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FOREWORD
Industrial refrigeration is essential for the production of many food products
consumed in the world today. Although it is an inherently energy-intensive
process, careful application of engineering principles in design and operation can
lead to significant improvements in both capacity and efficiency.
Energy is a fundamental commodity that fuels and sustains the growth and
prosperity of mankind. As demand increases and the finite energy resources of
our planet are depleted, the value of energy in the future will continue to
increase. In the U.S. today, the true cost of energy is not reflected in the price to
consumers, though many other countries have moved to price the commodity in
accordance with its value. In any case, energy prices in the U.S. are increasing
faster than inflation and one can reasonably expect the cost of energy to
continue rising in the future as finite energy reserves deplete. This trend is
driving end-users to improve the efficiency of energy intensive operations such
as industrial refrigeration systems.
This Guidebook is intended to provide refrigeration plant operators, engineers,
and managers with the information they need to improve the energy efficiency of
their industrial refrigeration systems. This Guidebook is intended to be a "desk
reference" to help those responsible for refrigeration systems achieve these
improvements. Much of our focus on preparing this Guidebook has been on
uncovering and presenting proven approaches that result in improvements in
refrigeration system capacity and energy efficiency. We have also dedicated
considerable space to discussing the barriers that commonly block
implementation of the efficiency improvement strategies presented.
Understanding these barriers is a first step toward removing them and clearing a
path for success.
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Chapter 1 Introduction
The rationale for pursuing energy efficiency improvements is presented
and discussed in Chapter 1.
Chapter 6 Compressors
Because compressors are the major energy consumer in industrial
refrigeration systems, many consider them the heart of the plant. It is for
this reason that we elected to dedicate an entire chapter to compressors.
Our coverage includes both reciprocating and screw (single and twin)
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Hard work and attention to detail are keys for successfully realizing energy
efficiency improvements. Safety should always be THE prime consideration in
the pursuit of any changes aimed at improving refrigeration system operations.
Utilize the opportunity for refrigeration system energy efficiency improvements to
revisit safety best practices in the design and operation of your refrigeration
systems. Manage these changes in the context of your own plants safety
program and reap the rewards of a safer more efficient refrigeration system.
One final note: This Guidebook includes photos, illustrations, and performance
data from various industrial refrigeration equipment manufacturers. We
appreciate their cooperation and permission to re-publish their materials. In
general, we have tried to provide balance by including materials from a range of
equipment manufacturers but in some cases, a specific companys illustrations
were selected as the best material available to illustrate the points being made in
the text. The use of this information should not be construed as an endorsement
of any particular product or manufacturer.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many people and organizations were instrumental in providing input, support, and
background for the development of this Guidebook. First, we would like to acknowledge
all of the end-users and industry experts whose shoulders we stand upon in our efforts
to continually improve the efficiency, safety, and operability of industrial refrigeration
systems. Their willingness to be the first has enabled us to bring you the proven
principles and practices that achieve efficient refrigeration systems.
We also would like to acknowledge a number of individuals that have unselfishly
given of their time and talent to provide careful review of draft manuscripts. Those that
have contributed in this regard include: Adam Batcheller, Tony Chihak, and Mike Haller
of Wells Dairy, Bob Gansler of Xcel Energy, Tony Lundell of Tropicana Products, Don
Stroud of Kraft Foods, and Bob Terrell of Alliant Energy. Their insightful comments and
suggestions have improved the content and presentation of the Guidebook
immeasurably. We would also like to thank James Denkmann for his direct and indirect
contributions. He dedicated significant amounts of time discussing, reviewing, and
commenting on draft versions of this Guidebook, and the quality of the final product has
been assuredly enhanced by his input.
This Guidebook has been funded by Members of the Industrial Refrigeration
Consortium and without their support, its preparation would not have been possible. At
the time of the printing of this Guidebook, Members of the IRC include: Alliant Energy,
CF Industries, General Mills, Kraft Foods, Nor-Am Cold Storage, OSHA, Sargento
Foods, Schoeps Ice Cream, Tropicana Products, US EPA, Wells Dairy, and Xcel
Energy. Your commitment to excellence and your collaborative support are a
model for our industry.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction.............................................................................................................1-1
1.1
Overview.....................................................................................................1-1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Guidebook Organization.............................................................................1-7
1.5
References .................................................................................................1-8
Compressor Technologies..........................................................................2-9
2.1.1
2.1.1.1
2.1.1.2
2.1.2
2.1.2.1
2.1.2.2
2.1.2.3
2.1.2.4
2.1.3
2.1.4
Ratings .............................................................................................2-28
2.2
Condensers ..............................................................................................2-33
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.3
2.4
2.2.3.1
2.2.3.2
2.2.3.3
2.2.3.4
Evaporators ..............................................................................................2-44
2.3.1.1
2.3.1.2
2.4.1
Direct-Expansion ..............................................................................2-50
2.4.2
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2.4.3
2.5
2.5.1
2.5.2
2.6
References ...............................................................................................2-66
3.2
3.2.1
Efficiency ..........................................................................................3-68
3.2.2
Capacity............................................................................................3-68
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.3
3.3.1
Loads................................................................................................3-69
3.3.2
Weather ............................................................................................3-72
3.3.3
3.3.4
3.3.5
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
Normalization Example.....................................................................3-75
3.5
3.5.1
Billing Analysis..................................................................................3-80
3.5.1.1
3.5.1.2
3.5.1.3
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.5.3.1
3.5.3.2
3.5.4
3.5.5
3.5.5.1
3.5.5.2
3.5.5.3
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3.6
Benchmarking...........................................................................................3-88
3.7
Benchmarking Example............................................................................3-91
3.8
References ...............................................................................................3-93
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
Operating Strategies.......................................................................4-113
4.2.3
Water Treatment.............................................................................4-117
4.3
4.2.3.1
4.2.3.2
4.2.3.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
Equalizer Line.................................................................................4-124
4.4
Purgers ...................................................................................................4-130
4.5
Summary ................................................................................................4-132
4.6
References .............................................................................................4-132
5.1.1
5.1.2
5.1.2.1
5.1.2.2
5.1.2.3
5.1.2.4
Vessels .......................................................................................5-139
5.1.2.5
Valve sizes..................................................................................5-140
5.2
5.3
5.3.1
Dry-Suction Piping..........................................................................5-142
5.3.2
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5.4
5.4.1
5.4.2
5.4.3
5.4.3.1
5.4.3.2
5.4.4
Other Considerations......................................................................5-148
5.5
5.6
Subcooling..............................................................................................5-150
5.7
Gas Pumping..........................................................................................5-153
5.8
References .............................................................................................5-159
6 Compressors ......................................................................................................6-161
6.1
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
References .............................................................................................6-179
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.5.1
Envelope.........................................................................................7-189
7.5.2
Infiltration ........................................................................................7-190
7.5.3
7.5.4
Defrost ............................................................................................7-193
7.6
Heat Recovery........................................................................................7-195
7.7
7.8
References .............................................................................................7-207
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Geographic census regions in the US .........................................................1-3
Figure 1-2: Energy efficiency improvement process flow chart......................................1-5
Figure 2-1: Reciprocating compressor installation. ......................................................2-10
Figure 2-2: Schematic of a reciprocating compressor..................................................2-11
Figure 2-3: Screw compressor installation. ..................................................................2-12
Figure 2-4: Main components of single-screw compressor..........................................2-13
Figure 2-5: Main components for a twin-screw compressor. .......................................2-13
Figure 2-6: Twin-screw rotors along with the compressor housing..............................2-14
Figure 2-7: Single-screw compressor during the intake process. ................................2-15
Figure 2-8: Single-screw compressor during the compression process ......................2-15
Figure 2-9: Screw compressor during the discharge process......................................2-16
Figure 2-10: Volume ratio illustration for a screw compressor. ....................................2-17
Figure 2-11: Compression and volume ratios for fixed suction pressure variable volume
ratio screw compressor operating at 0F suction. ................................................2-18
Figure 2-12: Single-screw at minimum volume ratio ....................................................2-19
Figure 2-13: Single-screw at maximum volume ratio ...................................................2-20
Figure 2-14: Capacity control slide valve at part-load operation ..................................2-21
Figure 2-15: Capacity control slide valve at minimum load..........................................2-22
Figure 2-16: Adiabatic efficiency characteristics for varable speed compressors........2-23
Figure 2-17: Compressor equipped with liquid injection oil cooling .............................2-25
Figure 2-18: Fluid cooler oil cooling arrangement........................................................2-26
Figure 2-19: Thermosiphon oil cooling arrangement. ..................................................2-27
Figure 2-20: Screw compressor capacity & volume flow rate over range conditions...2-29
Figure 2-21: Screw compressor power over range of conditions.................................2-29
Figure 2-22: Screw compressor efficiency over range of conditions............................2-30
Figure 2-23: Pressure-enthalpy diagram for effects of subcooling & superheat. .........2-32
Figure 2-24: Screw compressor performance data over a range of condensing
temperatures and part load ratios. .......................................................................2-33
Figure 2-25: Schematic of an air-cooled condenser. ...................................................2-34
Figure 2-26: Air-cooled condenser on an industrial refrigeration system.....................2-35
Figure 2-27: Schematic of a water-cooled condenser..................................................2-35
Figure 2-28: Schematic of an evaporative condenser including water-side.................2-37
Figure 2-29: Field installation of an induced-draft evaporative condenser...................2-39
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Figure 2-30: Influence of outdoor air wet-bulb and refrigerant temperature on condenser
capacity. ...............................................................................................................2-40
Figure 2-31: Forced-draft evaporative condenser with two-stage axial fans................2-42
Figure 2-32: Forced-draft evaporative condenser with centrifugal fans .......................2-42
Figure 2-33: Induced-draft evaporative condenser with axial fan ................................2-43
Figure 2-34: Schematic of a flooded liquid chiller ........................................................2-45
Figure 2-35: Photo showing a flooded liquid chiller in service. ....................................2-45
Figure 2-36: Packaged flooded plate-type fluid chiller .................................................2-46
Figure 2-37: Plate-finned air-cooling evaporator..........................................................2-47
Figure 2-38: Influence of coil rows and velocity on nominal coil unit capacity. ............2-49
Figure 2-39: Influence of coil fin density on nominal coil unit capacity.........................2-49
Figure 2-40: Single stage vapor compression system direct-expansion evaporators..2-51
Figure 2-41: Single stage compression system flooded evaporators. .........................2-53
Figure 2-42: Floor-mounted flooded air evaporator. ....................................................2-54
Figure 2-43: Single stage compression mechanically-pumped overfeed system. .......2-56
Figure 2-44: Examples of liquid refrigerant pumps. .....................................................2-57
Figure 2-45: Single stage compression gas-pumped liquid overfed system................2-58
Figure 2-46: Single temperature level two-stage compression system with single stage
liquid expansion. ..................................................................................................2-60
Figure 2-47: Two-stage compression, single temperature level system with two-stages of
direct liquid expansion..........................................................................................2-63
Figure 2-48: Two temperature level, two-stage compression with two-stages of direct
liquid expansion. ..................................................................................................2-64
Figure 2-49: Two temperature level, two-stage compression system with indirect liquid
expansion.............................................................................................................2-65
Figure 3-1: Example energy use data. ........................................................................3-71
Figure 3-2: Energy cost and cost per unit. ...................................................................3-71
Figure 3-3: Example monthly energy use. ..................................................................3-75
Figure 3-4: Monthly energy use vs. production. ..........................................................3-76
Figure 3-5: Monthly energy use vs. wet-bulb temperature..........................................3-76
Figure 3-6: Energy use normalized for production. .....................................................3-77
Figure 3-7: Normalized energy use vs. wet-bulb temperature. ...................................3-78
Figure 3-8: Measured and predicted energy use. .......................................................3-78
Figure 3-9: Refrigerated warehouse normalized energy use. .....................................3-92
Figure 4-1: Relationship between compressor, condenser, and system power required
for a fixed outside air condition over a range of condensing temperatures..........4-97
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Figure 4-2: Relationship between compressor, condenser, and system power required
for a centrifugal fan condenser.............................................................................4-98
Figure 4-3: Trend of screw compressor capacity and oil cooling load as a function of
condensing temperature. .....................................................................................4-99
Figure 4-4: System energy consumption effects with an evaporative condenser designed
for 85F [29C] condensing temperature............................................................4-108
Figure 4-5: Heat rejection factors for Vilter evaporative condensers .........................4-110
Figure 4-6: Heat rejection factors for Imeco evaporative condensers........................4-111
Figure 4-7: Nominal condenser capacities.................................................................4-113
Figure 4-8: Energy performance of condenser fan control strategy alternatives .......4-116
Figure 4-9: Forced-draft centrifugal fan condenser with a desuperheater. ................4-119
Figure 4-10: High-side piping illustrating parallel evaporative condensers with a high
pressure receiver in a surge arrangement .........................................................4-125
Figure 4-11: High-pressure receiver connections. ....................................................4-125
Figure 4-12: Equalizer line sizes for a 0.1 psi maximum pressure drop. ..................4-129
Figure 4-13: Equalizer line sizes for a 0.02 psi maximum pressure drop. ................4-129
Figure 4-14: Purger installation photo .......................................................................4-130
Figure 5-1: System efficiency as a function of TD for air cooling evaporator.............5-138
Figure 5-2: Change in specific volume relative to saturation temperature (dv/dT).....5-141
Figure 5-3: Seasonal variation in outdoor air humidity ratio.......................................5-146
Figure 5-4: Schematic of flooded load fed with saturated high-pressure liquid..........5-151
Figure 5-5: Schematic of flooded load fed with subcooled high-pressure liquid. .......5-152
Figure 5-6: Relative capacity for a liquid suction heat exchanger..............................5-153
Figure 5-7: Illustration of a simple gas-pumped system.............................................5-154
Figure 5-8: Illustration of a simple mechanically-pumped refrigeration system. ........5-154
Figure 5-9: Typical open-drive liquid refrigerant pump curve.....................................5-155
Figure 5-10: Mechanical pump horsepower per ton for range of recirculation rates..5-156
Figure 5-11: Compressor horsepower per ton associated with gas-driven pumping for a
range of recirculation rates.................................................................................5-157
Figure 5-12: Energy penalty associated with gas-driven vs. mechanical pumping....5-158
Figure 6-1: Full-load efficiency for a 12 cylinder reciprocating compressor. ..............6-162
Figure 6-2: Part-load characteristics for a reciprocating compressor.........................6-163
Figure 6-3: Influence of volume ratio on full-load compressor efficiency at 0F [-18C]
saturated suction temperature. ..........................................................................6-165
Figure 6-4: Influence of volume ratio on full-load compressor efficiency at a 20F
saturated suction temperature. ..........................................................................6-166
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1: Regional electricity consumption for SIC 20 .................................................1-3
Table 3-1: Example of dry bulb bin temperature data for Madison, WI.......................3-83
Table 3-2: Example of wet-bulb bin temperature data for Madison, WI. .....................3-84
Table 3-3: Bin analysis summary. ...............................................................................3-85
Table 3-4: General benchmarking data requirements..................................................3-90
Table 3-5: Additional information by facility type.........................................................3-91
Table 3-6: Summary of warehouse data. ....................................................................3-92
Table 4-1: Condenser fan control strategy map.........................................................4-100
Table 4-2: Design weather conditions........................................................................4-106
Table 4-3: Condenser fan control strategy map.........................................................4-115
Table 4-4: Equalizer line size recommendations .......................................................4-128
Table 4-5: Equalizer line size recommendations .......................................................4-128
Table 5-1: Impact of raising suction pressure on compressor performance. .............5-137
Table 5-2: Suction valve train size effect compressor performance & energy cost. ..5-142
Table 6-1: Oil cooling comparison for twin-screw compressors.................................6-171
Table 6-2: Fixed volume ratio screw compressor selection ranges. ..........................6-177
Table 7-1: Minimum envelope performance for temperature-controlled spaces........7-190
Table 7-2: Envelope thermal performance for temperature-controlled spaces ..........7-190
Table 7-3: Discharge temperature comparison for ideal compression processes. ....7-198
Table 7-4: Head pressure penalties for screw compressor operation........................7-202
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