Chapter 1 SETS AND THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Collection of things such as books on a shelf, baseball cards, stamps, and toys are common. Mathematics greatly relies on that notion of collection called a set. One of the most important sets in algebra is the set of real numbers. Probably the first numbers with which most ancient people became concerned were counting numbers. These numbers are just some of the essential elements of the set of real numbers. This chapter deals mainly with the notations and operations of sets, and the structure of the real number system, together with its properties and operations. 1.1 SETS One of the basic and useful concepts in mathematics is set. The basic notion of a set was first developed by eorg Cantor toward the end of the nineteenth century. !oth counting and measurement lead to numbers and sets, and through the use of numbers and sets it is possible to obtain much insight in every field of mathematics.

* set is a well/defined collection of distinct objects.

The following are e"amples of sets# a$ b$ c$ d$ e$ The set of real numbers. The set of counting numbers less than %&. The set of months of the year that has '% days. The set of even numbers between ' and (). The set of students enrolled in *lgebra and Trigonometry.

+ach object of a set is called a member or an element of the set. The symbol is used to indicate that an element belongs to a given set and the symbol to denote that an element does not belong to the set. Capital letters are often used to represent or stand for a set. ,f a is an element of set S, then a belongs to S and is written a S . The notation a S means that a does not belong to S. Methods of Describin a Set %. -oster or .isting Method. The method describes the set by listing all elements of the set separated by commas and enclosed in braces { } .

(. -ule Method or 0et/!uilder 1otation. The method describes the set by enclosing a descriptive phrase of the elements in braces. +"amples# %. The following are sets in -oster Method. a$ ,f D is the set of vowels in the alphabet, then D = {a, e, i, o, u} . b$ ,f B is the set of counting numbers between ( and 2, then B = {',4,),3} . c$ ,f P is the set of letters in the word +.+M+1T, then P = {E , L, M , N , T } . Note! The elements of a set may appear in any order and are never repeated. (. The above sets can also be described using the -ule Method as follows# a$ D ={x x is a vowel in the alphabet} b$ B ={x x is a counting number between ( and 2} c$ P ={x x is a letter in the word +.+M+1T} Note! The vertical bar is read 5such that6 and x represents any element of the set. E"ercises! #rite each of the fo$$o%in sets &sin roster 'ethod and r&$e 'ethod. %. (. '. 4. ). The counting numbers which are multiples of ' and less than (&. The children of your parents. The single digits used in our decimal system. The set of all odd numbers between ( and %(. The fractions whose numerator is % and whose denominator is a counting number less than ).

Cardina$it( of Set The cardinality of a set S, denoted by elements in the set. +"ample# The cardinality of the above sets are# a$ n( D ) = ) b$ n( B ) = 4 c$ n( P ) = ) 1.) *+NDS ,- SETS Finite Set and Infinite Set
n(S ) or S

, is the number of distinct

* finite set is a set whose elements can be counted7 otherwise, the set is an infinite set. (

Null or Empty Set * null or empty set, denoted by or { } , is a set that has no element. The universal set, denoted by ;, is a set that contains all the elements in consideration.

+"amples# a$ A = { (,4,3,8} is a finite set. b$ B = {%,(,',...,(&} is a finite set. c$ C ={x x is an odd number less than %&} is a finite set. d$ D = {%,',),...} is an infinite set. e$ E ={x x is an integer} is an infinite set. f$ F ={x x is a prime number between %9 and ('} is a null set. g$ {&} is a finite set. Note! The cardinality of a null or empty set is :ero. 1.. SET RELAT+,NSH+/S * one/to one correspondence e"ists between two sets A and B if it is possible to associate the elements of * with the elements of ! in such a way that each element of each set is associated with e"actly one element of the other.

+"ample#

A = {a, b, c} and B = {%,(,'} are sets whose elements have a one/to/one correspondence

relationship. Equivalent and Equal Sets Two sets A and B are e<uivalent, denoted by A B, if and only if there e"ists a one/to/one correspondence between them. Two sets A and B are e<ual, denoted by A = B, if the elements of A and B are e"actly the same. +"amples# a$ {a, b, c, d } {%,(,',4} b$ {1,2,3} = {2,1,3} Note! '

+<ual sets are always e<uivalent but e<uivalent sets are not always e<ual. Joint and Disjoint Sets Two sets A and B are joint if and only if A and B have common elements7 otherwise, A and B are disjoint. +"ample# .et A = { (,4,3,2} , B = { (,4,),8} and C = {%,',),8} . Then, A and B are joint sets7 B and C are joint sets7 A and C are disjoint sets. Subset and Proper Subset 0et A is a subset of set B, denoted by A B , if every element of A is an element of B. 0et A is a proper subset of set B, denoted by A B , if A is a subset of B and B has at least one element not found in A. ,f there is an element of set * which is not found in set !, then * is not a subset of !, denoted by A B . +"ample# ,f A = {%,(,'} and are found in set B. Power Set The power set of *, denoted by A , is the set whose elements are all the subsets of *.
B = {&,%,(,',4,),3,2} , then A B since the elements %, ( and ' of set A

+"ample# ,f A = { (,4,3} , then A = {, { (}, { 4}, {3}, { (,4}, { (,3}, { 4,3}, { (,4,3}} . Notes! * null set is a subset of any given set. *ny set is a subset of itself. There are ( n subsets, where n is the number of elements, that can be formed for any given set.

E"ercises! -or each of the fo$$o%in sets0 deter'ine %hich is finite and %hich is infinite. -or the finite sets0 te$$ %hich are e1&i2a$ent and %hich are e1&a$. %. (. '. 4. ). The set of the first five counting numbers. The set of all even numbers. The set of distinct letters in the word C*.C;.;0. The set of even numbers less than ). The set of points in a given plane that are e"actly two units from a given point in that plane. 3. The set whose elements are ( and 4. 3enn Dia ra' =enn >iagram is the pictorial representation in dealing with the relations between sets, after the +nglish logician ?ames =enn.

U A B

A and B are disjoint sets. A B and B A

U B A

U A B

A B0 A U and B U

B A, A U and B U

1.4 ,/ERAT+,NS ,N SETS Union of Sets The union of two sets * and !, denoted by A B , is the set whose elements belong to A or to B or to both A and B. ,n symbol,
A B = {x x A or x B or x A and B}

+"amples# a$ ,f A = {%,(,'} and B = {b, c, d } , then A B = {%,(,', b, c, d } . b$ ,f C = {%,',),8} and D = {(,',4,)} , then C D = {%,(,',4,),8} . Intersection of Sets The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by A B , is the set whose elements are common to A and B. ,n symbol,
A B = {x x A and x B}

+"amples# a$ ,f A = { (,4,3,8} and B = {&,%,(,',4} , then A B = { (,4} . b$ ,f C = {%,(,'} and D = {),%&,%)} , then C D = Note! Two sets are disjoint if their intersection is an empty or null set. omplement of a Set The complement of set A, denoted by AA, is the set with elements found in the universal set, but not in A7 that is, the difference of the universal set and A. ,n symbol,
A@ ={x x U and x A}

+"amples# a$ ,f U = {&,%,(,',4,),3,2,8,9} and A = {%,',),2,9} , then A@ = {&,(,4,3,8} b$ ,f U = {%,(,',4,...} and A = {4,),3,2,...} , then A@ = {%,(,'} Difference of Sets The difference of two sets A and B, denoted by A B , is the set whose elements are in A but not in B, ,n symbol,
A B = {x x A and x B}

+"ample#

,f A = { (,',4,)} and B = {%,(,'} , then A B = { 4,)} artesian Product of Sets The Cartesian product of two sets A and B, denoted by AxB , is the set of ordered pairs ( x, y ) such that x is an element of A and y is an element of B. ,n symbol,
AxB = {( x, y ) x A and y B}

+"ample# ,f A = {%,(} and B = {a, b} , then AxB = { (%, a ) , (%, b ) , ( (, a ) , ( (, b )} Note!

AxB BxA

,n the =enn diagram below, the shaded region represents the indicated operation. U A B U A B U A A B

ABB +"amples# %. .et U ={x x

A ={x x is a positive odd integer less than %&} is a counting number less than %&}

A5

B = { (,4,3,8} C = {(,',4,)}

then, a$ b$ c$ d$ e$

A B = {%,',),2,9} { (,4,3,8} = {%,(,',4,),3,2,8,9} A C = {%,',),2,9} { (,',4,)} = {%,(,',4,),2,9} B C = { (,4,3,8} { (,',4,)} = { (,',4,),3,8} A B = {%,',),2,9} { (,4,3,8} = A C = {%,',),2,9} { (,',4,)} = {',)}

f$ B C = { (,4,3,8} { (,',4,)} = { (,4} g$ A@ = {%,(,',4,),3,2,8,9} {%,',),2,9} = {(,4,3,8} h$ B@ = {%,(,',4,),3,2,8,9} {(,4,3,8} = {%,',),2,9} i$ C @ = {%,(,',4,),3,2,8,9} {(,',4,)} = {%,3,2,8,9} (. * survey of %&& students revealed the following information as to the number of students enrolled in Mathematics CM$, PhysicsCP$ and ChemistryCC$# 0ubject M C P M and C M and P C and P M, C and P 1umber of students enrolled (3 3) 3) %4 %' 4& 8

a$ Dow many students are taking any one of the three subjectsE b$ Dow many students did not take any of the three subjectsE c$ Dow many students are enrolled only in MathematicsE d$ Dow many students are enrolled only in ChemistryE e$ Dow many students are enrolled only in PhysicsE 0olution# Corresponding to the given data, we obtain the =enn diagram below. M 6 7 8 9 .) ): /

1; C Thus, a. 2F(&F%9 G 43 students are taking any one of the three subjects b. %&& B C2F)F8F3F'(F%9F(&$ G ' students did not take any of the three subjects c. nCM$ G 2 students are enrolled only in Mathematics

d. nCC$ G %9 students are enrolled only in Chemistry e. nCP$ G (& students are enrolled only in Physics E"ercises! *. ,f U = {&,%,(,',4,),3,2,8,9} , A = { (,4,),8} and B = {&,(,),8,9} , which of the following are trueE %. 4 A ). { } B 9. U B = {%,',4,3,2} (. ) B 3. A@ = {&,%,',3,2} %&. U A@ = A '. { } A 2. A B = {&,(,4,),8,9} %%. B = { } 4. {(} A 8. A U = A@ %(. ( A B )@ = {%,',3,2} !. Tell whether each of the following statements is true or false for any two sets A and B. %. A is always contained in A B (. A is always contained in A B '. B always contains A B 4. B always contains A B C. ,f A = { (,4} and B = {%,',)} , determine %. AxB (. BxA >. ,n a survey concerning the number of students enrolled in Mathematics, it was found out that '& are enrolled in *lgebra, Calculus and Trigonometry7 4& in *lgebra and Trigonometry7 4) in Trigonometry and Calculus7 )& in *lgebra and Calculus7 8& in *lgebra7 and 2& in Calculus. ,f there are %'& students in all, how many students are enrolled in TrigonometryE SET +DENT+T+ES! .et *, ! and C be any sets and ; be the universal set in which *, ! and C are defined. %. Commutative .aws# (. *ssociative .aws# '. >istributive .aws# 4. Contradiction .aw# ). ,dentity .aws# 3. >omination .aws# 2. ,dempotent .aws# 8. Complementation .aws# @ =U 9. >e MorganAs .aws#
A ( B C ) = ( A B) C A ( B C ) = ( A B) C A ( B C ) = ( A B) ( A C ) A ( B C ) = ( A B) ( A C ) A A@ = A = A A U = A A = A U = U

A B = B A A B = B A

( A@)@ = A

A A = A

U @ =

A A = A

( A B )@ = A@B@

( A B )@ = A@B@

1.7 THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM 9

Elements of t!e Set of "eal Numbers Nat&ra$ n&'bers <N= is the set of the counting numbers %, (, ', 4 and so on. #ho$e n&'bers <#= is the set of the natural numbers and :ero. +nte ers <>= are the natural numbers along with their negatives and :ero Ce.g. /', /(, /%, &, %, (, '$. Rationa$ n&'bers <?= are real numbers that are ratios of two integers Cwith non:ero denominators$. * rational number is either a terminating decimal or a non/terminating but repeating decimal. +rrationa$ n&'bers <+= are non/terminating, non/repeating decimals. ,rrational numbers which cannot be e"pressed as <uotient of two integers. The Set of Rea$ N&'bers and +ts S&bsets -eal 1umbers

-ational 1umbers

,rrational 1umbers

1on/,ntegers CHractions$

,ntegers

Ihole 1umbers &, %, (, 'J

1egative ,ntegers J/', /(, /%

1atural 1umbers %, (, 'J

Kero

1.9 /R,/ERT+ES ,- REAL NUMBERS #asic Properties of "eal Numbers

%&

.et a, b and c be real numbers. The following properties hold for the operations addition and multiplication# Property %. (. '. 4. ). Closure Commutative *ssociative >istributive ,dentity *ddition
a +bR a+b =b+a
a+& = a
a + ( a) = &

Multiplication
a b R a b = b a
a % = a % a = %, a & a

a + ( b + c ) = ( a + b) + c a Cb + c $ = ab + ac

a ( b c) = ( a b) c

3. ,nverse

Note! & is the identity element for addition and % is the identity element for multiplication. -a is the additive inverse of a and
% is the multiplicative inverse. a

Properties of $rder of "eal Numbers .et a, b and c be real numbers. The following properties of order of real numbers hold. %. (. '. 4. Trichotomy Property of Order# *mong a < b, b < a and a = b , only one is true. Transitive Property of Order# ,f a < b, b < c, then a < c . *ddition Property of Order# ,f a < b, then a + c < b + c. Multiplication Property of Order# ,f a < b and c > &, then ac < bc ,f a < b and c < &, then ac > bc.

Properties of Equality .et a, b and c be real numbers. The following properties of e<uality hold. %. (. '. 4. -efle"ive Property# 0ymmetric Property# Transitive Property# 0ubstitution Property# a=a ,f a = b, then b = a. ,f a = b and b = c, then a = c. ,f a = b, then a can be replaced by b in any statement involving a or b.

1.6 -UNDAMENTAL ,/ERAT+,NS ,N REAL NUMBERS Absolu e !alue o" a Nu#be$ The absolute value of a number a, denoted by number defined by
a

, is a nonnegative

& a if a %% a= a if a < &

+"amples# *pplying the definition of a$ 8 =8 %& = %& b$ & = & c$

, then

,/ERAT+,NS ,N S+@NED NUMBERS %ddition of Si&ned Numbers To add real numbers with like signs, find the sum of their absolute values and prefi" the common sign To add real numbers with unlike signs, find the difference of their absolute values and prefi" the sign of the number with greater absolute value. +"amples# a$ ) F 3 G%% b$ C/4$ F C/)$ G /%% c$ 8 F C/4$ G 4 d$ C/%($ F C9$ G /' Subtraction of Si&ned Numbers To subtract two signed numbers, change the sign of the subtrahend and proceed as in addition of signed numbers. +"amples# a$ C/2$ B C/'$ G /4 b$ C%&$ B C/3$ G %3 c$ C/(4$ B C%)$ G /'9 d$ C9$ B C%4$ G /)

'ultiplication of Si&ned Numbers The product of two or more signed numbers is positive or negative depending on whether the number of negative factors is even or odd, respectively. +"amples#

%(

a$ C'$C)$ G%) b$ C/($C/)$C/'$ G /'& c$ C4$C/'$C/)$ G 3& d$ C($C/'$C/4$C/)$ G /%(& Division of Si&ned Numbers The <uotient of two numbers with like signs is positive while the <uotient of two numbers with unlike signs is negative. +"amples# a$ b$
(4 = 4 3 4) = ) 9 ') =2 ) 4( = 3 2

c$

d$

,RDER ,- ,/ERAT+,NS The steps to simplify e"pressions involving series of operations on signed numbers are as follows# %. Perform multiplication and division from left to right in the order by which they appear. (. Perform addition and subtraction from left to right in the order by which they appear. +"amples# a$ 4 + 2 C3$ + %) ' = '' b$ '& ) + 3 8 4 = %& c$ [ ( 9 + 2 ) )] ( = ) E"ercises! A. Na'e the propert( that A&stifies the fo$$o%in state'ents! %. (. '. 4. ). 3. 2. 8.
' x = y7 y = ' x '( a + b ) = 'a + 'b

' 4 = 4 ' ( x + & = ( x

4 % = 4

( 3 a ) + ( 3a ) = & 4 + ( ) + 2 ) = ( 4 + )) + 2
) % =% )

9. % ( ' + a ) = ' + a %&. ( y + x = x + ( y

%'

B. /erfor' the indicated operations! %. (. '. 4. ). 3. 2. 8. 9. %&.

%( 4 + ' )

( 4 )( 3 )( ( ) ( 3) ' (& %&

2) () + ) 3 ' (8 4 + 2 + )' 9 (& + %8 + ) ( %4 2 9 ( 3
(8 ( 4 ) 4 ) %&

(&

'& + ( (8) ( ' + %( ( + 3

%() () ' + %3 8 '' %% + %& )

NAME!BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB +NSTRUCT,R!BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB Acti2it( No. 1.1 Sets *. Irite each of the following sets using a. -oster method b. -ule method

DATE!BBBBBBBBBBBBB SECT+,N!BBBBBBBBB

%4

%. The set of whole numbers less than 8 (. The set of odd numbers between ( an (& which is divisible by ) '. The set of remainders when a positive integer is divided by 4 4. The set of the last digit of 4 n ,where n is a positive integer ). The last digit of ) n + 4 n , where n is a positive integer !. Tell whether the given sets are e<ual, e<uivalent, one is a subset of the other, or none of these is true. %. A = {&} (. C = {a, b, c} '. R = { (,4,3} 4. S = { }
B ={

D = {c, b, a} B = {%,(,',4,...}
T = x x is a real number satisfying " ( + 4 = &

). M ={3,%(,(4,48,...}

N = {',),2,9,...,()}

C. .et A = {(,4,3,2}, B = {%,',)}, C = {%,),2,9} and U = {%,(,',4,),3,2,8,9,%&} . >etermine the following sets# %. A C (. B C '.

A@ B@

NAME!BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB +NSTRUCT,R!BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB Acti2it( No. 1.) Sets

DATE!BBBBBBBBBBBBB SECT+,N!BBBBBBBBB

.et A = {(,4,3,2}, B = {%,',)}, C = {%,),2,9} and U = {%,(,',4,),3,2,8,9,%&} . >etermine the following sets# 4. C ( A B@)

%)

C ). ( A B )@ C ) A@ 3. ( B @ ( A @ B @) ( A B ) 2. 8. U ( C @A) C @) 9. (U A@) ( A@ (U B @) C )@ %&. ( B @ >. ,n a survey among moviegoersA preferences, 3&L like fiction, ))L like drama, )3L like comedy, ()L like fiction and drama, '&L like fiction and comedy, (3L like comedy and drama, and )L like fiction, drama and comedy. Only )L of the respondents do not prefer any types of movies mentioned. %. >raw a =enn >iagram corresponding to the given data. (. Ihat are the percentages of moviegoers who prefer a. comedy but not fictionE b. drama onlyE c. fiction or comedy but not dramaE d. comedy and drama but not fictionE

*. 1ame the property of the set of real numbers that justifies the following e<ualities. %. ( F 4G 4 F ( (. )b F & G )b '. ' C(" F )$ G 3" F %) 4. "y G a , a G "y ). ( F C ) F 3$ G C( F )$ F 3 3. 4
% =% 4

2. C/'$ F 'G& 8. %Ca F b$ G a F b 9. (" F % G % F (" %&. C)$% G ) !. Perform the indicated operations. %. ) +8 (. 3 ' 4 + '( 4 '. () %( ' + 4 3 %8 3 4. ( + ' 4 3 48 8 ( ). [ ' ( ' %4 2 ) ] + 34 8 4

%3