nutrient results in an increase
of the ecosystems primary productivity reducing the amount of oxygen available for
other aquatic life, a process referred to as eutrophication(). Atmospheric
contaminants are derived from industrial emissions mostly from power-generating
plants. The emissions can contain sulphur and nitrogen, which once in the
atmosphere undergo chemical transitions to form sulphuric and nitric acids. Through
precipitation these acids fall down upon the landscape usually downwind from the
power stations that created them. The acid rain can have many devastating effects on
the ecosystem it falls upon().
The World Health Organisation categorises pollutants on the basis of metallic
contaminates and microbial contaminates. The latter are where the largest concerns
for human health lie, especially for those who live downstream from intensely
farmed areas and sewage fallouts(). The improper disposal of such waste products
creates optimum conditions for potentially harmful microbial pathogens(). Metallic
contamination on the other hand occurs naturally. Trace elements such as copper,
mercury and zinc are essential for the correct functioning of an organism so long as
they are within ‘adequate’ levels (figure 2.1). Metallic contamination tends to
increase the concentration of certain elements beyond the adequate threshold. A
pressing concern for contamination by metallic elements is toward their tendency to
bioaccumulte in organic tissue(). Bioaccumulation is a process by which
concentrations of pollutants increase in the tissues of organisms over time. Once
released into the environment the pollutant is not randomly of evenly dispersed,
instead it bioaccumultes in particular niches of the ecosystem. Different
contaminants bioaccumulate by different means based on their unique chemical and
physical properties. Such contaminants tend to accumulate in specific parts of the
body, referred to as target tissues (Table 3.1.1)
Pollutant Target Tissue

Aluminium Al Bone, liver, kidney, brain
Arsenic As Liver, Kidney, Skin, Spleen
Lead Pb Bone, Aorta, Brain, Kidney tubules
Mercury Hg Liver, Kidney
Thorium Th Liver, Lungs, Lymph nodes
Table 3.1.1 Some common pollutants and their target tissue.
Source derived from()
For example DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) once widely used as a

pesticide accumulated in the fat reserves of birds. When the affected bird accesses its
fat reserves for energy large quantities of DDT are released into its blood stream.
Consequently every time a predator eats such a bird it too receives a large dose of
DDT. Thus a pollutant can be concentrated in lethal doses at certain points in a food
chain().
Both microbial and metallic pollutants may cause acute or chronic poisoning in the
consumer. Acute poisoning events occur suddenly with the release of large volumes
of contaminant into the surrounding environment. Such events usually lead to
obvious harmful effects. In contrast chronic poisoning refers to the slow insidious
contamination through the persistence of the pollutant. The later method of
poisoning is the basis for much concern as the pollutant can go undetected for many
years(). At which point vast numbers of people may have already been exposed to a
deadly toxin.
Addressing the risks people face from the chemical contamination of drinking water
can be very problematic\and is generally a combination of three factors:
• The Hazard: What poses the treat? What it does? And why?
• The Exposure: What is the concentration of the hazard? How often it is
encountered? And where that is likely to occur?
• The Consequences: depend on the above, and is complicated by processes
such as outlined above whereby there is a delay between the hazard and the
exposure().
The risks associated with the anthropogenic contamination of water supplies can
generally be addressed and controlled easily once the ‘hazard’ has been recognised.

Quite the opposite is true for the natural contamination of water, which are less
straightforward to predict().
3.2 So Why Are Some Elements Poisonous to Humans?
About 96.2% of our living body mass is made up of just four elements:
• Oxygen (O, 65%)
• Carbon (C, 18.5%)
• Hydrogen (H, 9.5%)
• Nitrogen (N, 3.2%)
Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Manganese, Phosphorous, Sulfur, and
Chlorine make up 3.7% of the remaining 0.1%, the trace elements() (Table 3.2.1)
Trace Chemical Trace Chemical Trace Chemical Trace Chemical

Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol Element Symbol
Iron Fe Zinc Zn Fluorine F Strontium Sr
Copper Cu Selenium Se Cadmium Cd Nickel Ni
Silicon Si Antimony Sb Cobalt Co Boron B
Bromine Br Vanadium V Tungsten W Arsenic As
Chromium Cr Molybdenum Mo Iodine I Barium Ba
Table 3.2.1 Trace elements (and their chemical symbols) involved in living organisms
Source based on information from ()
The presence of arsenic in table 3.2.1 may seem surprising but brown marine algae
and ferns accumulate it with no ill effect. Some vertebrates require arsenic for
growth(). However the presence of about two thirds of these trace elements are more
than likely due to the cells inability to completely eradicate them rather than their
playing a role in metabolism. Looking at the periodic table in the appendix all trace
elements (Table 3.2.1) except for Mo, I, and W all the essential elements seem to
have low atomic numbers generally below 36, comprising the members of Groups I-
VII. The Nobel gases of Group VIII, lanthanides and actinides have no biological
role. The reason for this is due to Organic evolution. The initial abundance of the
elements C, H, O, N, P and S on our young Earth produced a large array of
chemically diverse polymers (chemicals formed the union of many molecules) that
incorporated this material. Even more biochemical opportunities arose when other
elements entered those molecules(). For an element to play a biological role it must
be:
• Chemically ‘fit for a purpose’
• Sufficiently abundant to be in continual contact with cells
• Available for cell processes()
The later is governed by the presence of water, therefore elements must be soluble.
Dissolved ions can then pass through the membranes which surround cells, and
according to their properties can then be used by the cell to play a biological role.
These elements become essential, within some biologically acceptable range of
concentrations (Figure 2.1). Other elements that enter which cannot play a biological
role are potentially toxic and needed to be eliminated from the cell as quickly as
possible, as do the essential elements that are in excess. If that removal fails, then
the cell may die or processes within it malfunction(). The mechanism by which
elements move in and out of a cell is through an electrical gradient. The gradient
serves as a pump moving ions in and out of the cell, via processes called oxidation
and reduction(). Oxidation is the process by which an element losses electrons and
reduction when an element gains electrons. Oxidising conditions require the
presence of an element or compound that tends to accept electrons; as the name
implies oxygen is a very good ‘oxidising agent’. On the other hand a reducing
environment requires on electron donor; the element Hydrogen is a common
‘reducing agent’(). Today most reactions undergo oxidation due to the abundance of
oxygen in both the atmosphere and dissolved in water. Except the earths surface has
not always been oxidising. The first singled celled life forms that appeared some 4
billion years ago (Ga), where born into a reducing atmosphere as the atmosphere at
this stage of the Earth’s history was grossly exempt of oxygen. Those elements that
can have several oxidation states such as Iron would have been found to be in a
lesser oxidised state than found today() (Table 3.2.2).
Early Earth: Reducing Chemical Environment Today’s Earth: Oxidising Environment

Fe 2+ Fe3+
Table 3.1.2 shows the oxidation sates of Fe in a Reducing Environment typical of Earth four
billion years ago and the higher oxidation sate of Fe in an oxidising environment characteristic
of Earth today
Source based on information from ()
Some time before 2.2 million years ago (Ma) a group of bacteria evolved
photosynthesis, which emits oxygen as a waste product. Once oxygen was in large
enough quantities in the atmosphere a taxonomic kingdom called Eukarya evolved.
Eukaryotes are multi-celled organisms such as plants and animals which require
oxygen for their metabolism. The Eukaya exploited for the first time the biochemical
power of oxidation reactions. The abundance of oxygen now in the environment
encouraged the expansion of Eukarya, but would have been toxic for the ancient first
forms of life that evolved in the reducing environment(). This had three fundamental
consequences for all life on Earth:
1. Ecological niches for organisms that thieved in the previously reducing
environment declined, being reduced to just a few environments.
2. Much of the world become available to the oxygen dependent Eukarya, of
which we are a highly evolved member. Their survival a result of removing
anti-oxidant proteins from their systems.
3. Elements capable of existing in many oxidising states entered those states
that where more compatible with the newly oxygen abundant environment.
That is, electron donors (such as metals) would have become increasingly
positive and electron acceptors increasing negative. Thus essential elements
such as iron, nickel, and cobalt would have become less soluble in the oceans
as their more oxidised ions are much less soluble. Other elements such as
sulphur, copper and zinc became more soluble in seawater increasing its
availability to be incorporated into biological processes with the potential to
be beneficial or harmful().
Some metals such as cadmium, lead, arsenic and mercury that entered insoluble
sulphides under reducing conditions where never assigned a biological role even as
they appeared as dissolved ions in oxidising conditions. Yet they can cross cell
membranes and interfere with the chemical processes operating within the cell.
These type of elements constitute poisons().
The study now takes a more precise look into the natural contamination of water
resources focusing on the metallic poison arsenic.
........................................................................................................................................
4 Particular Casual Factor of Interest: The Contamination of Water Resources with

Arsenic
“Something colourless, odourless, tasteless... the perfect poison”

Perfectly Poisoned BBC Radio 2004
4.1 A Brief Introduction in to the Chemistry of Arsenic

Arsenic behaves as a metal being shiny, soft and malleable and electrically
conductive. But it also has properties associated with non-metals as a result of being
in Group V of the periodic table. Here it sits below Nitrogen and phosphorus and
above antimony and bismuth on the boundary between metals and non-metals
exhibiting properties of both as a consequence(). Arsenic has an unusually large
range of oxidation sates (oxidation and reduction are discussed in Chapter 2)
commonly -3, +3 and +5. Under normal circumstances arsenic comes into contact
with organisms in aqueous solutions (dissolved in water) as arsenate ions (AsO4-3)
in its 5+ state().
Negatively charged arsenate ions can adhere tightly to the surfaces of some common
minerals where their molecular structure produces a positive charge. Asinine gas is
by far the most toxic form of arsenic followed by dissolved arsenite and then
arsenate compounds. The elemental form of arsenic is the least toxic, which is a
powerful statement as taking just small quantities of the element can be fatal().
4.2 Arsenic in the Earth’s Crust
The bulk of arsenic in crustal rocks resides in sulphide minerals such as pyrite
(FeS2) by replacing the sulphur ion(). Arsenic plays virtually no role in the dominant
silicates of the Earth’s crust and mantle. In fact it is one of the least abundant
elements in the rocks of the continental crust with something of the order of
0.00021%(). The relative abundances of the elements in the earths crust are shown
below in Figure 4.2.1

Figure 4.2.1 Plot of abundances of elements in the Earth’s crust on a sorted scatter with a log
scale. The y-axis is the percentage of the elements in the Earth’s crust relative to the abundance
of silicon (set arbitrarily at 10^6/1million).
Source ()
4.3 Arsenic contamination of Water

In natural waters concentrations are generally well below 10ppb (parts per billion),
the WHO recommended maximum for safe drinking water(). The oxidising
conditions of the modern Earth’s surface favour +3 and +5 oxidation states (). Thus
arsenic in modern water will occur as arsenite and arsenate ions, which are more
soluble than it’s negatively, charged counter parts.
Arsenic has all of the attributes of an element which first came into contact with
organisms after the Earth’s surface become dominant with oxidising conditions
(discussed in Chapter 3.2). Due to its low crustal abundance throughout Earth’s
history arsenic has rarely come into contact with organic matter, thus its prime
candidate for having retained its deadly poisonous effects is ‘by virtue of its
rarity’().
4.4 Decreasing the Distance between Arsenic the Human Population

The human population has gradually been increasing its connection with the deadly
poison. This lethal element has over time had many uses for the human race and
become a waste product of many practices. Arsenic is the by-product from metal
mining for industries, for instance the mining of gold produces between 7500-100
000 tonnes of the element every year(). Astonishingly arsenic is used as a growth
promoter for pigs and poultry in some areas, albeit in very small quantities()(). Its
potency to all life forms has been harnessed for its use in rodenticides, wood
preservatives and tanning(). Recently it has been found to be an effect treatment
against some malignant diseases such as leukaemia. It has been shown that it can be
used to encourage programmed death of the cancerous cells().

4.5 The Effect of Arsenic on Human Health

Once arsenic is ingested into the system it rapidly combines with the haemoglobin
molecule in blood cells and thus travels through the body via the circulatory
system(). It accumulates in organs and tissues by the substation with other elements.
An example of this process is the substitution of phosphate by arsenic on Adenine
Triphosphate (ATP). ATP plays a fundamental role in the transfer of energy in both
animals via respiration, and plants via photosynthesis. Within twenty four hours
arsenic redistributes itself to the skin, liver, Kidney and Spleen() (Table 3.1).
Symptoms of acute arsenic poisoning by high dose begin with headaches, confusion,
and dizziness. As the poison develops, the breath may smell like garlic and the
fingernails change colour(). Later symptoms include diarrhoea, vomiting, blood in
urine, cramping muscles and finally a coma followed by death(). If recognised at an
early stage, acute arsenic poisoning a can be treated by chelation therapy. The
treatment involves administrating compounds with exploit arsenics desire to bond
with other elements to gain a stable structure. Arsenic is more strongly attracted to
the chemicals administrated than to the biochemical elements in the cell structure of
the animals and plants. It is then expelled from the cell rapidly. Unfortunately such
treatment is expensive time consuming and does not reverse the damage already
done().
The symptoms of chronic arsenic poisoning develop through gradual build up of
arsenic in the system, from repeated small dose such as drinking arsenic
contaminated water(). The general term for the effects is arseniasis. The most
obvious early signs are complaints of itchy skin, skin lesions on the hands and feet
which tend to develop gang green infections and dark blotches on the skin, which
eventually turn cancerous. Arsenic is now to cause cancer of the lungs, liver, kidney
and bladder, although the link to arsenic is not immediately noticeable. It can also
affect the nervous system causing numbness and eventually muscular paralysis and
loss of coordination().
Arsenic clearly poses a threat as a drinking water contaminant across the globe.
Natural aquifers now used for drinking water in; Argentina, Bangladesh, Cambodia,
Chile, China, Ghana, Hungary, Inner Mongolia, Mexico, Nepal, New Zealand,
Philippines, Taiwan, the USA and Vietnam have been found to contain worrying
concentrations of arsenic(). Below is a world map that highlights some of these areas
as being at risk from arsenic poising.

1 US Unknown 8 India 1,000,000

2 Mexico 400,000 9 Bangladesh 50,000,000
3 Chile 437,000 10 Thailand 1,000
4 Bolivia 20,000 11 Vietnam Millions
5 Argentina 2,000,000 12 Taiwan 200,000
6 Hungary 20,000 13 China 720,000
7 Romania 36,000 14 Nepal Unknown
Figure 4.5.1 A map and additional text illustrating the number of people across the globe that
are at risk form arsenic poisoning
Source ()
From the map it is clear the fifty million people at risk from arsenic poisoning in
Bangladesh is the largest in the world. Thus this is where our global focus is to be
pin pointed for this study.
5 Case Study: Arsenic Poisoning in Bangladesh
“Devils water is coming, Devils water is coming, the people cried as they ran from
the villages”
Perfectly Poisoned 2004
5.1 The Geography of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is the World’s most low-lying major country. It lies at the head of the
Bay of Bengal on the great Northern plains of the Indian peninsular, between the
Himalaya, central India and Myanmar (Burma)().

Figure 5.1.1 A map illustrating the location of the chosen study area, Bangladesh
Sourced from ()
Nearly all of the 133 910 square kilometres (sq km) of land remains below one
hundred meters, a great deal of it never reaching a few meters above sea level. As
illustrated on figure 5.1.1, most of the country is situated on the interlocking deltas
of the two great rivers; the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, that flow from the
Himalaya and the major tributary called the Meghan. All discharge into the Bay of
Bengal. The Ganges connects with the Brahmaputra, and then joins the Meghan,
which drains part of Northeast India, giving the total area of both land and sea to be
144 000 sq km().
Almost 10% of Bangladesh seems to be covered by river channels and much of the
country is cyclically inundated with flood waters during the monsoon season(). The
climatic extremes experienced by the country due to its global location (figure 5.1.1)
causes high river flow, sea-level surges and catastrophic floods. After the floods
have calmed deposits of fertile silt are left behind. The agricultural exploitation of
the fertile silt supports the eighth largest population of the world().
5.2 The Creation of the Bangladeshi Groundwater Supply

Since the Himalaya began to rise around 50 million years ago when the Indian
subcontinent collided with Asia through plate tectonics, their growing elevation has
encouraged the monsoon climate of South Asia. The monsoon period can produce
precipitation up to six meters in a few months in Northeast India and over one meter
in the Himalaya foothills(). The result, the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghan river
system comprises the third largest source of freshwater discharge into the world’s
oceans(). The annual volume of flow is 795 billion cubic meters; this is equivalent to
318 million Olympic sized swimming pools.
The flow is not continuous but highly seasonal in nature. The seasonality and
volume of the flow affects sediment transport, and has done so over geological
time(). To illustrate the rivers effects on sediment load in 2006 the sediment carried
to the delta during the monsoon period of that year reached 13 million tonnes, 13
million tonnes of sediment(). This is the highest sediment load carried by any large

river in the world. It is therefore no wonder that there is a surplus of sediment

beneath Bangladesh in which to contain abundant quantities of groundwater.
5.3 Tapping into the Groundwater

Fifty years ago Bangladesh faced epidemics of cholera, dysentery and typhoid which
killed a quarter of a million children a year(). Such annual catastrophes where
caused by drinking from highly contaminated ponds and rivers. To reduce the death
toll an alternative source of water supply was needed. The answer, tube wells. Tube
wells accessed the abundant reservoirs of groundwater trapped under the sediments
of Bangladesh(). The groundwater’s promised pristine quality, straight from the
snows and mountain streams of the Himalayas hundreds of kilometres to the north.
Great suspicion greeted those first wells in rural villages. The first deep well sunk
for agriculture left people running from the villages crying “Devils water is
coming”, “Devils water is coming”(). During the 1970s extensive campaigns where
launched by UNICEF and the Bangladeshi Government to educate people and
popularise tube wells. During this period a large number of tube wells were sunk.
Like many inventions the technology was simple, wholes where dug into the Bengal
Delta FIG and long tubes where sunk through the sediments into the abundant
reservoirs of underground water. The simplicity and affordability of technology led
villages to dig their own private wells. Within three decades millions of tube wells
throughout Bangladesh where dug().
The villages may be right. In 1993 doctors began to notice a growing number of skin
lesions known to be a symptom of arsenic contamination due to recent studies
undertaken in neighbouring West Bengal India. With more than 2-5 million tube
wells supplying 95% of the population with ‘safe’ drinking water the extent of the
possible epidemic at hand was horrifying. The groundwater turned out to be far from
safe, contaminated with something colourless, odourless and tasteless, naturally
occurring arsenic().
5.4 Researching the Extent of the problem

In 1997 the British Geological Survey (BGS) were asked to investigate how many of
these wells were contaminated with unacceptable levels of arsenic. The World
Health Organisation (WHO) had a recommended maximum concentration of 10 pbb,
the Bangladeshi standard was set five times higher than this at 50 ppb(). Regardless
of either recommended guideline the results uncovered by the BGS where sickening.
More than 50% of all the tube wells tested where above the WHO recommendation,
and more than 27% were higher than the Bangladeshi maximum concentration().
The difficulties in assessing the risk from poisoning by arsenic arise with the well-
well variability in arsenic concentrations, unmistakable in the map above. The
variations make it difficult to predict what concentrations of arsenic can be expected
to be found on a local scale(). In addition it has been noted by some researches that
one survey per well is not enough as those tested to be safe have over time become
contaminated. Approximately 30% of all wells tested as safe have now followed this
path().
Despite the above something had to be done. UNICEF in 1998 began a long process
of trying to prevent people from drinking contaminated well water. The same people
they had previously convinced to put their sceptic ideas to rest and drink from the
waters of the wells. Those wells that where tested where either painted red for
contaminated or green for safe().
The problem is even more widespread than initially thought. Rice the staple diet for
millions throughout Bangladesh is grown in paddy fields deliberately flooded with
arsenic contaminated water. Research has shown that both the soils and the rice
contain high levels of arsenic. Though their diet alone millions are exposed to the
maximum recommended daily intake of arsenic, on top of this they are drinking the
water().
5.5 The Origin of the Arsenic Pollutant
Scientists have investigated many theories and are still debating the exact
mechanism by which arsenic safely locked up in rocks become freed into the water
supply().
Thus it remains a mystery as to how water from the world highest mountain range
that has been filtered over hundreds of kilometres of sand and silt, and has not seen
the light of day for hundreds of years can poison an area the size of New Zealand.
Without an understanding of the exact causes of the problem no solution can solve
it.
This keystone problem is the core focus for study.
........................................................................................................................................
6 General Solution: The Mitigation of Arsenic Poisoning is not a Realistic Option
“Impossible means that you haven’t found the solution yet”

Unknown
Mitigation is not a realistic option in a densely populated poor country like

Bangladesh(). The uneven distribution of dissolved arsenic in the subsurface of the
land complicates the understanding of as to how the arsenic gets into the
groundwater(). Without this understanding mitigation of the problem and thus the
creation of a log term solution are seemingly impossible. as illustrated by the many
floors and short term nature of mitigation strategies().
The general solution to the problem is to increase community awareness (Section
5.4). In addition to the programme described in Section 5.4 UNICEF aimed to
database all the people who are diagnosed as having arsenic poisoning by local
hospital clinicians. The foundation was also been involved with assisting the
development of low-cost means of removing arsenic from drinking water, but by
2005 the UNICEF programme and many others for that matter had not been
completed().
As discussed in Chapter 4.5 the arsenic concentrations of 50 ppb cause both skin
complaints and graduates to cancers, and yet during the 1990s this was the
maximum recommended intake guideline by the Bangladeshi Government. It was
not until 2001 when the limit was lowered to the WHO standard of 10 ppb,
enforceable from 2006(). This enforcement spurred my research into the problem, its
mitigation and its solutions. The analysis of water in many areas followed the
reduction with the Bangladeshi government spending $53 per capita on all public
services. The economic stain of funding such research is evident().
The use of iron hydroxide has become a useful short term solution. Iron (III)
hydroxide is a natural absorber of arsenic and so can purify water contaminated by
it. Its usefulness is determined by several factors:
1. Rate of abortion, the maximum amount of arsenic that can be absorbed per
kilogram of Fe(III)OH- before it is ‘spent’
2. Whether the absorbent used can be disposed of safely().
Therein lies the problem, the spent medium for a small village of say, 1000 people
would contain approximately 0.4kg of arsenic to be disposed of safely each year. As
we now from chapter 3.2 the conditions would need to remaining oxidising
indefinitely as they would at the Earth’s surface, but if the iron(III) hydroxide would
dissolve it would release all of its absorbed arsenic. A solution extremely
contaminated with arsenic().
........................................................................................................................................
7 Component of the Solution Focused on by this Study: The Solution is Research
“Descartes commanded the future from his study more than Napoleon did from his
throne”
Oliver Wendell Holmes 1809-1894
Prevention is the ultimate goal.

The prevention depends on understanding causes.
Knowledge that can only come from research
From the days Bangladesh first entered stage left onto the global media arena
solutions have been short lived and in some circumstances only caused more
problems. Research needs to be conducted by those who have a responsibility to
ensure poorer developing countries have adequate access to safe drinking water, the
exact aim of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals, (Goal 7, Target 3).
An Earths Systems approach to reason why there is arsenic in the groundwater’s of
Bangladesh. Such a study would not go in vain, as the number of countries that
have been quietly suffering from the same problem are beginning to emerge. If
arsenic contaminated groundwater beneath other major river basins, it would
constitute one of the world’s single health threats. Figure 7.1 shoes three main
categories of groundwater supplies and the outlines of the major river basins are
shown in purple. How can we predict which of these basins may present arsenic
problems similar to those in the Ganges-Brahmaputra Plains is we are unaware as

the reason for its occurrence?
Figure 7.1 World distributions of groundwater resources with a brief explanation of their
hydrogeology
Source()
...................................................................................................................................................................
8 How this Solution Will Work...
“if you find a good solution and become attached to it, the solution may become
your next problem”
Dr Robert Anthony
The solution is research.

This solution will work if an Earth Systems approach is taken to the problem. This
will involve studying the processes within the; hydrosphere, atmosphere, biosphere,
and lithosphere of the area in question; in this case Bangladesh, as well as studying
the interconnections between the spheres to gather more information on the genesis
of arsenic in ground water.
Such an approach complies with one of the urgent requirements outlined by the
World Health Organisation; to increase the availability and dissemination of relevant
information(). In addition it complies with United Nation goals directly as they state
(discussed throughout this problem analysis especially in the following chapter).
Thus most importantly this solution will work if the information is communicated in
all around accessible way so that many can read and be educated about the matters.
How the solution will work in terms of this study is precisely the opening quote. The
solution will become my problem in which will be convert into an aim (goal) and
then dissect into objectives (targets).
........................................................................................................................................
9 International Policy Frameworks: United Nations Millennium Development Goals
“No single measure would do more to reduce disease and save lives in the
developing world than bringing safe water... to all”
UN Secretary General 2000
In 2000 world leaders from across the globe put their differences aside and came
together at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. During this conference
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were born(). In total there are eight
goals:
1. Eradicate extreme and poverty
2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empowerment of women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat AIDS/HIV and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop global partnerships for development().
The management of water quality impinges directly or indirectly on all eight of the
MDGs(). The United Nations filed the water quality problem into Goal 7 labelled
under Target 10; “Half by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access
to safe drinking water and basic sanitation”. But what does this mean exactly?()
The target is for people to have improved access to safe drinkable water by 2015. By
safe drinkable water they refer to the percentile of the population with access to at
least 20 litres a person per day from an improved source within one kilometre of a
person’s dwelling().
The two spheres of a problem compiled in target 10 are one of the same. By
improving basic sanitation the quality of water in that area will also be improved and
vice versa to have adequate sanitation facilities safe water is needed.
The achievement of such a goal would be a miracle, and the United Nations
addresses how difficult a task this really is; ‘with half the world without basic
sanitation, meeting the MDG target will require extraordinary efforts’().

Since the establishment of the target Bangladesh does not seem to have benefited.
Table 9.1 and 9.2 below where been constructed from information sourced by the
UN in working towards the achievement of Goal 7 Target 10.
Proportion of the population

using improved drinking sources
Mean 80.6 80.3 80.6 81
Total 78 78 79 80
Urban 88 87 86 85
Rural 76 76 77 78
Figure 9.1 Table illustrating the proportion of the Bangladeshi population that have access to
improved drinking water.
Source derived from ()
Proportion of the population

using improved sanitation facilities
Mean 33.3 34.3 36.3 38.3
Total 26 28 32 36
Urban 56 34 51 48
Rural 18 21 26 32
Figure 9.2 Table illustrating the proportion of the Bangladeshi population that have access to
improved sanitation facilities
Source derived from()
A larger proportion of the population have access to safe drinking water than they do
sanitation. Overall both are improving very gradually. There are noticeable trends in
both table 9.1 and 9.2. Notice how in both cases the rural areas have significantly
less access than the urban areas, but they are improving. In contrast the urban areas
are declining steadily.
The influence my chosen topic has for over the UN in reaching their MDGs
concerning Bangladesh was evident when studying this data. Each and every figure
had a tiny footnote number beside it which stated; the drinking water estimates for
Bangladesh have been adjusted for arsenic (As) concentration levels based on the
national surveys conducted an approved by the Government of Bangladesh.
........................................................................................................................................
10 Purpose of this Study
“You’ll come to learn a great deal if you study the insignificant at depth”
Odysseus Elytis

10.1 Physical System

The purpose of this study is to maintain a holistic view of the problem by studying
through an Earth Systems Approach. By which the:
• Lithological Processes: structural geology, sedimentology, palaeontology,
and petrology of the rocks in the study area.
• Hydrological Processes: erosion, transportation, and deposition of
sediments through water, flooding, sea-level fluctuations, the drainage basin
morphology, the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghan river system
• Atmospheric Processes: affect weathering rates and types can be physical or
chemical, climate and weather
• Biological Processes: arsenic resistant forms, anthropogenic changes in the
land, chemistry of arsenic and biological effects
will be studied in relation to the genesis of arsenic contamination in the chosen study
area of Bangladesh.
10.2 Policy/Decision Framework
‘Some of these issues highlight the need for carefully conducted scientific studies that
describe the fate of arsenic in the natural environment and identify all potential routes of
exposure’().
This was written as part of a compilation of papers presented at the Technologies for Arsenic
Removal from Drinking water workshop in the United Nations University, Tokyo Japan.
Thus the purpose of my study has been identified as a crucial knowledge gap in the Policy
Dimensions of the Arsenic Pollution Problem in Bangladesh from which i quote
“Scientific Research has to be emphasized to reduce uncertainty, with due

consideration to local conditions”
Although seemingly insignificant in the scheme of things as mentioned previously

knowledge will lead to more solid solutions.
____________________________________________________________________
Aim
“The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think, than what to think-
rather improve our minds so as to enable us to think for ourselves than to load the
memory with thoughts of other men”
William Beattie
Aim: To undertake an earth systems approach study in the genesis of arsenic in the
groundwater of Bangladesh

The aim of this study is to investigate the genesis of the arsenic that contaminates
the groundwater of Bangladesh. The study will take an Earths Systems Approach
and thus be focused into four separate compartments; atmospheric, hydrological,
biological, lithological. The compartments will not remain closed as with further
study the interconnections between them will become apparent.
The research conducted will be entirely evidence based on previously published

resources, namely in peer reviewed publications to either verify or create an
evidenced based theory.
Finally if the results are promising an outline of possible further studies will be
produced.
____________________________________________________________________
Objectives
“Keep your mind on your objectives and persist until you succeed...”
W. Clement Stone
I. How do the hydrological processes of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghan

river system and the coastal waters of the Bay of Bengal affect the
occurrence of arsenic in the groundwater?
II. How do the atmospheric processes affect the occurrence of arsenic in the
groundwater?
III. How do the lithological processes related to the areas geology in the past and
present affect the occurrence of arsenic in the groundwater?
IV. How do the biological processes from the micro to macro scale affect the
____________________________________________________________________
Methods
“Real knowledge, like everything of value, is not to be obtained easily. It must

therefore be worked for, studied for, thought for...”
Thomas Arnold 1795-1842

Each objective requires very similar methods of obtaining information. They all
entail the analysis of a geological processes and how this ‘affects the occurrence of
arsenic in groundwater’. They are each however asking a different question. Thus
the methods of ‘searching’ for information on each objective will be the same save
for their unique keywords.
........................................................................................................................................
Sample set and Procedure
a) Search Databases
• Search engines Google, Yahoo, AltaVista, and Ask.com (useful for
acquiring basic information surrounding the objective)
• Google Scholar peer reviewed papers, thesis, books and abstracts from
professional societies (useful for more reliable sources of information)
• Subject Gateways BUBL, Intute: Science, Education and Technology,
Intute: Health and Life (academically reliable information.)
• Books Worldcat (access to electronic books)
• Databases science research.com, web of knowledge / web of science, water
resources abstracts
• Journals Directory of Open Access Journals
• News Sources: EureaAlert, New Scientist, BBCi: Science and Nature (keep
up-to-date on subject.
Before searching will ensure that the correct source has been chosen. To do so i will
simply ask; does it have full text? Does it cover the right subject matter? Does it
contain peer reviewed information?
The next step in gathering information for each objective will involve being prompt.
P-presentation: How is the information communicated? If pages are not clearly
communicated then no more time will wasted upon them
R-Relevance: information may not be relevant to my search due to; the
geographical aspects, level (too basic or too specialized), emphasis.
O-Objectivity: good information should be devoid of bias and be well balanced
presenting information on both sides of an argument
M-Method: the way information is produced; an opinion, research, reviews of
research.
P-Provenance: who produced it where did it come from provides useful clues its
reliability; authors, organisations.
T-Timeless: The date of production/publish important indicator of reliability. Thus
any information that does not have a date will not be considered for this report.

..................................................................................................................................................
b) Key Words
Objective 1: How do the hydrological processes of the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghan river

system and the coastal waters of the Bay of Bengal affect the occurrence of arsenic in the
groundwater?
Keywords: Hydrology, rivers, streams, systems, arsenic, Bangladesh, occurrence,
affect, drainage, coastal processes, sea level, Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghan river
system, coastal waters, Bay of Bengal, arsenic, surface water, groundwater,
concentrations
Objective 2: How do the atmospheric processes affect the occurrence of arsenic in the
groundwater?
Keywords: Atmospheric, processes, atmosphere, climate, weather, weathering,
oxidation, reduction, occurrence, arsenic, groundwater, precipitation, surface water,
wind, water, ice, monsoon, cyclone, affect, concentrations, Bangladesh
Objective 3: How do the lithological processes related to the areas geology in the past and
present affect the occurrence of arsenic in the groundwater?
Keywords: lithology, geology, structural, tectonics, geological time scale, processes,
past, present, alluvium, delta, groundwater, arsenic, occurrence, affect,
concentrations, palaeontology, chemistry, crust, rock, mapping, Bangladesh,
Himalaya
Objective 4: How do the biological processes from the micro to macro scale affect the
Land use, changes, forest, cover, surface, waters, agriculture, industry, Bangladesh,
micro, macro, bacterial, ferns, anti-oxidising, toxic, chemistry, cell, biochemistry,
respiration, photosynthesis, soils
........................................................................................................................................
C) Search Limits
Objective 1: international literature on the processes of the Ganges-Brahmaputra
river system and the Bay of Bengal coastal processes in search of a connection with
arsenic concentrations. Literature on the geography of arsenic contamination in
groundwater. This will include literature from government and non government
bodies, international environmental protection agencies, global health organisations,
foundations in concern with hydrolical processes, and peer reviewed journals
Objective 2: The effects of local climatic and weather patterns over Bangladesh and
the mountains from which the Ganges - Brahmaputra river system drains on the
arsenic elements; locked up in rocks, in solution in the streams or temporarily stored
in soils as show from peer reviewed journals, books hard and electronic, in addition
to those searchable resources used in objective 1.
Objective 3: Published material on the underlying geology of the area in peer
reviewed journals and the tectonic processes occurring throughout geological time
with a particular interest in Geomorphology, Geology and Geophysics based

journals.
Objective 4: International, regional, and local literature produced on the
anthropogenic changes of the land. And international peer reviewed journals
concerning the biological processes of different organisms and their varying
responses to concentrations of arsenic.
These key words will be used to accumulate relevant data needed to answer the
questions of each objective, which are outlined below in the limits of the search.
...............................................................................................................................................
Sample Set and Procedure

D) Rational of limits for all objectives 1-4
At present there are many gaps in the scientific knowledge of as to how arsenic has
become present into groundwater. Therefore it is necessary to accumulate a wide
baseline of knowledge and in doing so examine as much peer reviewed literature as
possible
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Appendix
Flow Chart
Aim: Earths systems approach to the genesis of arsenic contamination in the groundwater of
Bangladesh
Objective 1 Objective 2 Objective 3 Objective 4

How do the How do the How do the How do the
hydrological atmospheric lithological biological
processes of the processes affect processes processes from
Ganges- the occurrence of related to the the micro to
Brahmaputra- arsenic in the areas geology in macro scale
Meghan river groundwater? the past and affect the
system and the present affect the occurrence of
coastal waters of occurrence of arsenic in the
the Bay of Bengal arsenic in the groundwater?
affect the groundwater?
occurrence of
arsenic in the
groundwater?

Method 1 Method 2 Method 3 Method 4

Peer reviewed Peer reviewed Peer reviewed Peer reviewed
literature using literature using literature using literature using
full range of full range of full range of full range of
searchable searchable searchable searchable
databases, databases, databases, databases,
keywords keywords keywords keywords Land
Hydrology, rivers, Atmospheric, lithology, geology, use, changes,
streams, processes, structural, forest, cover,
systems, arsenic, atmosphere, tectonics, surface, waters,
Bangladesh, climate, weather, geological time agriculture,
occurrence, weathering, scale, processes, industry,
affect, drainage, oxidation, past, present, Bangladesh,
coastal reduction, alluvium, delta, micro, macro,
processes, sea occurrence, groundwater, bacterial, ferns,
level, Ganges- arsenic, arsenic, anti-oxidising,
Brahmaputra- groundwater, occurrence, toxic, chemistry,
Meghan river precipitation, affect, cell, biochemistry,
system, coastal surface water, concentrations,
waters, Bay of respiration,
wind, water, ice, palaeontology, photosynthesis,
Bengal, arsenic, monsoon, chemistry, crust,
surface water, soils
cyclone, affect, rock, mapping,
concentrations Bangladesh,


Evidence Based Environmental Policy and Management 1: 1-34 (2008)

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Evidence Based Environmental Policy and Management 1: 1-34 (2008)

Blue Gold: A Deadly Gift

Picture: The majestic plains of the Bengal delta, Bangladesh

Ame Alexandra Plant

Environmental Studies, School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences,

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 1

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 2

1 General Problem: The Global Water Crisis

“All the water that will ever be is, right now”

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 4

Continent Portion of worlds Human Portion of the World’s

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 5

2 Component of Problem Focused on by this Study: The Quality of Water

Element WHO maximum safe Effects of Deficiency Chronic effects of excess

Aluminium, Al Alzheimer’s syndrome?

Antimony, Sb None Heart disease

Arsenic, As 0.01 Possible link to retarded See later text

Barium, Ba 0.07 None High blood pressure,

Beryllium, Be None None Lung cancer industrial

Cadmium, Cd 0.003 Reduced growth? Sever Hypertension, kidney

Chromium, Cr 0.05 Corneal opacity, poor Lung cancer

Copper, Cu 2.0 Anaemia Jaundice, Wilsons

Fluorine, F 1.5 Poor bone and tooth Mottled teeth, sclerosis

Lead, Pb 0.01 None Anaemia, brain

Manganese, Mn 0.05 Bones deformed, Brain damage and lack

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 7

gonads effected, hair of coordination

Mercury, Hg 0.002 None Chronic brain

Molybdenum, Mo 0.07 Reduced urine acid Growth depression

Nickel, Ni 0.02 Dermatitis, liver Dermatitis, lung cancer

Selenium, Se 0.01 Infertility, liver necrosis, Cancer

Thallium, Tl 0.002 None Hair loss, general

Zinc 3.0 Dwarfism, immature Anaemia

3 Casual Factors: The Causes of Poor Water Quality

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 8

Pollutant Target Tissue

For example DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) once widely used as a

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 10

3.2 So Why Are Some Elements Poisonous to Humans?

Trace Chemical Trace Chemical Trace Chemical Trace Chemical

Early Earth: Reducing Chemical Environment Today’s Earth: Oxidising Environment

4 Particular Casual Factor of Interest: The Contamination of Water Resources with

“Something colourless, odourless, tasteless... the perfect poison”

4.1 A Brief Introduction in to the Chemistry of Arsenic

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 13

4.3 Arsenic contamination of Water

4.4 Decreasing the Distance between Arsenic the Human Population

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 14

4.5 The Effect of Arsenic on Human Health

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 15

1 US Unknown 8 India 1,000,000

5 Case Study: Arsenic Poisoning in Bangladesh

5.1 The Geography of Bangladesh

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 16

5.2 The Creation of the Bangladeshi Groundwater Supply

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 17

river in the world. It is therefore no wonder that there is a surplus of sediment

5.3 Tapping into the Groundwater

5.4 Researching the Extent of the problem

5.5 The Origin of the Arsenic Pollutant

This keystone problem is the core focus for study.

6 General Solution: The Mitigation of Arsenic Poisoning is not a Realistic Option

“Impossible means that you haven’t found the solution yet”