Capacitors - Various Dielectrics and Their Applications

Cletus J. Kaiser Writer / Consultant 2851 W. 127th Street Olathe, KS 66061 Phone: 913-764-3577 Fax: 913-764-8909
INSULATOR

K - VALUE

Air or Vacuum Paper Plastic Mineral Oil Silicon Oil

ABSTRACT Proper component selection is thejirst step in building reliuble equipment. To select the correct capacitor to be used, the designer must know us much as possible ubout the different types. The designer should know the udvuntuges und disudvuntuges; the behuvior under vurious environmentul conditions; the coiistruction; f circuits on cupucitors; and ivhut niukes the effect o cupucitors fuiL TIiis puper will uddrcss the diyjereiit types o f cupucitors und give some guidunce in their upplicutions.

"Q
Glass Porcelain Mica Aluminum Oxide Tantalum Oxide Barium Titanate Ceramic

1.0 2.0 6.0 2.1 - 6.0 2.2 - 2.3 2.7 2.8 3.8 4.4 4.8 8.0 5.1 5.9 5.4 8.7 8.4 26 1,000 3,000 12 400,000

INTRODUCTION

A timing circuit is a good example of a DC application. The RC timing circuit uses a combination of resistance and capacitance to determine its operation. When energized, all the voltage would first appear across the resistor and none across the capacitor. The voltage across the resistor would decrease with time just as the voltage across the capacitor increases with time. The capacitor blocks the flow of DC once it is charged. The storage capability of the capacitor is used for the application of capacitors in filters. Basic DC power supplies provide an output (the voltage across a load) which is fluctuating. To smooth these fluctuations, add a capacitor parallel to the load. When a capacitor is subjected to alternating current, to the capacitor it looks like DC which is flowing in and flowing out again. The capacitor is alternately being charged, discharged, and then recharged in the opposite direction before being discharged again. The capacitor, in an AC circuit, is acting something like a resistor in a DC circuit with the additional dimension of frequency to take into consideration. The two effects of frequency and capacitance are combined in an expression known as capacitive reactance. There is a comparable expression for inductance which yields inductive reactance. Inductance arises from the lead wires which are attached to the capacitor or electrodes. As clock rates increase, manufacturers are now designing capacitors to minimize inductance.

Capacitors are used as energy storage components to accumulate energy and then to discharge the energy over time. The presence of electrical charges on the electrodes of a capacitor induces charges in the dielectric. These induced charges determine something called permittivity. Each dielectric material has its own value of permittivity. Permittivity introduces a more practical and better known value called "K" or dielectric constant. K is defined as the ratio of the permittivity of the dielectric to the permittivity of free space a vacuum. Therefore, all the capacitance values are related to the permittivity of a vacuum. In a vacuum, K = 1, while K for every material has some value greater than 1. The higher the K, the more capacitance with all other variables being equal. The use of higher values of K reduces the size. However, capacitors with low values of K are available for other capacitor cliaracteristics such as stability and voltage ratings.

The following chart illustrates the Dielectric Constants of materials used in capacitors today.

0-7803-4943-1/98/$10.000 1998 IEEE

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An ideal capacitor would produce no heat when current passes through it. The heat which is produced comes from the resistance which manufacturers are unable to eliminate completely. Because of this, a measure of the resistance is frequently specified as an expression called "DF" (dissipation factor). The expression for DF is defined as the ratio of resistance to capacitive reactance. The higher the resistance, the higher the DF and generally the worse the capacitor. In good capacitors the DF is rather small. DF is frequently expressed in percent (%).

there are large increases in power factor. The capacitance of polarized dielectrics is a function of the temperature, voltage, and frequency. Nonpolarized dielectrics exhibit less change than polarized materials. The operating temperature and changes in temperature also affect the mechanical structure in which the dielectric is housed. The terminal seals utilizing elastic materials or gaskets may leak due to the set temperature characteristics. The expansion and contraction of materials with different thermal coefficients may cause leaks at joints. Hermetically sealed units must have terminals designed to operate satisfactorily at the required pressure. An increase in pressure on the container of rolled capacitors in rectangular containers may increase the capacitance by decreasing the distance between the conductors. Nonhermetically sealed capacitors may be susceptible to moisture by the process of "breathing." Moisture in the dielectric will decrease the dielectric strength, insulation resistance, and increase the power factor of the capacitor. Capacitors which operate in high humidities should be hermetically sealed. The effect of moisture on pressure contacts which are not gas-tight may result in a high resistance or open contact. In many applications, it is necessary to derate the capacitor from the specifed voltage to provide the desired performance for the required time. Short duration transient voltages cannot be neglected in capacitor applications. The use of the self-healing properties of certain types of capacitors (plastic film and tantalum), may not be desirable in circuits where intermittent failures and noise would be troublesome. At low voltages, some of these types are not self-healing. Since capacitors have inductance, the operation of capacitors in parallel in circuits with fast rise times or transients may result in transient oscillations. The effective inductance of a large capacitor can be reduced by shunting it with a small capacitor. Extended foil paper capacitors are considered superior to inserted tab types, having less inductance and series contact resistance. These are important factors in low voltage applications and in low signal-to-noise ratio circuits. The stored energy in capacitors can be dangerous to personnel and equipment and suitable precautions should be taken to discharge capacitors.

Manufacturers establish how much power each physical size of capacitor can handle without getting too hot. If the capacitor gets too hot, the failure rate goes up. The peak voltage rating should not be exceeded by anything - not by DC nor by the peak AC - so the peak value must be calculated as a second restriction in AC applications. Film capacitors and ceramic capacitors are not polar devices. They will work equally well with either positive or negative polarity. Electrolytic capacitors, however, are not so flexible, and cannot allow much reverse voltage. If pure AC were applied, the voltage would be in reverse half the time. The answer to this dilemma is called bias voltage. Both AC and DC voltage are applied to the capacitor, the value of DC being chosen to raise the AC sufficiently above zero to prevent reversal. Do not raise the DC too high and exceed the rated voltage with the peak AC. Bypass capacitors are used to prevent the flow of direct current without impeding the flow of alternating current. They attenuate low frequency currents while permitting higher frequency currents to pass. The temperature at which the dielectric operates is a function of the following: The ambient temperature in which the .capacitor is located. The heat which is radiated or conducted to the capacitor. * The internal heating of the capacitor due to power losses in the conductors and dielectric. The physical construction and thermal conductivity of the materials inside the capacitor. The transfer of heat internally by conduction and convection to the container. The heat lost from the container by convection, conduction, and radiation.
An increase in power factor at high temperatures may cause thermal instability and must be considered. The power factor is a function of temperature. The insulation resistance decreases as the temperature increases. With polarized dielectrics, temperature-frequency conibinations exist where

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Trimmer capacitors fall into three categories: multi-turn, single-turn, and compression types. Multi-turn capacitors use either glass, quartz, sapphire, plastic, or air dielectrics. Single-turn devices use ceramic, plastic, or air dielectrics. Compression types use a mica dielectric. For trimmer capacitor applications requiring low loss, a high Q (Quality Factor), stability, and tuning sensitivity; a glass, quartz, or air dielectric should be selected. Glass and quartz devices are used at frequencies up to 300 MHZ. Air dielectrics are usable to about 1 GHz. For the frequencies of 1 GHz or above, sapphire dielectrics offer the best performance. Trimmer capacitors with ceramic and plastic dielectrics are inexpensive, with high grade plastic dielectric devices usable at frequencies up to 2 GHz.

Semistable and general purpose capacitors with nonlinear temperature coefficients are called Class 2 capacitors. They have become extremely popular because of the high capacitance values available in very small size. In specifLing capacitance change with temperature for Class 2 materials, EIA expresses the capacitance change over an operating temperature range by a three-symbol code. The first symbol represents the cold end of the temperature range. The second symbol represents the upper limit of the operating temperature range. The third symbol represents the capacitance change allowed over the operating temperature range. Below is a chart illustrating a detailed explanation of the EIA system.

CERAMIC Ceramic capacitor dielectric is made from powered barium titanate. Disc elements are pressed in dies and then fired at high temperature to produce a very dense structure. Singleplate elements are cut from larger sheets of the fired ceramic material. The "monolithic" ceramic capacitor requires a more sophisticated design with the ceramic material acting as both the dielectric and as the encapsulant of the basic element. The electrodes are buried within the ceramic and exit only on the ends. Up to 80 or more electrodes might be used lo obtain large values of capacitance. The whole assembly is compressed and then fired. During firing, the ceramic becomes one homogeneous structure from which the name "monolithic.I' There are inany ceramic dielectric formulations used to obtain special characteristics of the finished capacitor. Stability of capacitance with respect to temperature and voltage are sacrificed when large values of K are sought. While many special formulations of capacitors are sold, the industry is concentrating on three temperature compensating areas: stable (NPO or COG), semistable (X7R), and general purpose (Z5U). The Electronic Industries Association PIA) and the military have established categories to divide the basic characteristics into specified classes. Temperature compensating capacitors are a Class 1 capacitor. They have a predictable temperature coefficient (TC) and do not have an aging characteristic. They are the most teniperature stable capacitor available. The TC's of Class 1 temperature compensating capacitors are usually N P O (negative - positive 0 ppm/OC). Other Class 1 extended temperature compensating capacitors are also manufactured.

EIA CODE CHART Percent Capacity Change Over Temperature Range

Code
x7 x5

Y 5
25

Temperature Range -55C to +125"C -55OC to +85"C -30C to +85"C +lO"C to +85"C Percent Capacity Change *3.3%
*4.7%

Code
D E F P R S T U V

*7.5% *lo%
115%

*20% +22%, -33% +22%, -56% +22%, -82%

Ceramic capacitors are primarily designed for use where a small physical size with large electrical capacitance and high insulation resistance is required. Ceramic capacitors are smaller than paper or mica units of the same capacitance and voltage rating. Ceramics can be used where mica or paper capacitors have too wide of a capacitance tolerance. Temperature compensating capacitors ( N P O or COG) are recommended for use in frequency determining circuits. They can be used in any precision-type circuit where their characteristics are suitable. Typical applications include: oscillator, radio frequency (RF), and intermediate frequency (IF) circuits for impedance matching in frequency coupling, LC and RC tuned circuits and filters, communication tuners, and active filters.

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Semi-stable and general purpose ceramic capacitors are not intended for precision applications. They are suitable for bypass, blocking, filter, and noncritical coupling elements in high frequency circuits; and also where changes in capacitance, caused by temperature variations, can be tolerated. These capacitors are not recommended for use directly in frequency determining circuits. Typical applications include: resistive-capacitive coupling for audio and radio frequency; RF and intermediate frequency cathode bypass; tone compensation; automatic volume control filtering; volume control RF bypass; antenna coupling; and audio-plate RF bypass. Variable ceramic capacitors are small sized trimmer capacitors designed for use where fine tuning adjustments are periodically required during the life of the equipment. They are used for trimming and coupling in such circuits as intermediate frequency, radio frequency, oscillator, phase shifter, and discriminator stages. Across-the-line ceranuc capacitors should be safety agency (a, CSA, etc.) approved. The capacitors must comply with the appropriate standard for the application, such as acrossthe-line, antenna isolation, or line-bypass.

volumetric efficiency. The electrodes are vacuum-deposited on the dielectric film, and their thickness might be 1/100 of that of foil electrodes. The thinner electrodes save space, and the resistance of the foil electrode is higher. The metallized capacitors have a self-healing characteristic called "clearing." The metallic film imposed on the plastic is very thin and if a breakdown by either a hole or contaminant occurs, a tiny area of the thin film surrounding the breakdown point burns away. This leaves the capacitor operable, but with a slightly reduced capacitance. In the conventional plastic foil type (where the foil is thicker), sustained conduction can occur on a breakdown causing a large area of the plastic surrounding the breakdown to be carbonized resulting in a permanent short-circuit. In digital circuits, it is very possible that the f l o w of current during the clearing action would cause a spurious signal and upset the logic of the circuit, The present drive towards miniaturization, closer electrical tolerances, and higher operating temperatures is being met by the use of thin plastic film dielectrics in the construction of capacitors. The greatest advantage of plastic film dielectrics over natural dielectrics (such as paper and mica) is that the plastic film is a synthetic that can be made to meet specific requirements (such as thickness of dielectric and high-heat resistance). Many plastic film capacitors are not impregnated but are wound and encased "dry." Plastic dielectric capacitors have insulation resistance values far in excess of those for paper and since they are nonabsorbent. Their moisture characteristics are superior to those of mica. Plastic film capacitors may be used where an AC component is present and the impressed voltage is small with respect to the DC voltage rating. Film capacitors are suited for filters, multivibrator timing capacitors, Ax) converters, integrators, and other applications where capacitance stability is essential. Film capacitors have many outstanding electrical characteristics and excellent volumetric efficiencies, up to 20 times greater than mica, glass, and porcelain.
ALUMINUM ELECTROLYTIC

PLASTIC FILM

The original film capacitors did not use plastic film, but paper. As the various synthetic plastic materials particularly the thermoplastic materials were developed, their superiority over paper for most applications became apparent. Usually, only one type of plastic film is used in any given capacitor, although mixtures of two different plastics, or plastic and paper, or plastic and impregnated paper, are all possibilities.

The plastic dielectric material is sandwiched bdween two pieces of metal foil which become the electrodes. More than one piece of plastic f i l m can be used to comprise the dielectric because there are always chances of pinholes in the plastic. The odds against having two pinholes line up opposite one another are very small. To contain this structure in a practical space, the sandwich is wound into a jelly roll and then tightly anchored. Once the jelly roll is wound up, the nest step is connecting wires to the two electrodes and then encasement, Another major class of plastic film capacitors is known as "metallized film." This design offers a much higher

The aluminum electrolytic capacitor can obtain high capacitance in a small space. The capacitor is constructed of an aluminum foil ribbon, on the surface a thin film of aluminum oxide has been formed electro-chemicallv. and a

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water-based electrolyte fluid which acts as tlie opposing plate. The oxide-coated foil, a second strip of aluniinuin foil (for connection with tlie negative plate electrolyte which is usually bonded to tlie aluminum can that houses the capacitor), and a porous strip of paper interposed between them are rolled up together and suspended in the liquid electrolyte which penetrates tlie porous paper. The porous strip prevents direct short circuits between the two foil strips. The metal cases for these capacitors are provided with an insulating sleeve. It should be noted that the insulating resistance refers to the sleeve and not to tlie resistance between tlie terminal and tlie case. Multi-tabbing of tlie foil windings has the effect of connecting tlie resistance of the segments in parallel, thereby reducing the total resistance of the foil ribbon and lower the ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance). For most effective miniiiiization of ESR and ESL (Equivalent Series Inductance), the tabs must be placed in the exact mathematical center of each segment. This placement is now accomplished by computerized techniques which locate the tabs for optimum electrical performance and for mechanical ease of assembly. Another benefit of tlie multi-tabbing techniques is greater capacitance in low voltage units. Useful life expectancy is a function of the rate of electrolyte loss by means of vapor transmission through the end seal. Electrolyte loss through the end seal does occur during shelf storage and during periods of low voltage stress when in operation. While tlie energy storage capabilities of tlie aluminum electrolytic capacitors are impressive, electrolytic construction has certain inherent limitations that affect the use and perforniance of these capacitors. S,afe operating voltages are limited. The oxide dielectric has rectifier properties by blocking current flow in one direction but offering low resistance in the opposite direction; it is therefore limited to DC applications, and a voltage reversal of more that a volt or two will cause breakdown of the film and destruction of the capacitor. Nonpolarized types for AC applications are available. In their construction, both foils are coated with oxide dielectric, constituting two capacitors connected back-to-back. The power factor of electrolytics is coiisiderably higher than those of other capacitor types and the broad plate area makes for appreciable leakage. Aluminum electrolytic capacitors provide the smallest volume, mass, and cost per microfarad of any type of capacitor with the esceptioii of the tantalum electrolytic capacitor. They provide tlie equipment designer with unusually lightweight components of high capacitance in a

compact container. Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are intended for use in filter, coupling, and bypass applications where pulsating, low frequency, DC signal components are to be filtered out. Also good for applications where excesses of capacitance over the nominal value can be tolerated. Polarized capacitors should only be used in DC circuits with polarity properly observed. If AC components are present, the sum of the peak AC plus the applied DC voltage should never exceed the DC rating. The peak AC value should be maintained, even on negative peaks, to avoid overheating and damage. Capacitors which have been subjected to voltage reversal should be discarded. Nonpolarized capacitors should be used in application where reversal of potential occurs. Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are not suitable for airborne equipment applications since they should not be subjected to low barometric pressure and low temperatures at high altitudes. Even though they have vents designed to open at dangerous pressures, explosions can occur because of gas pressure of a spark ignition of free oxygen and hydrogen liberated at the electrodes. Provisions should be made to protect the surrounding parts. The performance of capacitors at subzero temperatures is primarily affected by an increase in series resistance and a capacitance decrease. These changes do not persist with the return of normal temperature conditions. AC motor-start capacitors are often nonpolar aluminum electrolytic capacitors designed for intermittent AC duty; the starting of AC motors. They are not suitable for most DC or continuous AC applications. The life expectancy of the capacitor is directly proportional to the capacitor's duty cycle. Vertical mounting of the AC motor start capacitor with the terminals up is recommended; however, horizontal mounting with the pressure relief vent up is acceptable. Vertical mounting with the terminals down or horizontal mounting with tlie relief vent down is not recommended as they may reduce capacitor life and could impair the operation of the pressure relief vent. Misapplication, such as exceeding design limits or applying continuous AC voltage, may result in destruction or explosion of capacitors.
TANTALUM

Tantalum electrolytics have become the preferred type where high reliability and long service life are paramount

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considerations. Tantalum is not found in its pure state. Tantalum is found in a number of oxide minerals. After tantalum is mined, it goes through an extraction processing which, at elevated temperatures, reduce the oxide to tantalum powder. Manufacturers use tantalum wire and foil, both of which are made from the powder. Pressed and fired slugs of the powder are used as capacitor elements. Tantalum capacitors contain either liquid or solid electrolytes. The liquid electrolyte in wet-slug and foil capacitors, generally sulfuric acid, forms the cathode (negative) plate. In solid electrolyte capacitors, a dry material, manganese dioxide, foriiis the cathode plate. There are three types of tantalum electrolytic capacitors: foil, wetslug, and solid. Tantalum foil capacitors have the lowest capacitance per unit volume of the three types. It is best suited for the higher voltages arid is more expensive thus used only where neither a wet-slug or solid tantalum capacitor can be used. Wet-slug tantalum capacitors are a tantalum pellet inserted into a tantalum or silver can which contains an electrolyte solution. Most liquid electrolytes are gelled to prevent the free movement of the solution. A suitable end seal arrangement prevents the loss of electrolyte. The solid tantalum (sometimes called a dry tantalum capacitor) uses nianganese dioxide rather than a liquid electrolyte as an electrode. Leads are attached to the taritalum pellet and then encapsulation by dipping the pellet in liquid epo'xy resin. This offers escellent reliability and high stability for coilsumer and commercial electronics applications, with the added feature of low cost. Etched-foil types have as much as 10 times the capacitance per unit area as the plain-foil types for a given size. The etched-foil type is generally the better choice between the two. Polarized foil types are used where low frequency pulsating DC coinponents are to be bypassed or filtered out. Other uses include electronic equipment where large capacitance values are required and wide capacitance tolerances can be tolerated. Nonpolarized foil capacitors have two polarized sections, with their cathodes connected back-to-back, and then inserted in an outer enclosure. They are suited for AC applications or where DC voltage reversals occur. Examples are: tuned low frequency circuits, phasing of low voltage AC motors, computer circuits where reversal of DC voltage occurs, and servo systems.

Wet-slug capacitors primary use is in low voltage power supply filtering circuits. Their leakage current is the lowest of all tantalum types. They are ideal for filter, bypass, coupling, and timing applications for power supplies, computers, telecommunications, instrumentation, and control systems. They are not suitable for applications involving any voltage reversal. Solid tantalum capacitors are the most stable and reliable electrolytics available, having a longer life characteristic than any of the other electrolytic capacitors. Because of their passive electrolyte being solid and dry, these capacitors are not temperature sensitive and have a lower capacitancetemperature characteristic than any of the other electrolytic capacitors. The limitations include: high leakage current, limited voltage range available, and an allowable reverse voltage. Solid tantalum capacitors are mainly designed for filter, bypass, energy storage, coupling, blocking, and other low voltage DC applications (such as transistor circuits in missile, aircraft electronics, and computers) where stability, size, weight, and shelf-life are important factors. Tantalum chip capacitors are for use in thick and thin film hybrid circuits and for surface mounting. The tantalum chip capacitor has no encapsulation but has terminals designed to solder directly onto ceramic substrates. The solid tantalum capacitor possess a unique "healing" mechanism which results in a failure apparently decreasing forever.

GLASS

Glass dielectric capacitors offer the highest performance and reliability features available in the capacitor industry. The glass dielectric is formed as a continuous ribbon of glass. The capacitors are composed of alternate layers of glass ribbon and the aluminum electrode material. After assembly, the units are sealed together by high temperature and pressure to form a rugged monolithic block. Since the terminal leads are fused to the glass case, the seal cannot be broken without destroying the capacitor. The block may be enclosed in glass or enamel cases to suitably protect against environmental conditions.
Glass is very stable, doesn't corrode or degrade in any way, highly resistant to high operating temperatures, voltage breakdown, and nuclear radiation. Glass capacitors are capable of withstanding environmental conditions of shock, vibration, acceleration, extreme moisture, vacuum, and have an extended life of more than 30,000 hours.

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Glass capacitors are useful where failures are not acceptable, such as satellite systems, undersea cable repeaters, and mountain-top microwave relay stations. The large RF currents that glass capacitors can handle make them ideal for use in modulators, filters, and linear amplifiers. Glass capacitors have a high Q factor and a low dissipation factor that changes little with frequency and temperature. They exhibit zero aging rate, zero piezoelectric noise, zero voltage coefficient, and low thermal and charge noise figures. Glass capacitors are effective substitutes for mica capacitors if consideration is given to the differences in temperature coefficient and dielectric loss, In general, glass capacitors are ideally suited for any eiiviroiiinent where high temperature could alter or destroy circuit performance and where cycling to colder temperatures may be a problem.
MICA

frequency filtering, bypassing, and coupling. Examples are in tuned circuits which control frequency, reactance, or phase; delay lines, and stable low power networks. Button style capacitors are intended for use at frequencies up to 500 MHz. Their principal uses are in tuned circuits, and for the coupling and bypassing applications in VHF and UHF circuits. Failure of button style capacitors is due to silver ion migration. Silver ion migration can occur in only a few hours when silvered-mica capacitors are used under simultaneously DC voltage stresses combined with exposure to continuous high temperature and humidity conditions.

SUMMARY
Reliability is a measure of the expected failure rate during the useful life of the capacitor. The cost of a capacitor with an extremely long useful life may not be justified if the end product has a short useful life. The degree of reliability, therefore, is predicated on the "planned life" of the end equipment. When more than one type of capacitor may be used in a given application, consideration should then be given to cost, availability, and allowable space.

Muscovite mica is the most coininonly used mica dielectric material. Muscovite riiica can be split into thin sheets, it is nonporous and does not readily absorb moisture. Although protection from moisture is provided to obtain capacitance stability and low losses. The two techniques to form the capacitors are by stacking the mica sheets through the silvered-mica process or by the use of tin-lead foil to separate the mica sheets. Terminals are attached to the mica stacks by the use of pressure clips which have been solder coated for maxinium mechanical strength. Button style mica capacitors arc composed of a stack of silvered-mica sheets connected in parallel. This assembly is encased in a metal case with a high potential terminal connected through the center of the stack. The other terminal is formed by this metal case connected at all points around the outer edge of the electrodes. The units are then welded and hermetically sealed with either glhss or resin. The molded case is made of a polyester material which also exhibits high insulation resistance and high resistance to moisture absorption and transmission. The button style design permits the current to fan out in a 360" pattern from the center terminal. This provides the shortest RF current path between the center terminal and chassis. The internal inductance is also kept small. The characteristics of mica dielectric are high insulation
resistance and high breakdown voltage, low power factor,

REFERENCE: 1. Cletus J. Kaiser, THE CAPACITOR HANDBOOK, Second Edition, Second Printing, CJ Publishing, 1997.

low inductance, and low dielectric absorption. Mica capacitors are designed for the circuits requiring precise

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