Chapter 11 Collision Theory

Introduction 11.1 Center of Mass Reference Frame

Consider two particles of masses m1 and m2 interacting via some force.

Figure 11.1 Center of Mass of a system of two interacting particles Choose a coordinate system (Figure 11.2) in which the position vector of body 1 is given by r1 and the position vector of body 2 is given by r2 . The relative position of body 1 with respect to body 2 is given by r1,2 = r1 r2 .

Figure 11.2 Center of mass coordinate system.

During the course of the interaction, body 1 is displaced by dr1 and body 2 is displaced by dr2 , so the relative displacement of the two bodies during the interaction is given by dr1,2 = dr1 dr2 . The relative velocity between the particles is
v1,2 = dr1,2 dr1 dr2 = = v1 v 2 . dt dt dt

(11.1.1)

We shall now show that the relative velocity between the two particles is independent of the choice of reference frame. Let R be the vector from the origin of frame S to the origin of reference frame S . Denote the position vector of particle i with respect to origin of reference frame S by ri and similarly, denote the position vector of particle i with respect to origin of reference frame S by ri (Figure 11.4).

Figure 11.4 Position vector of i th particle in two reference frames.

The position vectors are related by
ri = ri + R .

(11.1.2)

The relative velocity (call this the boost velocity) between the two reference frames is given by

V = dR . dt

(11.1.3)

Assume the boost velocity between the two reference frames is constant. Then, the relative acceleration between the two reference frames is zero,

A = dV = 0 . dt

(11.1.4)

Suppose the i th particle in Figure 11.4 is moving; then observers in the different reference frames will measure different velocities. Denote the velocity of i th particle in frame S by v i = dri dt , and the velocity of the same particle in frame S by v i = dri dt . Since the derivative of the position is velocity, the velocities of the particles in two different reference frames are related according to
v i = v i +V.

(11.1.5)

In frame S , the relative velocity is

v1,2 = v1 v 2

(11.1.6)

in reference frame S can be determined from using Equation The relative velocity v12 (11.1.5) to express Equation (11.1.6) in terms of the primed quantities, + V v2 + V = v1 v2 = v1,2 v1,2 = v1 v 2 = v1

) (

(11.1.7)

and is equal to the relative velocity in frame S . For a two-particle interaction, the relative velocity between the two vectors is independent of the choice of reference frame. In Appendix 8.B, we showed that when two particles of masses m1 and m2 interact, the change of kinetic energy between the final state B and the initial state A due to the interaction force only is equal to

K =

1 2 2 ( vB vA ) 2

(11.1.8)

where = m1m2 / ( m1 + m2 ) is the reduced mass of the two-particle system. (If Equation (11.1.4) did not hold, Equation (11.1.8) would not be valid in all frames.) In Equation (11.1.8), the square of the final relative velocity ( v1 ) B ( v 2 ) B is given by

( v ) = (( v ) ( v ) ) (( v ) ( v ) )
2 1, 2 B 1 B 2 B 1 B 2 B

(11.1.9)

and the square of the initial relative velocity ( v1 ) A ( v 2 ) A is given by

( v ) = (( v ) ( v ) ) (( v ) ( v ) ) .
2 1, 2 A 1 A 2 A 1 A 2 A

(11.1.10)

By expressing the change of kinetic energy in terms of the relative velocity, a quantity that is independent of the reference frame, the change in kinetic energy is therefore independent of the choice of reference frame.
Characterizing Collisions

In a collision, the ratio of the magnitudes of the initial and final relative velocities is called the coefficient of restitution and denoted by the symbol e ,
e= vB . vA

(11.1.11)

If the magnitude of the relative velocity does not change during a collision, e = 1 , then the change in kinetic energy is zero, (Equation (11.1.8)). Collisions in which there is no change in kinetic energy are called elastic collisions,
K = 0, elastic collision . (11.1.12)

If the magnitude of the final relative velocity is less than the magnitude of the initial relative velocity, e < 1, then the change in kinetic energy is negative. Collisions in which the kinetic energy decreases are called inelastic collisions, K < 0, inelastic collision . (11.1.13)

If the two objects stick together after the collision, then the relative final velocity is zero, e = 0 . Such collisions are called totally inelastic. The change in kinetic energy can be found from Equation (11.1.8),
1 2 1 m1m2 2 K = v A = v A , totally inelastic collision . 2 2 m1 + m2 (11.1.14)

If the magnitude of the final relative velocity is greater than the magnitude of the initial relative velocity, e > 1 , then the change in kinetic energy is positive. Collisions in which the kinetic energy increases are called superelastic collisions,

K > 0, superelastic collision .

(11.1.15)

11.2 Worked Examples

11.2.1 Example: Elastic One-Dimensional Collision
Consider the elastic collision of two carts along a track; the incident cart 1 has mass m1

and moves with initial speed v1,0 . The target cart has mass m2 = 2 m1 and is initially at

rest, v2,0 = 0 . Immediately after the collision, the incident cart has final speed v1, f and the target cart has final speed v2, f . Calculate the final velocities of the carts as a function of the initial speed v1,0 .
Solution

Draw a momentum flow diagram for the objects before (initial state) and after (final state) the collision (Figure 11.5, with a greatly simplified rendering of a cart).

Figure 11.5 Momentum flow diagram for elastic one-dimensional collision

There are no external forces acting on the system, so the component of the momentum along the direction of the collision is the same before and after the collision,
m1 v1, 0 = m1 v1, f + 2 m1 v2, f .

(11.2.1)

Note that in the above figure and Equation (11.2.1), the incident cart is taken to be moving backwards if v1, f > 0 . Equation (11.2.1) simplifies to
v1, 0 = v1, f + 2 v2, f .

(11.2.2)

The collision is elastic; the kinetic energy is the same before and after the collision, 1 1 1 2 2 2 m1 v1, = m1 v1, + 2 m1 v2, , 0 f f 2 2 2 which simplifies to
2 2 2 v1, = v1, + 2 v2, . 0 f f

(11.2.3)

(11.2.4)

There are many ways to manipulate Equations (11.2.2) and (11.2.4) to solve for the final velocities in terms of v1,0 . One straightforward way is to solve Equation (11.2.2) for the final speed of cart 1, v1, f = 2 v2, f v1, 0 and substitute Equation (11.2.5) into Equation (11.2.4) yielding
2 2 2 2 2 v1,0 = ( 2 v2, f v1,0 ) + 2 v2, f = 4v2, f + v1,0 4 v2, f v1,0 + 2v2, f . 2

(11.2.5)

(11.2.6)

Equation (11.2.6) simplifies to

2 0 = 6v2, 4 v2, f v1, 0 . f

(11.2.7)

We can now solve for v2, f . There are two solutions to this quadratic equation. One solution is v2, f = The final velocity of the incident cart is then v1, f = 2 v2, f v1, 0 = 4 1 v1, 0 v1, 0 = v1, 0 . 3 3 (11.2.9) 2 v . 3 1, 0 (11.2.8)

The other solution is v2, f = 0 , in which the final state of the target is the same as the initial state; in addition, Equation (11.2.5) would give v1, f = v1,0 , corresponding to the incident cart moving at its initial velocity. That is, the carts did not collide. This situation is not physical for carts on a track of finite length, but could certainly happen in other circumstances, as beginning pool players know well. Or, if in the top figure in Figure 11.5 the initially moving cart were placed to the right of the stationary cart, Equations (11.2.1) and (11.2.3) would still be valid for no collision. A technique that physicists know well is to rewrite Equations (11.2.2) and (11.2.4) as

v1,0 + v1, f = 2 v2 , f
2 v12,0 v12, f = 2v2 . ,f

(11.2.10)

If v1,0 + v1, f 0 ( v1,0 + v1, f = 0 is the second case of a miss, discussed above), the second equation in (11.2.10) can be divided by the first to yield v1,0 v1, f = v2 , f . (11.2.11)

Adding Equation (11.2.11) to the first expression in (11.2.10) yields Equation (11.2.8). The more general case of a one-dimensional collision is discussed in Appendix 11.A.
11.2.2 Example: Elastic Two-Dimensional Collision

Object 1 with mass m1 is initially moving with a speed v1,0 = 3.0 m s 1 and collides elastically with object 2 that has the same mass, m2 = m1 , and is initially at rest. After the collision, object 1 moves with an unknown speed v1, f at an angle 1, f = 30o with respect

to its initial direction of motion and object 2 moves with an unknown speed v2, f , at an unknown angle 2, f (as shown in the Figure 11.6). Find the final speeds of each of the objects and the angle 2, f .

Figure 11.6 Momentum flow diagram for two-dimensional elastic collision Solution:

Choose a set of positive unit vectors for the initial and final states as shown in Figure 11.7. We designate the respective speeds of each of the particles on the momentum flow diagrams.

Figure 11.7 Choice of unit vectors for momentum flow diagram

total = m1v1,0 + m2 v 2,0 in the initial Initial State: The components of the total momentum p 0

state are given by

total px = m1v1, 0 ,0 total py = 0. ,0

(11.2.12)

= m1v1, f + m2 v 2, f in the final state Final State: The components of the momentum p total f

are given by

total px , f = m1 v1, f cos 1, f + m1 v2, f cos 2, f total py , f = m1 v1, f sin 1, f m1 v2, f sin 2, f .

(11.2.13)

There are no any external forces acting on the system, so each component of the total momentum remains constant during the collision,
total total = px px ,0 ,f

(11.2.14) (11.2.15)

total total = py py . ,0 ,f

These two equations become

m1 v1,0 = m1 v1, f cos1, f + m1 v2, f cos 2, f 0 = m1 v1, f sin 1, f m1 v2, f sin 2, f .

(11.2.16)

The collision is elastic; the kinetic energy is the same before and after the collision, K 0 total = K f total , or 1 1 1 2 2 2 m1v1, = m1v1, + m1v2, . 0 f f 2 2 2 (11.2.18) (11.2.17)

We have three equations, two momentum equations and one energy equation, with three unknown quantities, v1, f , v2, f and 2, f since we are already given that v1, 0 = 3.0 m s 1 and 1, f = 30o . We first rewrite the expressions in Equation (11.2.16), canceling the factors of m1 , as
v2, f cos 2, f = v1,0 v1, f cos 1, f v2, f sin 2, f = v1, f sin 1, f .

(11.2.19)

Add the squares of the expressions in Equation (11.2.19), yielding

2 2 2 2 2 2 v2, f cos 2, f + v2, f sin 2, f = ( v1,0 v1, f cos 1, f ) + v1, f sin 1, f . 2

(11.2.20)

We can use the identities cos 2 2, f + sin 2 2, f = 1 and cos 2 1, f + sin 2 1, f = 1 to simplify Equation (11.2.20), yielding

2 2 2 v2, f = v1,0 2v1,0 v1, f cos 1, f + v1, f .

(11.2.21)

Substituting Equation (11.2.21) into Equation (11.2.18) yields

1 1 1 2 2 2 2 m1v1,0 = m1v1, m1 ( v1,0 2v1,0 v1, f cos 1, f + v1, f + f ). 2 2 2 Equation (11.2.22) simplifies to
2 0 = 2v1, f 2v1,0 v1, f cos 1, f ,

(11.2.22)

(11.2.23)

which may be solved for the final speed of object 1, v1, f = v1,0 cos1, f = ( 3.0 m s 1 ) cos30 = 2.6 m s 1 . Divide the expressions in Equation (11.2.19), yielding
v2, f sin 2, f v2, f cos 2, f = v1, f sin 1, f v1,0 v1, f cos 1, f

(11.2.24)

(11.2.25)

Equation (11.2.25) simplifies to

tan 2, f =

v1, f sin 1, f v1,0 v1, f cos1, f

(11.2.26)

Thus object 2 moves at an angle

2, f = tan 1 2, f

v1, f sin 1, f v1,0 v1, f cos 1, f 2.6 m s 1 ) sin 30 ( 1 = tan 3.0 m s 1 ( 2.6 m s 1 ) cos30 = 60 .

(11.2.27)

The above results for v1, f and 2 , f may be substituted into either of the expressions in Equation (11.2.19), or Equation (11.2.18), to find v2 , f = 1.5m s 1 . Before going on, it must be noted that the fact that 1, f + 2, f = 90 , that is, the objects move away from the collision point at right angles, is not a coincidence. A vector

derivation is presented below. We can see this result algebraically from the above result. Using the result of Equation (11.2.24), v1, f = v1,0 cos1, f , in Equation (11.2.26) yields
tan 2, f = cos1, f sin 1, f
2 1 cos1, f

= cot 1, f ;

(11.2.28)

the angles 1, f and 2, f are complements. It should be noted that Equation (11.2.23) also has the solution v2, f = 0 , which would correspond to the incident particle missing the target completely. We can prove that the particles emerge from the collision at right angles by making explicit use of the fact that momentum is a vector quantity. Since there are no external forces acting on the two objects during the collision (the collision forces are all internal), momentum is constant. Therefore
total p0 = p total f

(11.2.29)

which becomes m1v1, 0 = m1v1, f + m1v 2, f Equation (11.2.30) simplifies to

v1, 0 = v1, f + v 2, f .

(11.2.30)

(11.2.31)

Recall the vector identity that the square of the speed is given by the dot product
v v = v2 .

(11.2.32)

With this identity in mind, we take the dot product of each side of Equation (11.2.31) with itself,
v1, 0 v1, 0 = ( v1, f + v 2, f ) ( v1, f + v 2, f )

= v1, f v1, f + 2 v1, f v 2, f + v 2, f v 2, f . This becomes

2 2 2 v1, 0 = v1, f + 2 v1, f v 2, f + v2, f .

(11.2.33)

(11.2.34)

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Recall that kinetic energy is the same before and after an elastic collision, and the masses of the two objects are equal, so Equation (11.2.18) simplifies to
2 2 2 v1, 0 = v1, f + v2, f .

(11.2.35)

Comparing Equation (11.2.34) with Equation (11.2.35), we see that

v1, f v 2, f = 0 .

(11.2.36)

The dot product of two nonzero vectors is zero when the two vectors are at right angles to each other. Since 1, f = 30o , the final angle of object 2 must be

2, f = 60 .

(11.2.37)

A geometric demonstration for obtaining the result of Equation (11.2.37) is given in Appendix 11.B to this chapter. Note that Equation (11.2.36) allows the algebraic solutions v1, f = 0 and v2, f = 0 . Had we not been given a nonzero value for v1, f , the v1, f = 0 solution would represent a collision in which all of the momentum and energy of object 1 is transferred to object 2. In this case, the given angle of 1, f = 30 is not well defined, but is immaterial for a stationary particle. Had we not been given a nonzero value for 1, f , the v2, f = 0 solution would indicate a complete miss.
11.2.3 Example: Bouncing Superballs

Two superballs are dropped from a height above the ground, one on top of the other. The ball on top has a mass m1 , and the ball on the bottom has a mass m2 . Assume that the when the lower ball collides with the ground there is no loss of kinetic energy. Then, as the lower ball starts to move upward, it collides with the upper ball that is still moving downwards. Assume again that the total energy of the two balls remains the same after the collision. How high will the upper ball rebound in the air? Assume m2 >> m1 . Hint: Consider this set of collisions from an inertial reference frame that moves upward with the same speed as the lower ball has after it collides with ground. What speed does the upper ball have in this reference frame after it collides with the lower ball?

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Figure 11.8 Five stages of motion (not necessarily to scale) as seen by observer at rest on ground. Solution:

The system consists of the two superballs. There are five special states for this motion (Figure 11.8). Initial State (time t0 ): the superballs are released from rest at a height h0 above the ground. State 1 (time t1 ): the superballs just reach the ground with the same speed v1,0 = v2,0 . State 2 (time t2 ): immediately before the collision of the large and small superballs but after the larger superball has collided with the ground and reversed direction with the same speed, v2, 0 = v1, 0 . The smaller superball is still moving down with speed v1, 0 . State 3 (time t3 ): immediately after the collision of the superballs. The smaller superball moves upward with speed v1, f . The larger superball moves upward with speed v2, f . Final State (time t f ): the smaller superball reaches maximum height h f above the ground.
Choice of Reference Frame:

This collision is best analyzed from the reference frame of the observer moving upward with speed v2, 0 = v1, 0 , the velocity of the larger superball just after it rebounded with the ground. In this frame immediately before the collision, the smaller superball is moving

12

downward with a speed v1, 0 that is twice the speed as seen by an observer at rest on the ground (lab reference frame), v1, 0 = 2 v1, 0 . (11.2.38)

The momentum flow diagrams between States 2 and 3 for the two different reference frames are shown in Figure 11.9.

Figure 11.9 Momentum flow diagrams for States 2 and 3 as determined by an observer at rest on ground (left figure) and an observer moving upwards with speed of large superball v2, 0 (right figure). Model: The mass of the larger superball is much larger than the mass of the smaller superball, m2 >> m1 . This enables us to consider the collision (between States 2 and 3) to be equivalent to the small superball bouncing off a hard wall, while the larger ball experiences virtually no recoil. Hence the large superball remains at rest in the reference frame moving upwards with speed v2, 0 with respect to observers at rest on ground.

Before the collision, the smaller superball has speed v1, 0 = 2 v1, 0 . Since there is no loss of kinetic energy during the collision, the result of the collision is that the smaller superball changes direction but maintains the same speed v1, f = v1, 0 = 2 v1, 0 (11.2.39)

However, according to an observer at rest on the ground, after the collision the smaller superball is moving upwards with speed v1, f = 2 v1,0 + v1, 0 = 3 v1, 0 . (11.2.40)

After the collision, the mechanical energy of the smaller superball is constant and hence between State 3 and the Final State,

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K + U = 0 . The change in kinetic energy is

2 1 K = m1 ( 3 v1,0 ) . 2

(11.2.41)

(11.2.42)

The change in potential energy is

U = m1 g h f .

(11.2.43)

Equation (11.2.41), the condition that mechanical energy is constant, becomes

2 1 m1 ( 3 v1,0 ) + m1 g h f = 0 2 2 1 m1 g h f = 9 m1 ( v1,0 ) . 2

(11.2.44)

Recall that we can also use the fact that the mechanical energy doesnt change between the Initial State and State 1, yielding an equation similar to Equation, (11.2.44),
2 1 m1 ( v1,0 ) m1 g h0 = 0 2 2 1 m1 ( v1,0 ) = m1 g h0 . 2

(11.2.45)

Comparing the second expressions in (11.2.44) and (11.2.45), the smaller superball is seen to reach a maximum height h f = 9 h0 . (11.2.46)

11.2.4 Example Pendulums and Collisions

A simple pendulum consists of a bob of mass m1 that is suspended from a pivot by a string of negligible mass. The bob is pulled out and released from a height h0 as measured from the bobs lowest point directly under the pivot point and then swings downward in a circular orbit (Figure 11.10a). At the bottom of the swing, the bob collides with a block of mass m2 that is initially at rest on a frictionless table. Assume that there is no friction at the pivot point. a) What is the speed of the bob immediately before the collision at the bottom of the swing?

14

b) Assume that the kinetic energy of the bob before the collision is equal to the kinetic energy of the bob and the block after the collision (the collision is elastic). Also assume that the bob and the block move in opposite directions but with the same speed after the collision (Figure 11.10b). What is the mass m2 of the block? c) Suppose the bob and block stick together after the collision due to some putty that is placed on the block. What is the speed of the combined system immediately after the collision? (Assume now that m2 is the combined mass of the block and putty.) d) What is the change in kinetic energy of the block and bob due to the collision in part c)? What is the ratio of the change in kinetic energy to the kinetic energy before the collision? e) After the collision in part d), the bob and block move together in circular motion. What is the height h f above the low point of the bobs swing when they both first come to rest after the collision (Figure 11.10c)? Ignore any air resistance. (Hint: The relative sizes of the heights h0 and h f in Figure 11.10 (a), (c) are not correct.)

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 11.10 (a) Simple pendulum released on a collision course with a stationary block (b) Collision at the bottom of the swing (c) Bob and block rise to the top of the swing

Solution:
a) The mechanical energy of the bob is constant between when it is released and the bottom of the swing. We can use 1 2 m1 v1,0 = m1 g h0 2 (11.2.47)

to calculate the speed of the bob at the low point of the swing just before the collision, v1, 0 = 2 g h0 . (11.2.48)

15

b) Consider the bob and the block as the system. Although tension in the string and the gravitation force are now acting as external forces, both are particular to the motion of the bob and block during the collision. If we additionally assume that the collision is nearly instantaneous, then the momentum is constant in the direction of the bobs motion, m1 v1, 0 = m2 v2, f m1 v1, f , where v2, f is the speed of the block immediately after the collision. Since the bob and block are given to have the same speeds after the collision, define v f v2, f = v1, f and rewrite Equation (11.2.49) as
m1 v1,0 = ( m2 m1 ) v f .

(11.2.49)

(11.2.50)

Solve Equation (11.2.50) for the speed of the bob and block after the collision, v f = v1,0 m1 m2 m1 (11.2.51)

(at this point we see explicitly what we might have guessed, that m2 > m1 ). The collision is given to be elastic, 1 1 2 m1 v1,0 = ( m1 + m2 ) v 2 f . 2 2 Substituting Equation (11.2.51) into Equation (11.2.52) yields (11.2.52)

m1 2 m v = ( m1 + m2 ) v1,0 . m m 1 2
2 1 1,0

(11.2.53)

2 Canceling the common factor of m1 v1, from both sides of Equation (11.2.53) and 0

rearranging gives

( m2 m1 )

= ( m2 + m1 ) m1 .

(11.2.54)

Expanding the square and canceling m12 yields

m2 ( m2 3 m1 ) = 0 ,

(11.2.55)

16

and so the block has mass

m2 = 3 m1
and the final speed is
vf = v1,0 2 = g h0 . 2

(11.2.56)

(11.2.57)

c) The bob and block stick together and move with a speed v f after the collision. The external forces are still perpendicular to the motion, and if we assume that the collision time is negligible, then the momentum in the direction of the motion is constant,
m1 v1,0 = ( m1 + m2 ) vf

(11.2.58)

The speed immediately after the collision is (recalling that m2 = 3 m1 )

vf =

1 = v1,0 . m1 + m2 4

m1 v1,0

(11.2.59)

Using Equation (11.2.48) in Equation (11.2.59) yields

1 1 vf = v1,0 = 2 gh0 = 4 4 gh0 . 8

(11.2.60)

d) The change in kinetic energy of the bob and block due to the collision in part c) is given by

K = K after K before =

1 1 2 . ( m1 + m2 ) vf2 m1v1,0 2 2

(11.2.61)

Using Equation (11.2.59), (11.2.48) and (11.2.59) in Equation (11.2.61),

K =

1 gh 1 ( 4m1 ) 0 m1 2 gh0 2 8 2 3 = m1 gh0 . 4

(11.2.62)

The kinetic energy before the collision was m1 gh0 , and so the ratio of the change in kinetic energy to the kinetic energy before the collision is

17

K = 3/ 4 . K before
See Appendix 11.C for a more general result,

(11.2.63)

K m2 = K before m1 + m2

(11.2.64)

for completely inelastic collisions when the target object (the block of mass m2 in this example) is initially stationary. e) After the collision, the tension is acting on the bob-block system but the tension force is perpendicular to the motion so does no work on the bob-block system and the mechanical energy after the collision is the same as when the bob-block combination reaches its highest point,
K after = (m1 + m2 ) g hf m1 gh0 = 4m1 g hf 4 h hf = 0 . 16

(11.2.65)

(11.2.66)

18