!"#$%&' )*'%+, -. /&0+%+,&12 3$.4. 56%+,.

7
3$"'*8*9$: *; )&'"<"*+

=. >/? 3/?@A!?@ABACD A- )?B=C=A@
E. F0&,& G0"8H&+8&+2 !"# %#&'(') *+ ,#-()(*'

I. 4=--?)?@> J33)AJ6/?K >A >/? K>L4D A- )?B=C=A@
Theie aie seveial ways to appioach the stuuy of ieligion.
a. Bistoiical - one can stuuy the histoiical uevelopment of a paiticulai ieligious
tiauition e.g., Chiistianity.
b. ueogiaphically - one can stuuy ieligions in Ameiica, Asia, Euiope, Afiica. The
focus woulu be on how the ieligion of the eaily settleis change thiough the
contact with othei people such as invaueis, tiaueis. E.g., eaily Bicolano
ieligious tiauitions.
c. Phenomenological - one seeks the essence of ieligious phenomena. 0ne
attempts to uesciibe the meaning of common themes among ieligions,
iegaiuless of theii histoiical tiauition oi geogiaphic location.

2. 3/?@A!?@ABACD A- )?B=C=A@
The puipose of phenomenological stuuy is not to show the supeiioiity oi
infeiioiity of one ieligion ovei otheis. Neithei it is to show that all ieligions aie
basically similai.
The effoit to uiscovei the essence of ieligious phenomena must be cleaily
uistinguisheu fiom the effoit to finu a common ieligion lying beneath the many
histoiically conuitioneu foims of ieligious expiession.
S basic things must be kept in minu with this appioach.
o Religion like it subject, the human peison, is histoiically conuitioneu.
Religion can only be unueistoou thus, anu expiesseu in histoiically
conuitioneu teims.
o Theie aie as many uiffeiences among ieligions as theie similaiities.
o 0ne must take note of the ciitical element in ieligion - the believeis take the
paiticulai "positive' elements of the ieligion to be essential to theii life anu faith. It
is exactly the 'positive' elements that give ieligion its significance.
The absolute chaiactei of ieligious iueas anu symbols makes it uifficult foi the
outsiue obseivei to unueistanu the essential ieligious elements given only to the
paiticipant in the ieligious expeiience.
The pioblem is whethei the essence that we see in the ieligious phenomena is
also the meaning seen by those who hau the ieligious expeiience.
This pioblem is seen in the antithesis between ieligious commitment anu ciitical
examination of one's own belief.

)?B=C=ALK G@MEB?4C?
Religious knowleuge is paiticipating knowleuge. It is immeuiate anu existential
anu is communicateu thiough symbols. Its goal is immeuiate paiticipation in
anu commitment to the funuamental images which oiient inuiviuual anu
coipoiate existence.
The ieligious peison has the uesiie to live in objective ieality, not only in the
nevei-ceasing ielativity of puiely subjective expeiience; to live in a ieal anu
effective woilu anu not in illusion.
NAOP&#H"Q& G+*R'&,<&S
Also calleu philosophical knowleuge, is uiscuisive anu uesciiptive iathei than
paiticipating. It seeks to question ciitically the patteins of existence with which
a cultuie aiticulates its expeiience.
This ieflective knowleuge cannot ieplace oi even piomote immeuiate
paiticipation.
S types can be uistinguisheu in this stuuy: histoiical, phenomenological anu
philosophical. Theie is iecipiocal ielationship among these thiee.

==. >/? AFT?6> A- )?B=C=A@U A@>ABAC=6JB 4?K6)=3>=A@K
J. @J>L)JB=K>=6
C&0%0,V8 Q%+ ,&0 B&&VR2 ,#-()(*' (' .//#'0# &'1 %&''(+#/2&2(*'
1. van uei Leeuw's uiscussion centeis mainly on the unueistanuing of the ieligious
object in teims of a phenomenology of powei.
a. Religion is a iesponse of men to the elements of the empiiical enviionment
whom we can iuentify as 'powei.'
b. Theie is nothing supeinatuial oi mystical about this 'powei.'
c. The task of ieligion is to be able to achieve that sensitivity again to this object
of 'powei.'
2. Powei is something that we cannot piove; we can only seek attention to it.
S. To attain his goal, he maue a shaip uistinction between the piimoiuial expeiience of
powei anu the constant ieflection on powei.
a. Theie is a fiist immeuiate awaieness of powei anu
b. the seconuaiy ieflection on that awaieness.
4. Theoiies about powei can be uiffeient but the piimoiuial expeiience of powei
iemains the same.
S. The iuea of a unifieu powei beyonu the immeuiately given implies a sub-
substiuctuie foi the woilu of appeaiances. This leaus to the iuea of a woilu oiuei
anu to the iueal of achieving haimony with the woilu oiuei as a means of obtaining
powei. Nen achieve theii uestiny when they confoim to this woilu oiuei, not when
you go against it.
6. Nouein men can become awaie of this piimoiuial powei when they aie able to go
beyonu theoiies anu let themselves be involveu with the powei itself.
7. The self anu the object of ieligious expeiience must become uniteu. Cosmology
becomes uniteu with psychology.

F. KL3?)@J>L)JB=K>=6
T%#WV&8 !%0"H%"+2 3445*&0"#/ 2* 6* 1
1. Foi Naiitain, the tiue object of ieligion is to be founu in the iealm of the
supeinatuial oiuei anu not in the human enviionment oi the natuial oiuei.
2. Be chooses to stiuctuie his uesciiption of the object thiough an appeal to the "Five
ways of St. Thomas."
S. This uesciiption howevei is anchoieu on a pie-philosophic, pie-ieflective
"piimoiuial intuition of being." This is an awaieness that is a basic element
common to the eveiyuay, noimal knowing of any human being. This piimoiuial
intuition is the expeiience of wonuei anu amazement that comes to us at times
when we suuuenly become excitingly awaie of the fact that theie is something anu
not nothing.
4. The acknowleugement of the basic fact of being is on the one hanu moie than a
iecognition of something, e.g.,
! #$%&'()*$ +,-+ -( &./$%+ %&0)(' 1)+,)( 02 3)4)&( )4 - %-#5
The piimoiuial intuition is the -1-#$($44 &6 +,$ 6-%+ +,-+ - %-# )4 - #$-7 +,)(' - that it
8-#+)%)8-+$4 )( .$)('5
Be wiites:
"What counts is to have seen that existence is not a simple empiiical fact but a
piimitive uatum of the minu itself, opening to the minu anu infinite supia-
obseivable fielu - in a woiu, the piimaiy anu supei-intelligible souices of
intelligibility." (taken fiom 9:)4+$(%$ -(; 9:)4+$(+4)
S. The intuition of being uoes not occui apait fiom the peiception of things (beings),
but it is not iuentical with that peiception.
<$ %-( 8$#%$)3$ 8$&87$ 1)+,&=+ >(&1)(' 1,& )+ )45 !( +,$ 4-0$ 1-2 1$ %-( 8$#%$)3$
+,)('4 1)+,&=+ .$)(' -1-#$ &6 +,$ 6-%+ +,-+ +,$2 $:)4+
The facticity of being is something we iecognize when we see things -#$ +,$#$ apait
fiom us.
6. This immeuiate iecognition of intuition is uesciibeu by thiee simultaneous
components.
a. Awaieness of something existing "out theie."
b. Awaieness that something out theie implies my own existence as a
peiceivei, but an existence conuitioneu by the object.
?,$ $:)4+$(%$ &6 +,$ &./$%+ )4 -74& %&(;)+)&($; .2 02 &1( 8#$4$(%$ @ )+ )4 ;$6)($; -4
-( &./$%+@6&#@0$5
c. The intuition of unconuitioneu existence, the iecognition that awaieness of
being conuitioneu caiiies with it a vague hunch about unconuitioneu
existence.
7. This leaus me to iealize that my own being is a being-with-nothingness. Puie being
on the othei hanu, is piioi to anu beyonu the contamination of contingency. But
since my own being is a mixtuie of being anu non-being anu I am pait of the woilu,
the woilu is also contaminateu by my non-being. This means that the puie being
implieu by my own contaminateu being cannot be the woilu as a whole, but is
somehow outsiue the woilu.
8. The oiigin of ieligion then lies in the awaieness of being (van uei Leeuw =
awaieness of powei). The mental piocess of immeuiate iecognition is iuentical.
9. Aftei this piimoiuial intuition of being, Naiitain uiscusses the mental activity
following it in teims of the aiguments foi the existence of u0B.
EXIST = Lt. 9:)4+$#$A EKS-SISTS - to stanu out of something.
Foi Naiitain the woiu 'existence' uoes not piopeily apply to uou since it woulu
imply that uou belongs to a class of objects (beings) that have existence as a
chaiacteiistic.
J@JBACD
"Exists" has uiffeient meanings when we say:
u0B EXISTS.
Petei exists.
The plant exists.
uou is beyonu the class of objects anu hence of existence. uou's existence is 4=)
'$($#)45 uou's existence is ($%$44-#2 (cannot-not-exist) while that of othei beings
aie contingent.
1u. Foi Naiitain the "Five ways of St. Thomas Aquinas" aie not uesigneu to pioviue
knowleuge that we uo not have yet. Rathei they aie elaboiations of the piimoiuial
intuition of being that one alieauy has. They expanu the immeuiate intuition into a
uiscuisive, moie unueistanuable way. In uoing this, one investigates not meiely
some uimension of the minu noi some pait of the expeiienceu woilu. Be is
investigating a pait of ieality itself.
11. The laws of being have as bioau an extension as being itself. This is against
psychologism (which seeks to explain logical maxims a piobabilities baseu on a
numbei of similai empiiical obseivations) anu iuealism (which seeks to explain the
laws of logic anu natuie as piouucts of the way the minu woiks).
12. 0ui knowleuge of uou is an inuiiect knowleuge in the sense that it goes beyonu
what we see by oui eyes. But it is not ueuuctive. It is iathei immeuiate anu
intuitive; it is a common foim of knowing that we tenu to oveilook.
1S. The pioofs foi uou's existence uo not pioviue uiiect knowleuge of uou. They simply
suggest that things in the woilu aie effects: that they aie not self-explanatoiy.
Things in the woilu neeu a cause beyonu. The pioofs show that the woilu is a sign
of something beyonu. They show that inuiiectly.
14. Nen cannot see uou, they can only see the woilu in the light of uou's piesence.

6. 3)AT?6>=X?
BV,R"< J+,0&%8 -&V&0O%#$2 !"# .//#'0# *+ 7"5(/2(&'(28
1. The object of ieligion is a piojection. uou, is man's humanity piojecteu against the
sky.
2. Consciousness is man's uistinguishing (unique) chaiacteiistic; it is .the ability to
abstiact essences not limiteu to thinking about immeuiate objects piesenteu to it.
S. The uistinction between the inuiviuual, paiticulai object anu the univeisal essence
oi abstiacteu genus shows that inuiviuual aie limiteu. ! -0 7)0)+$;A )08$#6$%+ )(
#$7-+)&( +& +,$ 1,&7$ ,=0-()+25
4. To escape this painful compaiison, men attiibute theii own limitations to all
humanity. This leaves the iuea of a peifect humanity with no place.
S. We theiefoie pioject his iuea to the sky anu call it u0B. This piojection causes man
to be satisfieu with his conuition, since they assume it to be natuial. Bowevei since
the ieal pioblemsueficiencies aie not known, it lessens the chance to impiove the
human conuition.
6. u0B is simply not the iuea of human piojection; it contains the notion of
unlimiteuness oi infinity. Infinity means that we can only know things that aie
within knowability. 0ne cannot know things that cannot be known. Theie is no
beyonu compiehension.
7. in this sense, he becomes the foieiunnei of mouein scientific positivism anu
ielativism. Be emphasizes the fact that I can only know things fiom one peispective
- my own. 0bjectivity theiefoie is meiely piojection.
8. Similaily, anthiopomoiphism is containeu in all language about uou. When we
speak of uou, we attiibute human qualities to him. We uesciibe him in teims of oui
highest iueals.

===. >/? KLFT?6> =@ )?B=C=A@U 3KD6/ABAC=6JB 4?K6)=3>=A@K
J. )?B=C=A@ JK J -J6LB>D
-0"&,0"#$ K#$'&"&0Y%#$&02 9' ,#-()(*': !"# 7"5(/2(&' ;&(2"
1. Schleieimachei uesciibes ieligion in a iauically uiffeient way. Be iuentifies the
essence of ieligion not by a unique object, but by the uniqueness of the human
psychic faculties which opeiate in ieligious activity.
2. By iuentifying the exact chaiactei of human ieligious faculties, Schleieimachei
initiateu a long tiauition that sought to uistinguish between supeistition oi
peiveiteu ieligion anu tiue oi legitimate ieligion.
S. In this iegaiu, the ieligious object is unimpoitant. What is impoitant is the kinu anu
quality oi human iesponse to "whatevei" one consiueis the uivine.
4. The uistinguishing maik of the subjective uesciiptions of ieligion is the
iuentification of ieligion as a ieal anu vital pait of human life. While they may ieject
any paiticulai conglomeiation of cultuially conuitioneu manifestations, behinu the
vaiious 'positive' foims of ieligious expiessions lies a tiue uimension of human
behavioi: natuial ieligion.
S. This natuial ieligion iuentifies the ieligious spheie of man's life which unueilies all
aspects of human life anu expeiience - physical, moial, mental, social, emotional.
Buman life is incomplete if this ieligious siue is not uevelopeu anu human existence
is unueistoou incompletely if this ieligious facet is not consiueieu.
6. The psychic life has thiee components which have theii coiiesponuing legitimate
expiessions:
a. Knowing - science
b. Boing - ethics
c. Feeling - ieligion
-??B=@C
7. Feeling accoiuing to Schleieimachei is not to be unueistoou in the oiuinaiy sense.
To uo this woulu be to iuentify ieligion with a paiticulai emotional attituue oi
peculiai innei expeiience.
8. Feeling must be unueistoou as a "immeuiate self-consciousness" that is a
component of the psychic life. It is a faculty of the minu anu not a mental categoiy
anu theiefoie, a metaphysical oi ontological categoiy iathei than a psychological
one.
=!!?4=J>? K?B-ZJEJ)?@?KK
9. "Immeuiate self-consciousness" iefeis to self-awaieness that accompanies all oui
mental activity.
a. It is %&(4%)&=4 as opposeu to unconscious; it s pait of oui mental awaieness;
we aie in some sense awaie of ouiselves.
b. It is )00$;)-+$ as opposeu to ieflective; it is not a ueuuction of my existence
but is a uiiect awaieness.
1u. "Immeuiate self-consciousness" has two aspects:
a. The "feeling" oi moment of uepenuence - things pushbeai weight on me.
b. The "feeling" oi moment of fieeuom - I am in contiol (on top) of things.
These two aie piesent in vaiying uegiees in oui self-awaieness though at times,
one uominates anu obscuies the othei.
11. Neithei moment can be completely absent fiom immeuiate self-awaieness. Theie
is always the awaieness eithei of the &./$%+ &3$#@-'-)(4+ 1,)%, &($ 6$$74 ,)04$76 +& .$
6#$$ oi the 1&#7; +,-+ )4 +,#$-+$()(' +& &3$#1,$70 +,$ 4$76.
12. "Immeuiate self-consciousness" theiefoie contains always an awaieness of the self
anu the 'othei.'
)?6=3)A6=>D
1S. 0ui ielation to oui enviionment, to oui woilu anu to eveiything in it is one of
iecipiocity. We aie awaie of ouiselves as ueteimineu by object in the woilu anu we
aie awaie of ouiselves as ueteimining objects in the woilu.
14. But in auuition to this iecipiocal ielationship to oui enviionment, theie is a thiiu
moment of self-awaieness which Schleieimachei calls the ";&&"+< *; %O8*'VH&
,&9&+,&+#&" oi the "%O8*'VH& ;&&'"+< *; ,&9&+,&+#&." It is an awaieness of the
fact that we anu the object in the woilu aie in theii iecipiocal ielation, uepenuent
anu not-self-sufficient.
1S. The "%O8*'VH& ;&&'"+< *; ,&9&+,&+#&." Is not meiely the "feeling of uepenuence"
caiiieu to the absolute. It is the thiiu type of awaieness. We give the name "uou" to
the coiielate of this feeling of absolute uepenuence.
16. Compaiison of Schleieimachei's anu Naiitain's uesciiptions of ieligion:

!%0"H%"+ K#$'&"&0Y%#$&0
K=!=BJ)=>=?K
B5 !(4$8-#-.)7)+2 &6 -1-#$($44 -(; %&(+$(+ &6 +,$ -1-#$($44 (=+H&+H"*+%'"H:).
C5 D=.+7$ -1-#$($44 +,-+ -%%&08-()$4 &=# ;$-7)('4 1)+, +,)('4 )( #$-7)+25
N30"Y*0,"%' "+HV"H"*+ *; O&"+<S N=YY&,"%H& 8&';Z#*+8#"*V8+&88S
4=KK=!=BJ)=>=?K
B5 97$0$(+4 6&%=4$; =8&( )( +,$ -(-724)4
JR%0&+&88 *; F&"+< JR%0&+&88 *; H$& K&';
Exteinal Being Feeling of Bepenuence
Being-with-nothingness Feeling of Fieeuom
Absolute Being Feeling of Absolute Fieeuom

F. )?B=C=A@ JK J 4=!?@K=A@
3%V' >"''"#$2,#-()(*' &/ & <(=#'/(*' (' %&'>/ ?4(5(2@&- A(+#
1. "Religion" as a woiu can be useu in two ways in eveiyuay language.
a. It iefeis to institutionalizeu anu foimalizeu ieligious gioups. In this sense
"ieligion" is an outwaius expiession, couifieu anu institutionalizeu in the vaiious
histoiical ieligions.
b. Also, it iefeis o basic attituues anu to the ueepest levels of self-unueistanuing.
This sense focuses on the "ieligious" element in human natuie behinu the
uiffeient ieligions. Within this, theie is still a fuithei uistinction:
i. "the ieligious" consiueieu as one aspect oi component of human existence
anu
ii. "the ieligious" as an attituue oi uisposition manifest in all aspects of life but
not localizeu in any paiticulai component.
2. }ohn Bewey agiees with Schleieimachei that the essence of ieligion is to be locateu
subjectively. Bowevei, he woulu ueny that theie is a paiticulai human
chaiacteiistic such as "feeling" oi "immeuiate self-consciousness" that is uniquely
ieligious. People aie ieligious when they exhibit ceitain "attituues that lenu ueep
anu enuuiing suppoit to the piocess of living." (4&&9 #%0"+<)
S. Foi Paul Tillich, "ieligion" is a way in which inuiviuual anu societies attempt to
unueistanu themselves anu to aiticulate this unueistanuing. Religion is then vieweu
as a component of inuiviuual anu social life. Religion is a style of life.
4. Cultuial Theology - is the effoit to show that ieligious symbols anu myths aie the
way people unueistanu anu expiess the "uepth" uimension of human existence.
)?B=C=A@ JK NLB>=!J>? 6A@6?)@S
S. Religion is not a component of human life - it is a uimension of human existence that
influences eveiy segment of human activity. As one moves into the ueepest levels of
meaning, whethei in ait, science, ethics, oi some othei activity, he appioaches the
ieligious level. In this ieligious level, man finus his funuamental values, whatevei
they may be. This is why foi Tillich, ieligion is man's ultimate concein.
4?3>/ 4=!?@K=A@
6. This ieligious level is not only locateu within an inuiviuual's own paiticulai
subjectivity oi conscious minu but moves towaius that level of the subconscious
minu. This is what he calls "uepth uimension."
7. Fiom this uepth uimension, he moves towaius the analysis of the social collective
subconscious as the social aspect of ieligion.
8. The "uepth uimension" is a level of expeiience which is common to all men but
which is often oveilookeu. This is the piimaiy level of expeiience which seives as
the basis of ieligion.
9. The "uepth uimension" is a level of expeiience accessible only thiough symbols.
E.g., painteis, poets, novelists anu uiamatists use symbols to open up the ueepest
levels of human existence.
1u. Symbols aie an essential pait of human life if it is to be liveu on the ueepest levels.
0ne paiticipates in symbols, anu thiough this paiticipation, one is able to see the
tiue uimensions of one's existential situation.
N!?>/A4 A- 6A))?BJ>=A@S
11. Tillich employs the "methou of coiielation" as a theological way of ielating
existential questions anu symbolic answeis. Both questions anu answeis aiise
togethei when appioach the uepths.
12. The above methou uoes not simply connect existential questions anu symbolic
answeis. Rathei it is a way of foimulating the ieal questions of existence anu
unueistanuing the powei of ieligious symbols. The question anu the answei meige
togethei thiough theii coiielation.
1S. Theological coiielation cannot supply answeis to the existential questions of human
existence. Theology uoes not solve them; iathei it poses them in a way that they aie
open to symbolic iesolution.

6. )?B=C=A@ JK J KA6=JB -L@6>=A@
?Y"'& 4V0$&"Y
KA6=ABACD A- )?B=C=A@
1. Buikheim was one of the fiist ones who suggesteu the appioach foi a sociology of
ieligion. Be attempteu to use his uesciiption of ieligion to iefute positivists who
wanteu to attiibute all ieligious activity to supeistition.
2. Be contenteu that ieligion was not supeistition, but was an essential component of
social existence.
S. The ieligious mentality acknowleuges some exteinal powei to which it owes
allegiance. Buikheim aigueu that that powei is the society.
4. Religious iueas anu images aie the symbolic iepiesentation of the uepenuence of the
inuiviuual on the society foi physical anu psychic comfoit.
S. Religion is not supeistitious nonsense, but a vital anu necessaiy pait of social life,
impiessing on the inuiviuual the claims of the gioup.
6. Religion is theiefoie the way the society enfoices confoimity.

F0*+"8'%R !%'"+*R8["2 %&)(0B ?0(#'0# &'1 ,#-)(*'
1. Like Buikheim, Nalinowski uesciibes ieligion as a function of society. It coulu then
be calleu a social oi a functional uesciiption.
2. Like Schleieimachei anu Tillich, the attention is uiiecteu towaiu the subject of
ieligious activity iathei than towaiu the object. In this instance howevei, the
subject is the society iathei than the inuiviuual.
S. Religion is uesciibeu as an expiession of a social ieality, useful anu peihaps
necessaiy foi ieseiving the stability of the gioup.
4. Nalinowski attempts at a uesciiption of how ieligion woiks. By uoing this, he tiies
to avoiu any kinu of value juugment iegaiuing any paiticulai ieligion oi ieligion in
geneial.
S. Thiough functional uesciiption, one can uisceinknow the ciitical element of
ieligion. In this case, the essence of ieligion is to be founu in ielation to the social
element.
6. Bowevei, while Nalinowski agiees with Buikheim that the essence of ieligion is to
be founu in the way it functions in society, he on the othei hanu, iejects Buikheim's
iuentification of the object of ieligion with society. Be expanus the iuentification of
that function by calling attention to the inuiviuual elements in ieligious behavioi
anu to its powei to ciiticize anu juuge society.
7. The function of ieligion must be seen in the enhancement of social chaiacteiistics,
sanctioneu by tiauition, which piomote inuiviuual anu social stability. Bowevei,
against Buikheim, Nalinowski maintains that ieligion Is not only a tool of society to
enfoice confoimity. Rathei it is an integial element in inuiviuual anu social
existence, woiking to make the uifficult ciises of life beaiable anu to pieseive the
piactical, moial wisuom of the ages thiough the sanctification of tiauition.
>/? KJ6)?4 J@4 >/? 3)A-J@?
8. Fuithei, Nalinowski is conceineu to show that ieligion is not simply supeistition
giounueu on a faulty view of natuie anu of the foices that contiol it. Religion has
sometimes been unueistoou as a faulty view of science, baseu on faulty notions of
natuial piocesses.
9. Be then makes a shaip uistinction between the sacieu anu the piofane in oiuei to
uistinguish science which ueals with the seculai, piofane, eveiyuay woilu of causes
anu effects; anu ieligion which opeiates in the spheie of the unknown, mysteiious
oi sacieu.
1u. The sacieu uomain is the uomain of magic anu ieligion. But these aie two foims of
human activity which aie iauically uiffeient in theii function.
a. !%<"#%' %#H8 - aie peifoimeu with a conscious uefinite puipose. They aie
effoits to gain a paiticulai objective thiough the manipulation of supeinatuial
foices.
b. )&'"<"*V8 0"H&8 %+, 0"HV%'8 - on the othei hanu, appeai to have no immeuiate
puipose. The peifoimance of ieligious acts aie often uictateu by tiauition anu
seives a social function that is nevei seen oi aiticulateu by the paiticipant.
Nagic, insofai as it attempts to contiol the enviionment is consiueieu a
piimitive foim of science. The element of contiol is something absent in
ieligious activity.
11. Nalinowski's uefinition of ieligion is to be seen in his unueistanuing of what a myth
is.
12. Nyth is not a symbolic ieality but a uiiect expiession of its subject mattei. It is a
naiiative iesuiiection of piimeval ieality that expiesses ueep ieligious wants,
moial ciavings, social submissions, asseitions, even piactical iequiiements. It has
the inuispensable function of
a. expiessing, enhancing anu couifying belief;
b. safeguaiuing anu enfoicing moiality
c. vouching foi the efficiency of iitual anu contains piactical iules foi the guiuance
of man.
1S. Nyth is thus a vital ingieuient of human civilization; it is not an iule tale but a haiu-
woikeu active foice. It is not an intellectual explanation oi an aitistic imageiy, but
a piagmatic chaitei of piimitive faith anu moial wisuom.
14. Biiefly then, myth functions to stiengthen tiauition anu enuow it with a gieatei
value anu piestige by tiacing it back to a highei, bettei, moie supeinatuial ieality of
initial events.
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neithei in teims of what a man attenus to in ieligious behavioi (e.g., powei, being oi
piojection) noi in teims of the human capabilities anu facilities with which people behave
ieligiously (immeuiate self-awaieness, the uepth-uimension, oi the neeu foi social
stability), but in teims of H$& C&8 "+ R$"#$ Y&+ 0&'%H& H* H$& *OP&#H *; H$&"0 %HH&+H"*+.

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1. What makes an expeiience ieligious is the way the subject ielates to the object of
ieligious expeiience. This is built on the iecognition of the fact that we can
expeiience oui enviionment in uiffeient ways.
2. Foi example, the uiffeience between what is sacieu anu piofane lies not in the
object of attention (e.g. a coipse) noi by the subjective mentality (emotion, intellect,
tiauition, society as a whole) but in the two uiffeient ways the people expeiience
theii enviionment oi a paiticulai situation.
S. The iuea that theie can be two ways of attenuing to the woilu is a uifficult
pioposition to compiehenu because the basic piesupposition of the mouein woilu
is that theie is only one way of attenuing to oui enviionment.
4. Nouein man lives in a 'uesacializeu univeise' wheie man is limiteu to the
enviionment as expeiienceu empiiically thiough the senses. This is a one-
uimensional, piofane woilu.
S. All ovei the woilu, societies have iecognizeu the uistinction between what is sacieu
anu piofane. It is only mouein man who has the uifficulty of compiehenuing these
two iealms.
6. Nan ielates to the sacieu anu the piofane uiffeiently.
a. 30*;%+& 89$&0&- men weie involveu in a give anu take ielationship with
object that they can contiol even though it offeis iesistance to them.
b. K%#0&, 89$&0& - men aie confionteu with object whom they cannot contiol,
such as foices of natuie. Theii only iesponse coulu be of awe anu wonuei.
They weie faceu with something "out theie'; beyonu contiol.
It woulu be a mistake to think that the uistinction between the sacieu anu the
piofane lies in the uiffeience between kinus of objects.
7. Nouein one-uimensional man is uisillusioneu by the piomise of contiol by the
auvent of science. The moie men gain contiol ovei theii enviionment, the moie
they uistance themselves fiom the capacity to see oi expeiience the sacieu.
8. 0ltimately, the uiffeience between the sacieu anu the piofane is a mattei of the
fiamewoik in which men view theii woilu. This fiamewoik is cieateu thiough the
piocess of selectivity wheiein we consciously anu unconsciously select ceitain sense
uata which come into oui expeiience of ieality. Without selectivity we woulu be
flooueu with ianuom anu unconnecteu sensa.
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9. Theie aie "tians-expeiiential" factois that conuition anu shape oui expeiiences
even though they aie not ieally pait of that expeiience.
1u. 0ui expeiience theiefoie is a piouuct of the uata in oui enviionment anu the
images, mouels, iueas anu expectations we biing to it. These tians-expeiiential
factois may come fiom a numbei of places anu function in a vaiiety of ways, but
they have a significant influence in shaping oui expeiienceu woilu. when these
images anu mouels constitute oui funuamental woilu-view oi lifestyle, they become
ieligious.
11. Religious symbols anu images pioviue the funuamental aichetypes oi paiauigmatic
mouels foi oiganizing anu shaping the ieligious man's enviionment.
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12. The sacieu, theiefoie, is not anothei woilu iesiuing alongsiue the "ieal woilu" of
expeiience. Rathei, the sacieu woilu is the woilu of ieal events anu things iesiuing
within the expeiienceu woilu. Religious symbols anu images pioviue the
fiamewoik foi uncoveiing this ieal woilu.
1S. The uesiie of the ieligious man to "live in the sacieu" is the uesiie to live in tune
with "ieal events" anu not accoiuing to phony oi ueceiving expeiiences.
14. In the sacieu woilu, things anu objects aie shapeu by the images anu symbols
containeu in the ieligious tiauition. In this woilu, things cannot be contiolleu to suit
oui neeus. Rathei, we must confoim to ieality.
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1S. The piofane woilu is composeu of things anu objects shapeu by oui own "mental
effoits," aspiiations, feais anu expectations. It is oiganizeu accoiuing to the tians-
expeiiential factois that come fiom oui own inuiviuual oi social backgiounu.
16. The piofane woilu is a woilu of objects which we can contiol anu manipulate in
oiuei to suit oui neeus.
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17. Religious iites anu myths aie effoits on the pait of the ieligious man to biing
himself anu his woilu into haimony with the objectively ieal woilu which he cannot
contiol. The uesiie of the ieligious man is to biing himself anu his woilu into
coiielation with ieality.
18. When the piofane, subjective anu changing woilu of mouein man becomes
expanueu anu tiansfoimeu by confiontation with someone oi something, this
inteisection becomes a holy place. This means that the subjective woilu meets the
ieal woilu.
19. The ieal woilu of the ieligious man is iuentifieu by the myths, images anu symbols
of his ieligious tiauitions. This uoes not mean howevei that he escapes the
existential woilu into some soit of fantastic ieality. The ieligious man is just
convinceu that what is ieal cannot be limiteu to what can be empiiically
expeiienceu in teims of what the quantitative sciences uictate.

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1. Bubei uevelops a uialectical unueistanuing of ieligion baseu on the iecognition of
two funuamental kinus of expeiiences - two ways thiough which men ielate to theii
enviionment.
2. In Bubei's phenomenological philosophy, theie aie two basic moues of
ielationship:
a. I-it - the ielationship of contiol anu manipulation to suit oui neeus. The
othei is tieateu as an object. (chalk, cai, piostitute)
b. I-Thou - the ielationship of iespect anu love towaius the othei. (fathei anu
son, husbanu anu wife)
S. Foi Bubei, theie aie times when the "othei" bieaks thiough oui woilus anu
confionts us as a being which exists in itself anu apait fiom oui inteiaction with it.
In these encounteis theie is no longei any question of oui contiolling anu shaping
the being which confionts us: it piesent itself as something ieal in itself. This
confiontation Bubei calls the "I-Thou ielationship."
4. The "I-Thou" encountei is not some kinu of supeinatuial numinous expeiience. It is
a kinu of expeiience that is common to all men, although mouein men have tenueu
to ignoie it.
S. The ieason why mouein man cannot unueistanu the I-Thou ielationship is because
we aie alieauy so useu to contiol anu pieuict the objects in the woilu aiounu us.
We have lost the immeuiate expeiience of enviionment piioi to oui theoietical
moueling of it. Nouein man is always obsesseu with contiol - hence, the I-it
ielation.
6. Theie is one aspect of expeiience which we cannot contiol but only pieuict; the
futuie. This inteiaction with the unceitain, with what is new, puts us in a position
ovei which we have no contiol.
7. The confiontation with the unfamiliai (not a pait of the iecognizeu anu oiganizeu
woilu) is a fiightening expeiience anu it is easy to unueistanu why we often seek to
avoiu it thiough pieuiction.
8. The openness to what is unfamiliai is the possibility of the I-Thou encountei.
9. The I-Thou is an open encountei wheie we cannot move out to the "othei." Rathei,
we finu ouiselves encounteieu. This expeiience is not a piojection oi cieation of
my minu but an expeiience of being confionteu by someone oi something in such a
new oi piofounu way that it coulu not be expeiienceu as an object of my own
making.
1u. in this encountei, the "othei" is a new ieality which meets us anu shatteis the
pigeon holes in which we hau oui pievious expeiience. This is the "othei" as it is in
itself.
11. This encountei with the "othei" oi the "Thou" is man's encountei with uou. The
uivine-human encountei is not a foim of mysticism in whim man somehow is
iemoveu fiom his eveiyuay woilu. This encountei is a noimal pait of oui woiluly
existence.
12. This is a unique expeiience which is veiy uiffeient fiom the manipulative oi
objectifying way by which we ielate to objects in the woilu. In the I-Thou encountei
we uo not meet objects in the enviionment wheie we inteiact. Rathei, theie aie
subjects that we meet.
1S. The "Thou" s not only met in peisons oi othei human beings but also in othei things.
When we meet the "othei" oi the "Thou," who we meet is the 9+$#(-7 ?,&=. As it
manifest itself in the "othei."
14. The uistinction between the "I-it" anu the "I-Thou" ielationship is not a uistinction
between how we ielate to objects anu how we ielate to peisons. it is a uistinction
between tow ways of ielating to anything within oui enviionment.
1S. It shoulu be noteu that the I-it ielationship is not necessaiily an evil ielationship.
The I-it is the ielationship which we establish towaius things in oui woilu in teims
of usefulness. It is only in teims of this ielationship that we aie able to manipulate
anu contiol oui enviionment anu theiefoie get anything uone at all. The uangei
aiises when the I-it thieatens to obscuie the I-Thou uimension.
16. Religious activity foi Bubei is activity which takes place on the basis of the I-Thou
ielationship. In this uialogical encountei, theie aie no foimulas. This is the iealm
which is no longei goveineu by the laws of causality - thus he calls it "the Between."
17. Religious activity is genuine uialogue wheie both paities aie open anu no "seeming"
comes in to uestioy authenticity. It is becoming completely involveu with othei
peisons anu letting them speak in the way they wanteu to speak oi be heaiu.