Firing Apparatus.

BRITISH DESIGN.

Shot

BRITISH
MANUFACTURE.
PIT

SINKING PLANTS.

WIRES.
CABLE REELS.

Send

for

List

No.

15.

JOHNDAVIS" SON (Derby). Ltd,DERBY.

Telegrams:
"

DAVIS

DERBY."

Telephone,

240.

Telegrams"

"BLASTING

SERRIDGE

JUNCTION."

Established

1873,

Electric Tie
Trade Registered Marks.

CINDERFORD,

B
TRADE
MARK

I*

SO.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE.
OF

MANUFACTURERS

...

ELECTRIC TENSION
For
use

HIGH

AND

LOW-

FUSES
All
the
we

with entirelyto
over

Explosives.
of Electric Fuses, and
to

Confining ourselves an experience of superior to any on the

with
LISTS

manufacture
can

35 years, market.

guarantee

supply

an

article

ON

STERLING"
Electric

BLASTING

MACHINES
DYNAMO

or

MAGNETO,

HIGH

OR

LOW TENSION.

Firing
2
for

to

8O

Shots.
JVo.

J4it,

"Shot-

Firingby Electricity/'
containing
and

full
Price.*.

MANUFACTURED
BY
THE

Teiepnone Sterling
" Electric Co., Ltd.,
200, UPPER
THAMES E.C
ESSEX.

ST,,

LONDON,
Works-DAGENHAM,

QUICK

DELIVERY
. .

at
OF
.
.

LOW

PRICES

DURABLE

and EFFICIENT

TRAILING SHOT-FIRING

CABLES, CABLES, CABLES,

ON

TELEPHONE
ARE

OBTAINABLE TO MANUFACI

APPLICATION We
are

US.

ACTUAL

URERS.

For

COLLIERIES
WITH

or

QUARRIES.

High-InsulationResistance, Non-Hygroscopic, Perfectly Great Dielectric Strength, Unaffected by Acids, Do not Crack, Long Lengths, Flexible, Light*

MINING

SWITCHQEAR,
LAMPS,
"c.

ARC

JOHNSON

" PHILLIPS, Ltd.,

WORKS,

VICTORIA

CHARLTON,
Established

S.O., KENT.
1875.

Bennett
CROWN

SafetyFuse.
BRAND.

ttfiflE

For

all

kinds
MADE ONLY

of
BY

Blasting.

WM.

BENNETT,
ROSKEAR
.

SONS
FUSE WORKS

"

CO.
,

Ltd.

CAMBORNE,
LONDON OFFICE:

CORNWALL
108, BtSHOPSGATE STREET,
application.
E.G.

Samples

and

Trices

on

BLASTING

TOOLS.

CARTRIDGE

CASES.

E. C. THEEPAM, L^ DUDLEY.
Q:::
:^rr:
// v.

\~

-^S[)

REGD.

RAMMERS

AND

SCRAPERS.
CASES.

DETONATOR
MAGAZINE

NOTICES,
LIGHTNING

LOCKS,

SHOES,
"c.

CONDUCTORS,

ELECTRICITYJN
UNDER Operations,
new

MINES.

of

in Mining and Regulationsconcerningthe Use of Electricity of Cases compulsory ihat directiojs for the effective Treatment Apparent Death from Electric Shock be conspicuously placedin certain prescribed Rules it is with Illustrations
to be

the

positionsin the Mines. A Set of these DIRECTIONS,

showing the
to Prevent

method

of

cation, applithe

accompanied by PRECAUTIONS
Electric

adopted

Danger

from

Current, and
WIRES
can

INSTRUCTIONS
be obtained PRINTING
SALISBUKY

for from AND COUKT,

doz.

Dealing

with

BROKEN

ELEC

TRIG "THE

ELECTRICIAN"

PUBLISHING LONDON,
On ENGLAND.

COMPANY,

LIMITED,

On

Paper,

17 in.

by

12

$ in. 4d.

each, 3/6

Card, 17 in. by 12i in. 8d.

case.

each, 6/6

doz.

Carriage paid in each

THE

Detonator Electric Compound

Is the Most Reliable Made.

COMPOUND

ELECTR/C

H/GH

TENS/ ON

(ACTUAL

COMPOUND

ELECT/?/CPOWD"#

(ACTUAL. SIZE)

COMPOUND ELECTWC Low

TENS/ON DsroN/iTOft /V?7

(ACTUAL SIZE)

The
Secures

Compound

Electric
of all

Detonator Blasting Explosives. Detonator

from Mis-Fires.

Complete The

Detonation

Compound
Ensures

Electric

Complete

Immunity

The

Compound
Are

Electric
made in

Detonators
or

High

Low

Tensions.

The British Electric Detonator

LIMITED,

Co.,

43, CASTLE

STREET,

LIVERPOOL.

NORTHERN

PUBLISHING

CO.,

5,

ELSWICK

COURT,

NEWCASTLE.

EXPLOSIVES
(Best Quality Only.)
GELIGNITE,
GELATINE

*S"5^t3"*t
/jLy^
,ji i^si^^v

"

DYNAMITE,
BLASTING

\M(^^K^\
H

DYNAMITE,
BLASTING POWDER.

/Egf P

GELATINE,
COMPRESSED PELLETS.

*^iyi"^"^Q
V"mfmj^"
"

CHEDDITE

H'Sa

Contains Exude.

Explosive of Great Itending Power. not Freeze or Does no Nitro-Glycerine.

.
. .

PERMITTED
EXCELLITE"

EXPLOSIVES
Nitrate

of Ammonia Stone. Pit

Explosive for

Hard

Coal and

Rl PPITE"

for High Explosive

Driving and General

* "

Ripping, Sinking, Work. Colliery

9*

BOBBINITE.
The Best Coal

W~^

"^v

w^

"B"^

m.

f~m^

"

No Detonator

Required.
out

carried as Getter, provedby experiments

by

H.M.

of Inspectors

Mines.

PERMITTED
PELLET.

Largest

Sale

of any

Permitted

Explosive for Coal Getting.

CURTIS'S
3,
GRACECHURCH Local Depot-ALBERT

"
CHAMBERS,

HARVEY,
STREET,
CARDIFF-

Ltd.,
E.G.

LONDON,

Ltd Bros., Connolly

"

BLACKLEY,-

MANCHESTER.
Makers PATENT

of

ENAMEL

INSULATED

SHOT-FIRING
AND

Detonator

Connecting

Wires.
FOR SAMPLES
AND

PRICES.

Telephone,

Lydbroati.

Telegrams:

"

,fMITH

LYVBROOK."

H. W.
CABLE

SMITH
WIRE

"
AND

CO.,

ELECTRICAL

MANUFACTURERS,
GLOUCESTERSHIRE.

LYDBROOK,

IN

THE

MANUFACTURE

OF

SHOT-FIRING
GUTTA-PERCHA,
-

CABLES,
INDIA

VULCANIZED AND
TO ANY

RUBBER,
-

BITUMEN

OTHER
CONSTRUCTION.

INSULATIONS,

Samples

"

Prices

on

application.

CRESCENT
COAL
The work.
In
a

" ROCK
best Shot
one

PRILLS.
hole Drill for coal face will drill
2 H*P.

handiest and two=ft. seam

of these machines

60 holes 4 ft*deepper shift. Power

about required,

H
2 "
M

u
M

u, u-

Made

for direct-currentor Also for

3-phasecurrent. Any voltage, compressed-air driving.

tor give
be
"full

When

sending

inquiries
work to

particulars

of

done.

SOLE

MAKERS:"

A. HIRST
CRESCENT

"

SON,
Lane, DEWSBURY.

LT^
CUTTERS.

Crescent Works, Meadow

COAL

The

" IrTsftKlten "f Mioipg; JJ

*

'

E\ectfica\ Enioeere.

adsuncernern 'rt" aj^

rr?nncrch

of
e

eucb
and
c

all Mning Membership "^ofDenio

Electrical Encrincere nine

,

Officials
world.

16

Colliery
eetublie"bed

Srancbce

may ^ dielnc^ mining; every

member.

ir; any

A
to

valuableweekly journal
will jrrfarmaVfon

Further

The

Inefituliiop of Minipcr
"

Eledricci\ Enoloeere?,
BanK
Chcimbere

Derby. Errand.

THE

SHOT-FIBER'S
JJtamtal 0n Practical

GUIDE:

16lastingantr

"pnbiutian of IHastxng J

BY

WM.
PRESIDENT OF THE FELLOW MEMBER MEMBER MEMBER OF THE OF THE OF THE NATIONAL INSTITUTION OF
THE

MAURICE,
OF MINING ELECTRICAL SOCIETY ELECTRICAL OF MINING OF ; ENGINEERS
:

GEOLOGICAL OF

INSTITUTION INSTITUTION

ENGINEERS; ENGINEERS;
COLLIERY MANAGERS.

ASSOCIATION

ALL

RIGHTS

RESERVED.

LONDON:

"THE

ELECTRICIAN"

PRINTING

AND

PUBLISHING

COMPANY

LIMITED,
SALISBURY
NEW JAPAN INDIA YORK
: : :

COURT,
Nostrand

FLEET

STREET,

E.G. Street.

The

D.

Van "

Co., 23, Murray

Nihonbashi Tori

Z. P.

Maruya

Co., 14,

Sanchome,

Tokyo.

Thacker,

Spink " Co., Calcutta. Higgiubotham " Co., Madras.

And all Booksellers
at

Home

and

Abroad.

LONDON

PRINTED BY GEORGE

TUCKER,

SALISBURY COURT.

FLEET

STREET,
E.C

INTRODUCTION.

In
at

the

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE

an

attempt
in

is made and

to

place

the

service

of

explosives

users

mines

quarries approved
and the

simple, practical explanations concerning

types and
methods that
are

the most

of

handling blasting apparatus

in order
to
secure

precautions Every
instances

necessary

safety.
in detail which of
most ;

stage of
are

blasting operation
of the the varieties very

is described

given

of accident

frequently

occur

j and

important
is considered

question
in the

shot-

firingin fiery and

the
most recent

dusty

mines

light of

inquiries.
that

It is

hoped

by

thus

seeking
with with

to

familiarise the risks

use

mine involved

cials, offiin

shot-lighters and underground

methods annual failure In caused of toll
to

others

and shot-firing,

the will

skilful be done
as

of modern lessen the of

ignition, something
of lives which her alone Nature laws. 106 the

to

exacts

the

price

comprehend
Britain

Great

mine

explosions
10

have In the and

been
same

by shot-firingduring
more

past
have

years.

period
500 On dies
year.
as

than

3,000

persons

been
use

injured
of

over

killed the the

by

accidents
one

arising out
person his is

of the

explosives. day
and
one

average, result

injured

every

of

injuries each

week

throughout

the

Few

of

these

casualties

partake
For the

of

the

nature

of
are

foreseeable un-

occurrences.

most

part

they
and

the
a

result
S.F.G

of

inexperience

or

of

thoughtlessness,

form
A

IV.

INTRODUCTION.

powerful argument
who upon The
are

in

favour

of

the

employment
of the

of

men

known

to possess
are

sufficient

knowledge

duties

which

they

engaged.
"

definition be

of

sufficient

knowledge
on

"

must

sarily neces-

and provisional, standard

of

dependent

the class

current of

tainable at-

proficiencyin

the

workmen

concerned. At least
been
one

qualificationupon
laid is

which
an

stress

has

not
dition con-

hitherto of "this of

likelysoon
to the

to become

essential
or

appointment

positionof deputy
minute

shot-firer

is the

to accurately detect ability

percentages
candidate is able
can

in If, ''gas."* that he

addition

to this

acquirement, a

show

knows raison in
a

the Official

Regulations,and
a

to

explain their
to

he is probably d'etre,

competent
a

person it

fire shots

mine.

If the

shot-firer
an

is also

deputy,

is desirable
or,

that
at

he should able

hold
to

under-manager's

ficate, certi-

least, be

answer

some satisfactorily

such this At

series of book. the

questions as

that

which

appears

on

p. 154

of

present time
as
a

mine

miners officials,

and

quarrymen of the
rials mate-

possess,

rule, singularlylittle knowledge

one

they during they they

use, when

considers of

the

enormous

development Generally,
the risks and

recent

years
a

educational and

facilities.
idea of

have
run

only

vague the

inarticulate of

during

operations

priming, stemming

a charge. firing

In coal mines, where

to

the normal

risks of

blastingare
it is be

liable

be

accentuated that

by specialconditions,
every

exceptionally

important
of the

individual

should

fully cognisant
of his every
act.

probable

and
*

possibleconsequences
See

Appendices

I. and

II.

VI.

IN

TROD

UCT10N.

considerable

amount
to

of such

new

matter
recent

has work mines

also

been

added,
on

including safety
of

references

bearing
as

the H.

shot-firingin fieryand Paper

before the Coal Address the

dusty Mining
to

Dr. of

Henry

Payne's
Dr.

Institute the

America,
Medical that Great

Snell's

Presidential
at

British

Association
are

Sheffield, and
out

valuable

experiments
of

being
at

carried Altofts.

by

the

Mining

Association

Britain The and laid

Report

of the

Departmental
of

Committee have

on

Bobbinite been form views

those under

of H.M.

Inspectors

Explosives
because

freely
an

contribution,

partly

they
expert
Author's Blue Home
are

admirable
the
to
use

up-to-date exposition
of

of current from
not

on

explosives
a

and

partly
that does

the read

desire Books Office

a

bring

before of the of

public
valuable Mines

knowledge Departments placing

For
at

inquiries which
and of

H.M.

Explosives
care

constantly

the

disposal
to
are

of all who
use

to

seek. Publications

permission

make due

of the

these

Official

acknowledgments
Stationery
indebtedness Office.
to

to

Controller records Von and

of His with Schwartz other who

Majesty's
his M. of

The the

Author works of

also
Dr.

pleasure
and makers have

Bichel,

and

to

the

Nobel

Company

explosives supplied
and him

and with

shot-firing apparatus particulars

relative

kindly

to

their

specialities

electros

for purposes

of illustration.

WM.

MAURICE.

Hucknall

Torkard,

Notts.

JACKHAMMER
Adapted
for
of

any

style

bit.

to give Designed

ECONOMY OF
to

IN COST

UPKEEP,
-

and

have Fast Drilling Capacity.

SUITABLE

FOR

SINKING,

DRIVING,
"

BLOCK WORK.

HOLEING,

TRENCH

G [SOU-IP
"

0.

165,Queen Victoria Street, EC." LONDON,

EXPLOSIVES
PERMITTED
EXPLOSIVE.

CORNISH
This
to

%
"

P "
s
" "

POWDER

"S the market, owing coal. in either stone or

on

explosive has

no

equal
use

its

for adaptability
Write lor

List

of

Testimonials.

HIGH

EXPLOSIVES.

Gelatine Dynamite, Gelignite, Non-FreezingGelignite, Gelatine. Dynamite,Blasting Factory"

NATIONAL EXPLOSIVES SS:

HAYLE,
Head

CORNWALL
VICTORIA STREET,

Office : 14,QUEEN

LONDON, EC.

Electric
PATENT
For from firing
not

Shot
4 to the any

Firing.
EXPLODERS.
arc

DYNAMO
80 shots exhaust
to

Time

and

use

do

superior

simultaneously. which strength of these exploders, type yet produced.

Cables, Galvanometers and allAccessories. Fuses,

Write

for Lists

to"

FLEMING "
31, Robertson

CO.,
GLASGOW.
GLASGOW."

Street,
DYNAMITE

Address:"" Telegraphic

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

I." EXPLOSIVES.
PAET I.
PAGES

EXPLOSIVES

1-10
the

Explosion
of Iron.
"

Result
Gas.
"

of

Temperature
of of

and

Pressure.
"

"

tion Combusof

Coal

Energy
Mixture

Combination. Coal Gas

and Bobbinite and

Oxidation
Air.
"

Explosion
Gases.
as
"

of

sion Expan"

of

Combustible Classified
of Nitro-

Element

Oxidising Body.
Committee.
"

Explosives
Characteristics of Ammonium of
"

by

the

"

Glycerine Explosives. Explosives.

Mechanical
"

tics Characterisof

Ammonium Nitrate

Nitrate and

Characteristics
Mixtures. Mixtures.
"

Nitro-Glycerine Explosives
of of

teristics Charac"

Non-Detonating
of Permitted
"

powder. Gun-

List

classified

according
in British

to

their

Ingredients.
Quarries.
"

Consumption
Identification

Explosives
Permitted

Mines

and

Explosives.

PART DETONATORS
Detonants Detonation. Fuse.
"

II.
11-31 Combustion,

AND

FUSES
Noii-Detonants.

and
"

"

Explosion
NonDetonants
"

and

Bickford of

Fuse. Detonants

"

Ignition by
of
"

of
"

by
tonators. De"

Ignition
"

Fuse.

Fulminates.
for Detonators.

Standard
of Primer

Composition Cartridge.
for Fuse
"

Charge

Preparation
Permitted
"

Bickford Mines.
" "

Safety Igniter.
"

Igniter
Electric

Fuse
"

Firing
Head.
"

Electrical
and

tance. ResisLow-

Fuse.

High-tension
Electric
Fuses.
"

tension
"

Electric
Fuse
"

Fuses.
"

Priming.
of

Fuse

tors. DetonaAction

Wires.

Selection

Delayed

Fuses.

Detonator

Cases.

CHAPTER

-BLASTING 11.
PART I.

APPARATUS.

EXPLODERS
Classification
between of

3359

Exploders.
and

"

Magneto

Exploders.
Dynamo

"

Difference

Dynamo

Magneto
Pocket
"

Exploders."
Batteries

Helsby Magneto Exploders.

"

Exploder."
"

Sterling
Machines.

Exploder." Dry

Rack-bar

Exploders.

mulators, Accu-

viii

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS.

PART WIRES
AND

II.

PAGES

CABLES
and

60-68
"

Conductors

Insulators.
"

Tables

Resistances.

Conductors
"

"

for Conductors. Specifications and Wires. Jointing Insulating

mate Conductivity. ApproxiCircuits. Shot-firing Wires. Uncoilingand Coiling

of
"

for

"

"

Permanent

Joints.

PAKT TESTING

III.
69 78

Testing Explosivesfor use Test of Safety." The

"The Austrian Test.
"

in

Fiery and Belgian

Dusty
The and
"

Mines.

"

lute AbsoTest.
"

Woolwich

Test,"

French

The

German

Tests.

Strength of Detonators. Appliances for Fuse Testing. High-tension Fuse and and Precautions. Testing. Risks Testing Magneto Davis Roburite Tester. Dynamo Exploders. Exploder Co.'s Exploder Tester." meter. Testing Dry Cell Exploders." VoltCables plete Comfor and Testing Leakage. Continuity Circuit Testing."" Earthed Wires.
Fuses.
" " " " " " " "

Testing Effective

Testing Electric

"

CHAPTER
PRACTICAL
APPLICATIONS

III.
79107

for Blasting, Reference to Coal Mines. with Special Preparations Shot Holes. Drilling Preparingand Stemming the Charge. nators Different Kinds of Stemming. Methods of Securing Detoto Cartridges. Danger of Bunching Cartridges. Position of Primer Cartridge. Connecting the FiringLine. Precautions after Firing. Missbefore Firing. Precautions fires. Double Detonation. Hang Fires. Gunpowder Class nections Conwith Getters. Coal Permitted compared Explosivesas for Simultaneous Firing. Shot- firing in Frozen Ground." Drift. Driving a Stone Blasting in Quarries. Blastingin Shafts and Headings.
" " " "

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

CHAPTER

IV." BLASTING
PAKT I.
BY THE

ACCIDENTS,

RISKS

IMMEDIATELY
Classified.
"

CAUSED
Accidents

EXPLOSIVE
"

109-124

Accidents

Handling Explosives. Directions for the Weather. of Explosives in Cold use Periodical of Accidents with Recurrence Nitro-Glycerine dents. AcciFrozen Detonator Explosives. Thawing Explosives. Risk of working with Naked Lights. Accidents in Stemming and Accidents Fire. to through Preparing Bunching Cartridges. Accidents through Boring into when Unexploded Charges. Accidents Firing. Accidents Accidents Wires. through use of Electric Signalling through allowing Unexploded Charges to leave the Mine.
in
" " " " " "

"

"

"

"

"

"

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS.

ix.

PART ACCIDENTS
RESULTING FROM THE

II.

PAGES

IGNITION

OF

FLAMMABLE IN125-157

ATMOSPHERES
How

"

Explosive. Ignition of Gases by Temperatures at which Blasting Materials Explode. Range of Inflammability of Gases. for Dust Dust Explosions. Reason becoming Inflammable. of Dust Occurrence tutes ConstiOcclusion. Explosions. What of Dust in a Mine. a Dangerous Amount Degree of render Coal perature to Dust Fineness requisite Explosive. Tem.of Coal Dust. of Ignition Quantity of Firedamp Inflammable to produce an Atmosphere in the necessary of Investigaof Coal Dust. Dr. Payne's Summary Presence tions. plosives Selection of ExGas. Ignitionof Coal Dust without The for use in Dangerous Atmospheres. Relation Influence of Dust of Ventilation to the Watering Danger. of Explosions in South Reciirrence Wales Coal Dust. on of Dust. Methods for the Removal Coalfield. proposed of Deposition of Dust. Rate Preparation of a Dustless Zone. Altofts The Safeguard? Nystagmus. Experiments. ledge KnowShotand from firing. Qualities against Explosions
Gases
and

Vapours

become
"

"

otherwise

than

Flame.
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

Competent

Shot-firer

should

Possess.

CHAPTER
LAWS
AND AND

V.
TO THE

REGULATIONS USE
OF

RELATING

STORAGE 159176

EXPLOSIVES

The

Explosives Act, 1875." The Quarries Act, 1894." The Coal Mines Regulation Acts, 1887 to 1896. SpecialRules for the Installation and Use of Electricity in Mines. SpecialRules in North in for Ore Mines Wales. Coal Mines Explosives Collier^ Bye-laws. Orders.
" " " "

APPENDICES,
1. SUMMARY
FROM OF THE

MAIN

CONCLUSIONS REPORT
MINES

ON OF

SHOT-FIRING
THE

SECOND
ON

ROYAL 177-178

COMMISSION 2. COMMENTS
OF ON

GAS

TESTING

AND

DESCRIPTION
THE ON

GARFORTH
OF THE

LAMP,
ROYAL DUST

FROM

SECOND MINES
179-182 183-186
TO

REPORT

COMMISSION

3. BRITISH

COAL

EXPERIMENTS RELATING

4. EXAMINATION

QUESTIONS

SHOT187-195

FIRING SUBJECT INDEX..

197-208

xii.

LIST

OF

ILLUSTRATIONS.

FIG.

CHAPTER Mechanism
of

II."

PART

I."

continued. 43 44 44 45 40
48 50

39 40 41 42 43"44 45 46 47 48 49

Exploder Dynamo Sterling 50-Shot Exploder Sterling Exploder, showing Spring Catch for FiringHandle. Sterling controlled Gearing SpringDynamo Exploder with Automatic of using Sterling Exploders Methods
. . .

Elementary
Section
Wood's Davis

Primary
Obach

Cell

through
Pocket

Dry Cell
and

Dry Battery

Shot-firer, with

Safety Firing Key Safety Key

51 52 58

Accumulator

Charging Apparatus
PART II.

50 51 52

BlastingCircuits and Bad Good Joint-making and InsulatingWires Splicing

Conductors
for
"

64 67 68 III. tension Fuse 72 75 75 76

PART 53 54 55 56 57

Showing Shunted
Low-tension Low-tension

Bridge

of Low-

Exploder Exploder
Voltmeter Galvanometer

Tester Tester

(Davis

pattern) (Roburite Co.'s pattern) Dry

Cell

Low-reading
Combined

and

77

CHAPTER 58 59 60 61

III.
81

62 63 64 65 66 67

Stemming a BlastingCharge Holes in Cartridges Peg for Boring Detonator Methods of attachingDetonators to Cartridges Position Correct of the Stemming a Charge (showing Cartridge) Connecting FiringLine to Sh" "t Wi res Fuse with Severed Bridge Diagram of Low-tension
Cable Series
Reel

82 82 Primer 83 87 89 102

68, 69
71

72 73

106 Firingin Quarry of Connecting Series of Shots for Firing Methods 107 Pan Nobel's Warming Ill Cause of Shot-firing Accidents " 70 Diagrams illustrating 118,120 Photo of SafetyLamp Flame, showing Gas Cap, facing page 152 Safety Lamp facing-page 152 in Motion Safety Lamp facingpage 152
" "

APPENDIX 74 75
76
" "

II. in Roof 181 181 182

from Break Sample of Gas Collecting Gas Testing Sample of The Garf orth Firedamp Detector Lamp
" "

APPENDIX 77 78
View of Interior of

III. 184

Gallery at Altofts Diagrams illustrating Experiments at

Altofts

186

PART

I.

EXPLOSIVES.
the Result p. 1. of

Explosion

Temperature
of

and

Pressure,
p. and of
as a

p. 1.

1.

Combustion
of

of

Coal-Gas,
p. of
an

Energy
of An Mixture

Combination,
of Coal-Gas

Oxidation
p.

Iron,

1.

Explosion
p. 2.

Air,

2.

Expansion
and

Gases,

Explosive
p. 3.

consists

Combustible

Element

Oxidising

Body,
p. 3.

Explosives

Classified Nitro-

by

the

Bobbinite

Committee,
pp. 4-7.

Characteristics of

of

Glycerine

Explosives,
p.

Characteristics
of

Ammonium-Nitrate
and Nitro-

Explosives, Glycerine

7.

Characteristics
p. 8.

Ammonium-Nitrate of List p. p.

Mixtures,
p.

Characteristics
p. 9.

Non-detonating
of 9. Permitted

Mechanical

Mixtures,
classified

8.

Gunpowder,
to

Explosives
of of

according
in British p. 10.

their and

Ingredients, Quarries,

Consumption

Explosives

Mines

10.

Identification

Permitted

Explosives,

1
.

"

Explain,
of

by

way

of how

introduction
an

to

the is
to

subject

Explosives,
owe

Explosion

produced.
two
causes
"

All

explosives
the

their of

explosive properties
and pressure. manual takes is
most

namely,

result axiom
in

temperature

There
on

is

an

important
namely,
are

every chemical and

elementary
action this

chemistry
heat
seen

"

that

when

place

and

light
when

generally evolved,
combustion
in

forcibly
and coal

ordinary
burn

takes

place.
there

Wood
are

and

coal-gas
in these of
a

readily

air, because
have
a

elements the

present
oxygen
to

substances air. called form The

which carbon

great
with

affinity for
the the oxygen

the
gas
to

combines

form combines

carbon
water

dioxide

(C02)
In both
that

and these
an

hydrogen
reactions the
amount

(H20).
is
so

energy of
to
a

of is

combination

great
to

enormous

heat white

given
heat.
S.P.G.

out,
A

sufficient

raise if

the

burning
to

bodies

piece of

iron

exposed

the

atmosphere

slowly
B

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

rusts, the oxygen

of iron, or
rust.

of the In

air

combining with

it to

form

oxide

doing this a certain quantity of heat is formed ; but the rustinggoes on so slowly that the amount of heat is inappreciable to the senses. If we expeditethis action by heating the iron and plunging it into oxygen gas, rusting takes place so rapidlythat the iron actually combination or
catches fire and burns.
case

In the latter

the heat

given out

is

and is easily intense,

the combination takes place so rapidly. because recognised, combination It is a proved law that when takes placebetween of heat is given out if the amount bodies,exactlythe same to accomplishthe process takes a few seconds or takes years
same

result. The combination of the oxygen of iron. and We the iron

can,

producesa
cause

solid
tain cer-

substance

called oxide
to turn

however,

elements

combine, the products being

on a

gaseous.
;

For the
gas

instance, we
escapes If
we
warm

jet
the

of

coal-gasin

room

and

mixes
up

with

no air,

combination

the mixture

the gas
source

immediately catches
of heat
"

of gas and air fire and burns.

"

taking place. by applyinga light, On removing the

not

the

match, for instance

to

the gas does

go

in burning, coal-gas combining with the oxygen of the air,gives out so much heat of gas issuing from the jetis raised that each successive portion the gas burns steadily, to the point of ignition. In this case

out, but

continues

burn, because

the

owing
with
cent,

to

the

gradual mixing
a

of the gas
on so

and

air. allowed
as

If,however, the tap be turned

the air of
room,
even

and

the gas
an

to mix

to

small

extent

10 per

and a lightbe then introduced,a violent (ofthe coal-gas), will take place, owing to the whole of the combustible explosion but almost instantaneously. mixture combining,not slowly, As
a

the result, blown

out.

room

may

be wrecked

and

the

doors
to

and the

windows

This

increase

of pressure

is due

effect of temperature, for it is well known

are

that when than

substances any other

heated

they expand, gases expanding more

may
as

form

of matter.

Explosion

be, therefore, caused

a

by intenselyrapid
be stated that all

combustion, and,

generalrule,it

may

EXPLOSIVES.

owe explosives

force to the generation of presexplosive sure, caused by rapiddecomposition, combination of certain or elements, the productsformed being largely expanded by the

their

heat taken

evolved,the destructive effect being regulated by the time

in

producing the change of state. All ordinaryexplosives consist of two tible parts the combuselements and the oxidising body. Carbon and hydrogen, either free or combined in certain compounds, generally form the combustible combined with other part,and oxygen, loosely
"

elements,
up

as

in

the

nitrates and

is added chlorates,

to

burn

hydrogen to form carbon dioxide and steam in a lecture at a high temperature. (W. J. Orsman, F.I.C., before the National Association of Colliery Managers, England.)
2.
"

the carbon

and

How

would

you Combustion

explain
and

the

difference

tween be-

Detonation?

explosiveis ignitedsimply by a spark or flame, a small portionof the explosivemixture is kindled in the first instance,and for a periodit is called simply progressive bustion comin the neighbouring ; this produces a slight pressure heats them ; and, by layers of gases, and of course naturally the time the progressive combustion reaches these more highlyand at a higher temperature, the rate of compressed gases,
an

If

combustion

is accelerated

until at

last it ends

in
a

true

plosion ex-

But in the case of being formed. the initiation or a detonating explosive, source, is set up more and the series wave rapidly, take placein au infinitely shorter time.

detonating
sive explooperations

of this of

3."

How

are

Explosives

classified?
on

In the Bobbinite

valuable

Report of the Departmental Committee

divided which
are
as

(Cd, 3,423, 1907) explosivesare

under
:
"

into five

principal groups,
1
.

Nitro-glycerine : explosives (a) Low per cent, nitro-glycerine (b) Medium per cent, nitro-glycerine. (c) High per cent, nitro-glycerine.
(d) Gelatines.
B2

THE

SSOT-FIRStiS

GUIDE.

2. Ammonium

nitrate

explosives.

3.
4. 5.

and ammonium-nitrate Nitro-glycerine Non-detonating mechanical mixtures.

explosives.

Gunpowder.
groups
p.

Of these

1, 2 and 3

are

detonants,or high explosives.

(SeeQ. 12,
4." What
or

11.)
the Chief Characteristics of the First

are

Nitro-

Glycerine Group?
depend on the presence ingredientbeing a liquidnecessitates

The of

chief characteristics of this group

This nitro-glycerine. will retain it in the substance which the employment of some of an as a cartridge sponge retains water, or else the presence it so that it ceases which will gelatinise to be a liquid. ingredient A prominent characteristic of this group is that they are

relativelyeasy

to

detonate

under

normal

conditions,since

is relatively sensitive. Unfortunately it becomes nitro-glycerine solid at temperatures well above that of the freezing point of in this state the cartridges water, and when are, generally sensitive to rough treatment, but less easy to more speaking,

explode with
due
to

detonator.
a

Hence, after

of spell

cold weather

the number

of accidents
or

during the chargingof a shot- hole explosions when unexploded cartridges removing debris striking
increased.
arisen from the In the past the
a

due

to

is

largely

considerable of

number

of fatalities have

employment
restore

to cartridges

them

for warming improper means condition (see to a plastic pp.

111-113).
of this group are readilyinflammable, and explosives when burnt, instead of being detonated, they give off generally, of highlypoisonousgases. largequantities Low per cent. Nitro-Glycerincs." Sub-group (a), All
Low
per

cent.

This

sub-group
The
cent,

may

be termed

the Carbonite
forms

Nitro-

group.
25 per

which nitro-glycerine, of the total

about

Glycerines.

weight, is generally

absorbed added
a

nitrate,or

oxygen

by wood-meal, and to this mixture is nitrate of potascarrier (generally sium

it were,
a

or

barium),thus

forming,as

mixture

of nitro-

EXPLOSIVES.

with glycerine introduced

as

a a as

wood-meal

gunpowder.
between
a

The

carbonites

were

compromise
for

such explosive, and be

were

dynamite, and the

use

highly shattering non-detonating gunpowder,

where

intended

in coal

mines

danger

was

to

apprehended from fire-damp. The nitre-glycerine having been,

down possess

so

to

speak, diluted

or

tamed

by
a

very

slow

and

cool

comparatively low

gunpowder, these explosives speed of detonation and are

suitable for coal-getting than any therefore,to be more alleged, other detonatingexplosive. and They have successfully passed both the Woolwich Belgian tests (see pp. 70 and 71) and are considered on the Continent be among the safest of all explosivesused in to gassy mines.
is
over

The

charge limite (seep. 133) of carbonite

900
to

at

Frameries

grammes.

They have
in the

tages, certain disadvangroup, the chief of

in addition

those

inherent

tively they are bulky and thus entail the use of relalargechargesand a relatively largediameter of bore-hole. This sub-group is also generally regarded as being more than the other explosives liable even of the nitro-glycerine noxious to cause fumes, consistinglargely of the group which
is that

inflammable

gas

carbon-monoxide.

Sub-group (b),
Medium
cent. per

Medium

per

cent.

Nitro-

Glycerines. This
"

sub-group consists of explobe termed

of

Nitro-

sives which in which from

35

may

strong carbonites,
is nitro-glycerine weight. Up to the

Glycerines,

the
to

percentage

48 of the total

present
the

they have

not

been

much

used
been

in this country.

On

Continent, however, they have

have Grisoutirie 11. may
cent,

little time, and Frameries. of 44 per

employed for some successfully passed the Belgian tests

be taken
per
as a

at

type.

It consists phate, sulat

of
per

44 nitro-glycerine,
cent,

cent,

of sodium

and Frameries

12 is 650

of wood

-meal.

Its

charge Limite
is

grammes. of nitro-cotton

Occasionallya small percentage

with explosives List this and

added, and

ingredient present 10)

use

appear

on

the Permitted

(seepp.

under

the

names

of

Dragonite and

Normanite,

but their

is restricted.

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

High per cent. Nitro- Glycerines, Sub-group (c), This sub-group is represented High per cent. by dynamite, which consists of 75 per cent, of nitro-glycerine Nitroabsorbed by 25 per cent, of kieselguhr. Glycerines, It was the first nitro-glycerine practically used on a largescale and its chief characteristic is it" explosive from its high velocity tion, of detonagreat shattering power, arising
"

which It will
not

is

nearly three times

as

great
or

as

that of carbonite.
tests.

pass

either the Woolwich

"

the Continental

Gelatines. In this sub-group the nitro-glycerine (d), is gelatinised and all the explosives in it can by nitro-cotton, be recognised cluded Inby their somewhat jelly-like appearances. in sub-group (d) are such explosives as blasting The Bobbinite Committee "c. gelatine, Gelignite, placethem in this order to show the process of evolution. tine, gelaBlasting the most used commercially,consists powerfulexplosive of nitro-glycerine and nitro-cotton only. This composition for various reasons requiredto be tamed down, and hence it diluted with carbonaceous materials and oxygen-bearing was such salts, these
as

Sub group

wood-meal it is well it

and
known

nitrate
as

of

potassium, and with

pass

additions
test not

Gelignite. To
tamed, and
of oxalate
of

the

Woolwich
purpose

required to
10

be further
cent,

for this

less than
a

per

of ammonium,

which

contains

largeamount
and

of water under

wa" crystallisation, names

added, and

in this form

the
test.

of

Storvite,
almost

Arkite, "c., it passed the Woolwich

pass

ever, It will not, how-

the Continental

test,chargesof 50 grammes

invariably causingignitions. From a blastingpoint of view the chief feature in the Gelatines is their great local shattering though, as we effect, modified by shall subsequently show, this can be successfully
skilful use, and
also the

fact that
risk of
a

they

can

be

used

in

wet

shot holes without To the

sum

great

miss-fire.

up

the

characteristics of the

nitro-glycerine group,
"

to be : advantagesmay be said generally 1. Ready detonation under normal conditions. enables them to be squeezedinto 2. Plasticity, which it up. bore-hole, filling completely be used in wet holes. 3. In the case of the gelatines, can

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

6."

Describe

the

Third

or

Ammonium-Nitrate

and

Nitro-Glycerine Group.
The
AmmoniumNitrate and

explosivesin
with

this

group

have

been the

introduced

the view

of

gettingover

Nitro-Glycerine Group.

in detonatingammonium-nitrate exdifficulty plosives. Generally speaking, about 8 per in 8 per cent, absorbed cent, of nitro-glycerine

of wood-meal
of nitrate of ammonium.
even freely

is mixed

with

about

84 per cent,

These

explosiveswill detonate

fairly

when
up

to

be made

in

is frozen, but they have nitro-glycerine has waterproof cartridges.Great difficulty

the

been

experienced in providing a
the

suitable

method

of waterproofing

cartridges. into use These have only come comparatively explosives in in this country, but they have been manufactured recently

Germany
Those
to

for which

some are

years.
on

the Permitted

List would

probably fail explosives

pass the Continental

test,but

as

somewhat

similar

in assigned to them charge Unities of 500 grammes Germany, it is probable that, with slightmodifications,the the to pass British-made explosive could be manufactured

have

Continental 7." What

test.

are

the

Characteristics

of

the

Fourth tures Mix-

Group"
?

Non-detonating
The

Mechanical

of this class only explosives

are

Amasite,
is

Non detonants.

Aphosite, Bobbinite, and Virite.

The used first is
in two
or a new : explosive

the second

three

collieries and

the last is

not

now

manufactured. Bobbinite.

It

remains, therefore, only to deal very

its action resembles m explosive gunpowder, and is consequently popularwith miners who have been accustomed to blast with gunpowder. Like that explosive, it requiresto be efficiently temped to obtain good results. Bobbinite consists of a high-grade gunpowder containing but little sulphur,mixed and pressed with starch and paraffin wax into a pellet which is coated with paraffin wax.

shortlywith

This

EXPLOSIVES.

The

method

of

its manufacture

is very

similar

to

that
pass

employed
the

for the

production of gunpowder.
unstemmed

It will not

Continental

tests,as when

it does not

explode

properly.
8 "Describe the

Gunpowder
The

Class
of
4 is

of

Explosives

characteristic

Gunpowder,
for work

of Group explosives which explosion,

gunpowder and the their low velocity of

them
very

renders

suitable

where

further
an

fact that

heaving action is required. from the advantage in use for coal-getting accrues tion overchargedhole is not penalisedby the produca same

slow

of slack to the
turns
as

extent

as

with

detonant risk of
source

ever, howthis,

to
an

when there is a disadvantage overchargedhole is a distinct

a

firedamp, igniting of danger.

or

Gunpowder
tests.

will not pass either the Continental

Woolwich

9."

Give

the

List

(July 3, 1909)
classified

of
to

Permitted their

Explosives
GROUP

according

gredients. In-

I.
"

NITROGLYCERINES.

Carbonites Sub-group(a),
Britonite.
Catnbrite. Carbonite.

Kynite. Kynite Condensed.

Nobel Oaklite

Phoenix
Pit-ite.

Powder.

Carbonite.
No. No.
:

Tutol. Victorite.

Clydite.
Kolax.

1. 2.

Oaklite

(5), StrongCarbonites Sub-group

Dragonite.
Gelatines Sub-group(c),
Albionite.
Arkite.
,

Extra-carbonite.

Normanite.

Cornish Dominite.

Powder.

Bippite.
Eusselite.

Celtite. Ciiffite.

Fracturite.

Samsonite
1.

Haylite

No.

Stow-ite.

GROUP
Ammonal. Ammonal

II.
"

AMMONIUM-CITRATES.
Odite.
St. Helen's Koburite II. Titanite.

Powder.
No. 3.

B.

Permonite.
Permonite Bellite Dahmenite

Ammonite.
Amvis.

Thunderite. Titanite No. 1. Westfalite No. 1. Westfalite No. 2. Withnell Powder.

Kipping Ammonal.
No. 3.

No. 1. Colliery Steelite. Good Luck. Minite.

Bellite

Curtisite. A.
Powder.

Electronite.
Faveraham

Negro Powder.

10

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

GROUP

III"

AMMONIUM-NITRATE
Monobel
Permitite. Powder.

AND

NITROGLYCERINE.
Eexite. Nobel Ammonia Powder

Abbcite.
Excellite.

GROUP
Amasite.

IV.

"

NON-DETONATING
Bobbinite.

MECHANICAL
Virite.

MIXTURES.

Aphosite.

10."

Give

Table
in

showing
British 1908.
Table I.

the Mines

Consumption
and

of

Explosives
during
the

Quarries

Year

11."

How

would
?

you

identify

Permitted

plosive Ex-

Since

the 1st of March,

on

1907, the

use

of

sive explopermitted
mark

is conditional

each

bearing a cartridge

showing

FIG.

1.

"

COMPULSORY

MARK

ON

PERMITTED

EXPLOSIVE.

it to be
a

permittedexplosive.
with the letter P

The

marking
as

is the outline of in

crown

in the centre,

shown

Fig. 1.

CHAPTER

L"

PART

II.

DETONATORS
Detonants and p. 11. 12.

AND
p. 11.

FUSES.

Non-detonants,
Bickford

Combustion,
12.

Explosion
of 13.

and

tion, Detona-

Fuse,
of

p.

Ignition by Fuse,
of

Non-detonants

by
p. 13.

Fuse,

p.

Ignition
p. 14.

Detonants

p.

Fulminates,
for

Detonators,
p. 14.

Standard of Primer

Composition Cartridge,
Fuse for

Charge
p.

Detonators,

Preparation
p.

15.

Bickford

Safety
trical Elecp. p. 19. 21. of

Igniter,

16.

Permitted p. 19.

Igniter
Electric

Firing
p.

Mines,
Fuse

p. 17.

Resistance,

Fuse,

19.

Head, Priming,

High-Tension
Electric
Fuse p. 26.

and

Low-Tension p.

Electric

Fuses, Wires,
27.

p. 20. p.

Detonators,

21.

Fuse p.

25.

Selection

Fuses,

Delayed

Action

Fuses,

Detonator

Cases,

p.

28.

12.

"

What and
a

is

the

difference
? detonant

between

Detonant

Non-detonant
between
it

The

difference when their

and that
"

non-detonant
vary

will

be

understood much which In

in

is

recognised
of

explosives
that

very time

rapidity
for
a

combustion
to

is,

in

the

it takes
some

given weight
the

explode.
chemical
energy

materials
a

accumulated which

is released

slowly, producing
In with

change
the and

is called

CQmbustion.
takes

other

materials

transformation is then the called

of energy

place

greater
yet

rapidity

explosion.
with the solid such
matter

In

other

materials that
is

change

occurs

ordinary extra-

rapidity
gases

the

conversion

of

into

and

vapours

practically instantaneous.
The with force

This
an

menon pheno-

is called

detonation.

produced by
it is converted

explosive
into

depends

on

the

rapidity
is
no

which

gases,

and, since there

and

sharp dividing-linebetween
classes form series
to
a

one

explosive
from of
true
a

another,

the

different
on

passing
stage

stage

bordering

simple

combustion

detonation.
In

practice, however,
which
are

blasting agents

can

be

divided

into

(a)

those

exploded

by simple ignition and

(b) those

12

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

which

requireto

be

exploded by
and

detonation.

The

former

are

called non-detonants

the latter detonants.

13."

What
to

is the

Safety Fuse, and how Firing of Non-detonants

class

is it
?

applied

gunpowder and Bobbinite are the principal the simple application on representatives, ignite of sufficient heat, usuallythrough the medium of a fuse,consisting of a cord,taped or otherwise a core covered, containing of fine gunpowder. Safety fuse, the invention of William Bickford, of Tuckingmill, Cornwall, was designed by the inventor to obviate the various dangers inseparable from the use Germans of and other stillused but happily obsolescent methods of conveying fire to a blasting charge.
"
"

Non-detonants, of which

Numerous

and

important improvements
successors

have

been of the
of

effected

by

the inventor's

since 1831, the year

in

original
different

patent, which
modern The

have

resulted
to

the

introduction various

qualitiesof fuse, adapted

all the

requirements of
descriptions principal

blasting. Table following

of

illustrates used.

some

of the

safetyfuse
Table

now

II."

Bickford'* Safety Fuse.

Purpose.
For For immediate
use use use use use

Maker's

Number.

Description.

Small
Ked

fuse

use

in

dry ground
close

4
8 9

fuse
sump fuse
....

in

damp

and

places

Tape
Double

For For For For

in wet in very in water in 300

13
15

tape sump fuse Gutta-percha fuse Double gutta-percha

. .

ground wet ground

ft. water and into close
warm

fuse
23

White

tape fuse
double

'
. . .
.

For

use

in wet

places,and
climates

for

exportation
White fuse 25 Patent fuse colliery To
. .

tape

For
use

very wet in hot

and

close

places, and

for

climates

convey fire or

emitting sparks laterallyduring combustion

fire without

To

fire a

charge by

means

of fuse,a suitable

length is cut
centre

off

obliquely and

inserted

through

hole

in the

of the

DETONATORS

AND

FUSES.

13

as primer cartridge, weight of charge has

is added, the whole free

Fig. 2. been placed in the carefully tamped, and

shown thus

in

When bore-hole
a

the

required
primer
the

the

light appliedto

extremity of the fuse.

combustible
core

The the end

ignitedburns along the

out
a

inside of from
the

cord and which

sends ultimately reversed

spurt of flame

is shown

the end object of reversing

it were,

and

so

prevent

its

cartridge, Fig. 2. (The of the fuse is to form a wedge, as accidental withdrawal during the
be stated that

in

the

operationof stemming.) As a guide to safety, it may

fuse but

ordinaryBickford
seconds,
from

burns
some

at

the

approximate speed

of 1 ft. in 30

margin of time should atmosphericor other causes.

be allowed

for variations

FIG.

2.

14.

"

How

are

Detonants
cannot

Fired

by

Fuse

Ignition

The

detonants

but ignition,
can

only be
This

ordinarilybe exploded by simple receive an must extremely violent shock such as produced by another explosionof the most rapid
is obtained

kind, namely, detonation.

initial detonation

by

the

use

of certain
are

salts called Fulminates, which extremely explosive from for fulminic which is acid
or

derived formula the

one

the chemical nitro-acetonitrite, The best known and

CH2(N03)CK
for

which

is used

blastingpurposes
formula

is mercuric

fulminate.
on

It

is obtained nitrate

by the action of alcohol and nitric acid

has the chemical is

mercury

and

HgoCsNoOo.
It

This when
when

compound
heated
to

extraordinarily unstable. 360"F., when

with
an

explodes
pin, and
with
centrated con-

about

scratched electric When

by

brought into

contact

spark,or

sulphuric and
it is in explosive.

nitric acids.

wet thoroughly

14

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

In the

a application practical

small

quantity of
a as

fulminate

(mixed with
copper
effect
as a

chlorate
at

of
one

tube, closed
solid in

potash) is put into end, in such a manner

which
a

solid-drawn
to form

in

shown

pieceof Fig. 3.

fulminate

would

appear

in section

This is called

detonator.

FIG.

3.

The shown

standard in Table Table

of charge for composition III. III.

"

Nobel

detonators

is

Standard

Mixture

for Detonators.

Sometimes the top of the

aluminium

powder

is mixed
new

with

or

pressedon

while the fulminate,

as used Tetryldetonator,

by The
An appears

Co.,is made of Tetra-nitro methyl aniline. illustration showing a group of detonators (actual size)
in

Eoburite

Fig. 4.

3 FIG.

3A4 4."DETONATORS.

(Actual Size.)
a

To
cut

prepare

fuse for the

a as

of explosion
a

detonant
or

piece is
means

from obliquely tool special

either with coil, shown in

sharp knife

by

of the

Fig. 5-

16

THE

SHOT-FIBER'S

GUIDE.

the
causes

use

of of

defective, or inferior,
and of the
so

damp

detonators
to

are

fruitful

unpleasantfumes

lead frequently

only partial
as

detonation The
in the

explosive.
prepared is stemmed
PRACTICAL and fired

primer

explained

chapteron

APPLICATIONS,

p. 80.

FIG.

7.

15."

How Mines

can

Safety
in which

Fuse

be

used

in

Fiery
found

? inflammable months
in such gas

In all coal mines within the

has been

quantityas to be indicative of danger, only "permittedexplosives may be used, and if requiredto be exploded by safety fuse,the only permissible is by a "permitted of ignition than electrical) means (other
previous three
"

fuse" of the kind manufactured igniter Smith iron

or

by the

firm of Bickford,
a

"

Co.

Bickford's
at

fuse igniter
one

consists of

tube

of tinned of

closed steel,

end, and

containing a

mixture

Potassium

Chlorate
Fuse

and Wool

Sugar

Glass

bulb

containing

SulphuricAcid
FIG. s.
"

SECTION

THROUGH

BICKFORD'S

IGNITKB

FUSE.

chlorate
contact

fuse is

potassium and sugar pressedinto a pellet,in close sealed glasscapsulecontainingconcentrated with a hermetically sulphuricacid. A section through such an igniter in view of the same shown in Fig. 8, and a perspective
of

Fig. 9.

DETONATORS

AND

FUSES.

17

of the fuse is effected by breaking the glass ignition and so allowing the sulphuric acid to come into contact capsule with
A

The

the chlorate of
very

potash.
as

powerful oxidising agent known

thus
FUSE

chlorine

peroxide

(C102)is

produced,and

when

generated in
LIGHTER

the presence

PRESS

HERE

FIG.

9.

"

PERSPECTIVE

VIEW

BICKFORD'S

IGNITER

FUSE.

vigorousthat fuse of this description the sugar takes fire. An igniter may be used as a substitute for open flame ignition anywhere except in which the Coal Mines Order applies. in places to Explosives fuse may be used in those places igniter Only a permitted the Coal Mines Order applies. The essential difference where fuse and a permitted igniter fuse is in the between an igniter and requirementthat the latter class must be of special quality be suppliedpermanently attached to its igniter. must the fuse (No. 25, Table II., consist Specifically, p. 12) must of gunpowder in weight not exceeding 6 grammes of a core per 1'09 traversed metre yards), (0*21 oz. (avoir.) by two per threads and enclosed by : (1) a layer of jute yarn ; (2) a layerof jute yarn laid in the contrary direction;
a

of such

substance

as

sugar

the

oxidation

is

so

"

(3) a layer of tape ;

(4)
a

(5) a

layerof tape laid layer of jute yarn

in the contrary direction ; secured

by

suitable varnish

BICKFORD'S

PERMITTED

IGNITER
FIG. 10.

FUSE

the

three

outer

treated layers being specially

with

fire-

composition. proofing
This fuse must be fitted into the open end

of the

igniter,
a

attached securely
S.F.G.

thereto, and

the

jointcemented

by

tape
C

18

THE

SIIOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

bearing the

"Crown"

and

the

letter "P."

The

permitted

in Fig. 10. fuse presents the appearance seen igniter fuse shall It is further provided that the permitted igniter be fired only with the implement suppliedby the manufacturer and accordingto the instructions enclosed in each package. The implement referred to, namely, Bickford's patent nippers,

is shown

in

Figs. 11

and

12.

They

are

so

constructed

that,

FIG.

11.

"

BICKFORD'S

PATENT

NIPPERS.

when

the nippers longitudinally, will close exactlyon the rightspot to be pressedfor firing.The could be fired with any nippers, but the inexperienced lighter operator might not always squeeze at the exact pointwith the which ensured laythe use of Bickford's patent nippers, accuracy has lighter been
serve

the

inserted

also

as

gauge

and

cannot

fail.

FIG.

12.

"

BICKFORD'S

PATENT

NIPPERS.

The that

chamber

of the the

nippers entirelysurrounds

and

encloses

takes place, lighterin which the ignition of a spark reaching thus effectually preventingthe possibility the outer atmosphere. The slots in the handles are for use and serve the purpose of closing with ordinaryigniters the open tube around the fuse before firing. end of the lighter

portionof

DETONATORS

AND

FUSES.

19

16."

By
the

virtue be

of

what
?

.electrical

property

can

Fuses
For

ignited
of

securinggreater safetyto workers in mines and in the conduct of blasting trical elecoperations generally methods of explodingcharges have been developed and In these methods are extensively used. advantage is very taken of the fact that a wire of a given diameter will only carry If this quantity a definite quantity of electric current. safely
purpose is exceeded known be
as

the wire

becomes
may
even

hot, by virtue of the property

be melted if sufficient current
are

and resistance, it.

suppliedto
will be end

If,therefore,two
a

pieces of wire
much
same

taken
at

which
one

safelycarry

joinedby
is

given current, and short length of wire

to

the extremities
very

thinner

and

which

consequently unable

carry

the and

current,
fire to any when
source

length will become mixture with which ignitible

this short free ends of the wires
are

incandescent
it may

set

be with

in
a

contact

the of

connected

suitable

electrical energy.

17."
An

What

is

an

Electric
consists

Fuse

?
a a

electric fuse wires which

are

of essentially
one

ing pair of conductthinner wire

or

joined at which chemical composition

end

by

is

capable of becoming

incan-

FIG.

13.

descent

on

the passage
or

the said wire in contact This

through it of a suitable electric current, composition being either inflammable itself or

inflammable mixture.

with

an

inflammable

mixture, togetherwith the part called the

which fuse-head,
in
a

paper

tube with

in contact

contained is generally produce ignition, which about 1^ in. long and Jin. in diameter in Fig. 13. a cartridge appears as shown
is to
C2

20

THE

SHOT-FlREtiS

GUIDE.

18."

There

are

two

ignition.
There
are

How
distinct

systems are they

of

Electric
?

Fuse

denned

two

classes of electric fuses, and

many

varieties of each The TENSION classes

are

class.

commonly

known

as

HIGH-TENSION

and

LOW-

and are perhaps best defined by respectively, the wire connects reference to the ignitingmedium, which terminals within the fuse tube or casing. fuse is one having its terminal wires bridged A HIGH-TENSION high by a combustible and conductive composition of relatively electrical resistance,as indicated diagrammaticallyin Fig. 14.

fuses

LOW-TENSION in

fuse is

one

having its

terminals

metallically by

connected, as
and in contact

Fig. 15,
a

the connection

being

surrounded

with

combustible

mixture.
Priming

FIG.

14."

HIGH-TENSION

FUSE.

Priming

FIG.

15."

LOW-TBNSION

FUSE.

19-"

How

does

Ignition

occur

in
?

(a) High-tension
in the following

Fuse, (b) Low-tension

In the
case

Fuse

of
:

high-tension fuses, occurs ignition

Electrical energy
at

manner

the

fuse terminals

nically, (techThe

of the heat

is,owing to the fusehead) bridging composition, converted

cannot

the

insufficient conductivity
into heat energy.

with dissipate
to the

sufficient

temperature rises
may

point of
the

therefore the rapidity, of the bridge (which ignition bursts into flame

also be

the

priming);

latter then

and

initiates the

required explosion. fuses the wire heated, bridge is similarly

it is in contact.

With and
so

low tension

ignitesthe priming with which

DETONA

TORS

AND

FUSES.

21

20."
An fuse

What

is

an

Electric

Detonator?
of
an

electricdetonator consists of the combination

electric with
a

(which may
as

be

either

HIGH

or

LOW-TENSION)

detonator of

above

and presents the generalappeardescribed, ance

Fig. 16.

FIG.

16."

ELECTRIC

DETONATOR

FUSE.

14 and 15, though only intended (Figs. to show diagrammatithe difference between cally High-Tension and Low-Tension

fuses, may

also be taken

as

sectional

diagrams

of

electric detonators.)

21."

Describe E.D. used

some

of

the

Electric Fuses

Fuses

and

(Electric Detonator)
in

generally

British
A

mines.
make of

E.D. high-tension fuse is shown in Fig. 17. sectionally To prepare this type of fuse the connecting wires W, consisting No. 24 S.W.G. of two tinned copper wires,separately insulated and then braided together, bared for a length are well-known of about
in grooves 1

the bared wires being then laid in.,

at

each

side of A form

wooden around

plug, PL. this plug to

cylindrical stripis rolled paper T, rather a cylinder,

a

small

longer than
diameter

its support, and

of

an

outside

nator approximating to that of the detoA charge of priming,P, is put tube. with
a

in

contact

the wire

ends, and
or

held

in

place by
means. a

thin membrane

other

suitable

The

detonator

completed fuse is then placedin containingthe required weight of

outer

fulminate

F, the

tube

is indented

to

prevent withdrawal
FIG. 17.

of the

fuse,and

finally
as

the end shown

is sealed with
at C.

waterproof cement
detonator

HIGH-TENSION
DETONATOR FUSE.

In the

low-tension special

made

22

THE

SHOT-PIRER'S

GUIDE.

by

the

Cotton wires
are

Powder

Co.

copper

threaded has been

(Ltd.)two No. through a wooden

and

22

S.W.G.

tinned shown
in

plug,as
soaked

Fig. 18, which

The ends

drilled to gauge

in varnish.

and shown in the illustration, as projectslightly, are joined by a platino-iridium bridge two mils (0-002in.) diameter. This bridgeis enclosed in nitrated cotton, no other priming being used. The fuse is put into the detonator until the priming just touches suitable The the

fulminate, and

is then

fixed

in

positionwith
a

waterproof cement. Lancashire ExplosivesCo. (Ltd.)produce

fuse in the

compound
is taken
to

detonator

design of which

great

care

which are a constant of miss-fires, source precludethe possibility in this construction is The fusehead of danger and expense. of wood, through which two separate passages Z are bored in such a (Fig.19),and through which the wires are drawn
Indie-Platinum
Cement Wire 0-002" dia.

Wood

Gun

Cotton

Copper
Shell

Plug
FIG. 18." No.

Priming
7 L.T.

DETONATOR.

The ends of the into contact. they cannot come wires terminating in the internal powder-chamber C are disc of non-conducting material, G, passedthrougha perforated and securely riveted, forming two copper heads, as shown at F,
manner

that

The when

fusehead inserted

is formed into the

as

shown

in elevation the

so (Fig. 20),

that the

detonator

distance

between

priming compositionand
four of the millimetres. the flash from B.

the fulminate This tends

to

is constant,
ensure

the

being precisely projection

fulminate under

pressure

priming composition direct on to the The priming E in these fuseheads is moulded the apex of which, into the shape of a nipple,
ensures resistance,
a

the offering A
coat

least

central

fire.

of

and varnish,D, protects the priming composition, wires Y

are

the insulated

twisted

(asshown

in

Figs.19

and

20)

24

THE

SHOT-FIRE

liS

GUIDE.

in two which with One

divisions, or, in other words, of

is blocked in the middle

tube, the

way

through

by

metallic

wall,homogeneous

the tube end

itself.
2 IB) contains (Fig.
a

of the tube

charge of priming
the conductors
in

the ends of compositionin which are embedded bridged by a very thin platinum wire, as shown

Fig. 21

A.

FIG.

22."

SECTION

THROUGH

TIRMANN

FUSE.

The These
course

fuse-head fuses
are

is made

fast in the and

care

by sulphur cement. casing

are

machine-made Great

tested

three

times

in

of manufacture.

is taken

to make

the fuse

tate to facilias bridgesof perfectly so equal electrical resistance, their application in great numbers. to simultaneous firing made with iron and sometimes with copper They are sometimes

FIG. 23.

"

EXPLOSION

OF

TIRMANN

FUSE.

of conductors, either pattern being insulated,

to the nature

course,

suitably
iron
a

of the work

for which

it is intended.

With

wires

1 metre

the total resistance of (3ft.3^ in. approx.) long, is 1 ohm. resistance

Tirmann
same

fuse

Using

copper

conductor The

of the is

length the

is reduced
to

by half.
hold
a

free end

coned slightly

inside

(seeFig. 22)

detonator

tightly

DE

TON

A TORS

A ND

FUSES.

25

without detonator

further

'manipulation. The
of within

fuse

being put

over

the

instead

it,as

in other

patterns, eliminates

the platinum exploding the cap by friction. When wire bridgein this patent fuse becomes incandescent through the passage of an electric current the explosionof the priming
so

the risk of

caused, bursts the metal wall which projects a fire

a

divides

the cap

into two

parts and
action of of

shot from

through the tube with the pistol. Fig. 23 illustrates the manner
stream

firing.
An

development of the paste form of priming is interesting This firm, that employed by the Koburite Explosives Co. (Ltd.). instead of using a granulated priming, dips the fuse-head (which may be either high or low tension)into a conductive
and inflammable wires terminal

compositionwhich adheres and dries on the like the tip of a lucifer match. By the adopMetal each Foil side Solid Fuse

Card Stripwith
Connections
on

Priming

Cement

\Solder connecting
Wires with Metal Foil

Detonator

FIG.

24.

tion of this method circuit is

on

of construction

the

spacing of

the

broken

automatically adjusted by
to

the thickness

board of the cardshows this

which

the metal

foil is

pasted. Fig. 24

type of fuse in section. 22." What

are

Fuse
The

or

Detonator

Wires

Fuse

Wires,

the

conductingwires or leads which serve nication of completing electrical commupurpose

between
the

cable and the fusefiring

more

head
of

are

sometimes
or

made wire.

of tinned The

iron, but

frequently
22

copper

brass

size is

usually No.

I.W.G.
45

and the lengthvaries from 8 in. to wire gauge), (Imperial according to requirements. The most commonly used lengthsfor mining purposes from
36

ft.,

range

in.,increasing b}'additions

of 6 in. to 5 ft.

26

THE

SHOT-FIREliS

GUIDE.

Fuse

wires

should

bore-hole in which
necessary
to make

always be they are to

few

inches

longer than
it may

the be

be

used, otherwise

and joints,

this introduces

risk of miss-fires

(see p. 96).
On the other

hand, the

use

of
6 in.

48 in. fuse

wires

instead
"

of

42 in." that is to say,

of wires

longer than is using

say

necessary

would

mean,
an

to

colliery company
waste at

5,000 shots per

cost

month,
extra

annual

of about

"18, taking the

of

an

6 in. of wire

6s. per

1,000 fuses.

23.

"

Is and

there

any

choice

between of

High-tension ignition
?

Low-tension
are

systems
with from
one

Fuse

wires

covered
current

insulating material
wire
to

to

vent pre-

leakage of
either wire
to

the

other,or from

intended for (seePart III.,p. 77). When in dry ground, a simple wrapping, consisting of two layers use of cotton yarn saturated with an insulating compound, is amply sufficient. For blasting in damp ground or under water indiarubber or gutta-percha covered wires are necessary. At the present time custom is, perhaps, Selection fairly equallydivided between the use of high earth
of Fuses.

and

low-tension

fuses.

treme generallywhere exclimatic changes are not to be looked for,high-tension fuses give most results. For group firing"in satisfactory fuses are parallel"they are to be preferred. Low-tension

In Great

Britain, and

better for obtain this

a

firing"in

series"

(seep. 107),because

it is easier to

more

type.
and

exactlyuniform electrical resistance in fuses of throughout They are in almost universal use
the United

Canada

States,and this system is

to

be

mended recom-

long storage or long transport is necessary, countries. in tropical and specially for use definite infor an in good condition Low-tension fuses remain and their efficiency period,if stored in a dry place, be verified at any time by testingwith a galvanometer. can not generally This is a great advantage,and one applicable fuses. OF TESTING, see p. 71.) to high-tension (For METHODS
wherever

DETONATORS

AND

FUSES,

27
and for

24."

What what

Delayed-action Fuses, Purpose are they used?

are
measure

In and

cross

shaft sinkings headings,

economy

similar

work, great
and of

of

time

Delayed

Action

is gained explosives by simultaneously igniting number of shots of which the

occur plosions ex-

Fuses.

in

successive

stages. Many
tions combinainstantaneous and

methods

ing of attain-

various of

ignition
action

delayed
been
some

have and

vised, deare

touched

upon

quent in subse-

The
most

chapters. and yet simplest methods practical

to

appear which

be

those

in

the Bickford

fuse,

cording graduated in length ac-

to

the

desired

rotation of in

is used firing, with electrical conjunction igniters.Messrs.

Bickford, Smith
for this purpose
mann

supply
a

Tirstructed con-

time

fuse

as substantially

above

described

(p. 24,
from

Fig. 22).
It also is made
a

strong
divided but the

metal into two

capsule
parts,

"

partition (Fig.
divides them

25) which
is

much middle

stronger. In
of this wall

the

"28

THE

SHOT-FIREIiS

GUIDE.

is

very fine hole which of

a

connects

the
to

priming with
other end

the

powder
metal the
rate

core

Bickford

fuse

attached

the

of the fuse.

On

an firing

electric fuse allows

of this type the wall of the free

capsule bursts, and

Bickford of
one

fuse. centimetre

Bickford

development of gas from gutta-perchafuse burns at the

per

(0-4 in. approx.)

second.
can

From be

this

data the time interval between

as

successive shots

adjusted

desired. Mr.

Bigg-Wither, of the Koburite Co., has designed an igniterof similar character,which is illustrated in Fig. 26.
In this pattern "Venus" low-tension which
are

fuses

are

made

up

in extra

long brass tubes,into

iord fuse to make up fuse is

fitted

varying lengths of BickFor

arrows

fuses. delay-action between the

wet

work

each

taped

over

the space

with adhesive

waterproof tape of the kind used for

(seeFig. 26) joint-making

by electricians.

25."

Describe and

some

Safety
Detonators.
more or

Methods

of

Packing

Carrying
of
a

Many
occurred of

accidents

less serious

nature

having

owing to want of system or other conveying electric detonator fuses from

has been for directed towards

defect in the method

one

attention

the

placeto another, provision of safe

arrangements

packing and carrying. The Lancashire of a system ExplosivesCo. have registered packing electric detonators which is both simple and practical.
detonators
a are

The

packed in tens, each

one

separate from
are

its

neighbour,in in Fig. 27.

The interior view. continuation

cardboard

box, details of which

indicated

of

the

box
the

is
ten

as partitioned

shown
are

in the

tional sec-

When
of

detonator
paper

fuses

a inserted,

the

external

covering,which

has

been

punched to admit the connectingwires, is fitted over them The and gummed to the side of the box. on is suitably labelled for registration by the storekeeper, cover
and

slotted previously

and
as

the shown

complete package when ready in the sketch (Fig.28).

for

deliveryappears

DETONATORS

AND

FUSES.

29'

packed in this styleno further precaution, to comply beyond the provision of a suitable locked case be to with Eules (see p. 174), would necessary. appear carried are (in mines) in small tin Ordinarily detonators of of which the covers are firmlysecured by means canisters,
With detonators

HIGH TENSION E.D. FUZES.

No. T Detonator*.
\Virfi

Datco/Iuue
Shot No. Firer'i .Vouiw

-B

of Pay
Box rttd

.'

Empty
No.
ThU

of Shall find
8y"t*m
o(

P.ckloi

is

R"p"Mre"l.

Section

at

A.B.

FIG.

27.

FIG.

28.

padlock. Such a having wires of say

a

canister may
36 in. in
so

hold

from The

5 to

10
are

detonators

length.
as

wires the

frequently
space

doubled available.
eontents

and

intertwined

to
one

fit into is

limited

Consequently,when
of the
case

required,the
in order
to

entire

must

be withdrawn

separate it

TEE

SHOT-FIBJSKS

GUIDE.

FIG. 29."

THE

XL

DETONATOR

CASE

FIGS. 30 and

31.

"

LEATHBR
AND

DETONATOR
FOLDED

CASE,

BY

THEEDAM,

UNFOLDED

RESPECTIVELY.

PART

I.

EXPLODERS.
"dlassification of Exploders, p. 34. between
a Dynamo Exploder, p. 35.

MAGNETO
a

EXPLODERS, Exploder,
pp.

p. 34. p. 34. pp.

ence Differ-

and

Magneto

Helsby
35-36. Induced

Magneto
DYNAMO

SterlingMagneto
Back-Bar

Exploder,
Nobel's

EXPLODERS,
p. 37.

p. 37.

Machines,
p. 41.

37-41.

Current,
Back-Bar

Superimposed
p. 41. with

E.M.F.,

Three-Post
pp.

Exploder, Exploder

Sterling Dynamo
Field

Exploders, Magnets
and of Current

42-47.

Dynamo
p. 43. DRY

Laminated

Armature,

BATTERIES,
48.

pp. 47-53.

Production

by

Chemical

Be action, p. 47.

Cells, p.

of Elementary Primary Cell, p. 48. Nomenclature Polarisation p. 49. Dry Cell, p. 50. Exciting and p. 50.

Depolarising Mixtures,
Cells, pp. 51-52.
Shot of

Obach

Cell, p.
Facts

50.

Casings
Davis

for

Dry

Wood's

Patent p. 52. pp.

Safety Disc,
54-58. 55.

p. 51.

Pocket

Firer, with

Safety Key,
Accumulators,

for Guidance

in Selection

Cells, p. 53.
in p.
a

Formation
Conditions

Process
for

and

Beactions

Secondary Cell,
of p. 57.

p.

Successful

Working,

56.

Accumulators,

Mains, Polarity Pole-findingPapers, p. 58.

Electrical

p. 56.

Charging

26.

"

What available

Electrical for the

Appliances
purpose of

and

Methods
Fuses

are

Exploding

In

the

machine tried for

early days of the electrical industry almost every device capableof producing an electric current was or the purpose of explodingmines or blasting rock.
machines, induction
and all kinds of primary and coils,

Frictional

secondary cells

have at one magneto-inductionmachines service. Modern ever, howtime or another done practical practice, of (1) Magneto and dynamo confines itself to the use and (3) Current cells, (2) "Dry" or accumulator exploders, of employing the latter mains. from power Safety methods
source

of energy
S.F.G.

are

described

in the author's

Electric

Blasting
D

34

THE

SHO

T-FIRER

'$

G UIDE.

Apparatus
mines is not of

and

Explosives,althoughthe application of it in of the ever-present possiencouraged, on account bility explosionby leakagecurrent.

of

causingpremature
many
are

27."

How

Types
there?
Current

Current

Induction

ploder Ex-

induction

exploders may
is induced

be divided

Current Induction

into three

types :
which
current

(a) In
wire

in coils of

Exploders.
soft iron armature

surrounding the poles of a permanent magnet by suddenly detaching therefrom a

.

(") In

which

coilwound

armature

is rotated

between

the

polesof a permanent magnet (c)In which a coil-wound polesof an electromagnet as

dismissed
as

1
armature

is rotated

between

the

in

an

ordinarydynamo.
still used

Type (a),although examples are

abroad, may

be

lyingoutside

modern

practice.

and (c)include Types (6)

now

all mechanically operated

exploders

in

general use.
the

28.

"

Describe

Construction

and

Method

of

Operating
"

Magneto

Exploders.

Magneto Exploders. Type (b)embraces the class of magneto exploders, examplesof which are to be found in probablyevery British colliery where electric shot-firing is practised. A magneto armature of an exploder consists essentially between the poles of a set of permanent magnets. revolving The main difference between a dynamo and a magneto exploder lies in the fact that the former has electromagnets, soft i.e., iron or mild steel wound with insulated wire, through which electric current an passes and magnetisesthe iron ; whilst the
latter has hardened steel permanent

magnets, without field coils.

Fig. 32 illustrates the type of magneto exploderwhich has for many been in general use years. It is built up of a series of horseshoe magnets joined together by soft-iron polarextensions, magneticfieldof whichashuttle-woundarmatureisrotated. arrangedtoothed A high armature speedis attained by suitably Current is producedby rapidlyrevolvingthe handle wheels.
in the

EXPLODERS.

35

attached internal

to the main
or

drivingwheel and circuit by pressing a firing

is transmitted

to the

button.

The

latter is

FIG.
near placed conveniently

32.

the

terminals

of the

aa line, firing

shown The made

in the external

view

of the apparatus. the illustration

"

pattern from which

32) (Fig.

is taken

is

by

the British Insulated

Helsby

Cables

(Ltd.).

FIG.

33.

used Sterling recently developedand now extensively patent magneto exploder(Fig. 33) mechanical energy is transD2

In the

36

THE

SIIO

T-F1RER

*S

G UIDE.

through suitable speed-increasing gear, detachable half of twist,or, more correctly, -twist, a by a single contrived By a cleverly T-shaped handle. trip device the thrown of gear of the twisting wheels out at the end are
armature,
movement, and the
armature

mitted

to the

continues

to

rotate

by its

own

FIG. momentum.

34.

The
contact

circuit firing is then made

is open

until the handle

strikes the

the

stop ;

automatically, and,
passes

with

armature

stillrevolvingfreely, the current

throughthe

line and firing

explodesthe charge.

FIG.

35.

The
an

mechanism

of the
in

machine Sterling
or a

is encased
as

either in The the

oak

box,

as

Fig. 34,
is

metal

case,

metal-cased smaller

pattern has the advantage of

more

Fig. 35. in being lighter,

for and
use

in

patterns, and

suitable
to

in

tropical
two-

since it is not liable countries,

shrink

split. The

EXPLODERS.

37

in oak, or (high-tension low-tension) measures, brass 4f in. x 2| in. X 4f in. and weighs 3f Ib. In nickel-plated it measures case 3f in. x 2J in. x 3f in.,and weighs 8 Ib. size

shot

17, 1906, Explosivesin Coal Mines Order of December Rule 2 (/) requires that every electrical firing apparatus shall handle be provided with a removable or safety plug,or push or operated until button, which shall not be placed in position
The the shot is requiredto be released handle
or as soon as a

and which fired, has been

shall be removed The removable

or

shot
at

fired. remain

safety plug shall

all times
on

in the

personal

custody of

the shot-firer whilst

duty.
and Method of

29. -Describe

the of

Principles
Rack Bar

struction Conploders. Ex-

Type

Dynamo

These

are

dynamos practically
of which
can

in

miniature,

Dynamo Exploders,

the
a

armatures

be

revolved
a

by

lever, or rotary crank, a pull-over

bar,

vertical

into a train of or geared direct, with the armature wheels in contact spindle. They are the efficient and reliable exploders extant and, the weight most by recently improved immensely reduced having been of design, the smaller sizes are comparable for portamethods bility rack with

explodersof
and
37

any

other

type.
of the
to

Figs.36
well-known these

illustrate machine.

the construction sectionally It will be noted

is

rack-bar
the

by reference
of

that figures

key circuit-breaking
; this

placedin
be

the top
an

of the wooden

containing case
made

modification

older

pattern has been

in order

that it may

always kept
is also

dry and
in

easily accessible for cleaning. A

rack view and the

rod, H,
bar

providedfor guiding and steadying the

the end

I, as
be

shown the

(Fig.37).
armature

It is of
a

well-known

fact that
may

field magnet

small

dynamo
circuit

quickly

brought to
induced

point of saturation, and that, when

the

the current the entire

is at its maximum,
current

breaking of
the

the

causes

generatedin
at

coils to be

either discharged,
or

through the air through a derived

the

point of rupture of the current,

with the terminals

circuit connected

of the

38

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

field-magnet.In
is taken

the

exploder under

consideration, advantage
an

of this is
more

knowledge, and
effective than
a

also of the fact that uniform

lerated acceture arma-

rotation of the

in

of
36

The mechanism bringingabout magnetic saturation. rack-bar exploder is as follows : A field magnet, J (Figs.

P, secured to pole-pieces, a with a predetermined yoke, in the usual way, and wound The quantity of insulated copper wire. polar extremities bored out to receive a Siemens are H-type armature. Upon the end of the armature shaft b is placed a commutator, h,

and

37), is formed

with

soft-iron

FIGS.

36

AND

37."

"RACK

BAR"

DYNAMO

EXPLODER.

which

is touched
commutator

on

diametrically opposite
shown
in

surfaces

by

pairof
secured end

springs (not
insulated

the

to, but

from, the shaft, between

yoke.
the

illustration), Upon the opposite

and the ratchet similar

of the armature

armature

yoke, is placed a pinion,d, provided with a series of teeth,w, on its inner face. These are adapted to engage
but

the end of the on oppositelyarranged teeth, formed Between the pinion and the yoke there is placed armature.
a

spiralspring that
with

tends

to

press

the
n

former

forward
armature.

into A

engagement

the

ratchet

teeth

of the

40

THE

SHO

T- FIRER

's

G UIDE.

EXPLODERS.

41

field

winding,

screws,

plates,key,

contact

screw

and

yoke.
to

Very
the

little current

passes

along the external

and
current

circuit the

owing
manner

comparativelylow
of the line. firing

electrical pressure The

high

ance resist-

produced
or

in this

increases

rapidly as
and

the

rack
to

bar

descends, and
"

excites

the

field magnets
so
"

armature

saturation the extreme

approximately
p

just before the bar reaches

travel. At and the breaks instant induced

ward limit of its down-

point
the

referred

to, the

pin

strikes the the

so

spring key
screw c

the electrical connection maximum from

to

between is

at

the

current

reached, magnet

that

the

extra

current

the

field

and

armature

windings
the

is forced

pass

through

the

external

thus circuit,

ignitingthe
the the

fuse

included

therein,and

bringing
when

about As

explosionof
an

charge.
obtained
much broken
is very

is well known,

superimposedE.M.F.
normal

the circuit of than direct that

electromagnetis
in from the

higher
the the

generated
circuit

working;
could
not

and, whereas
pass

current

dynamo
to

through
of the
so
as

external the

owing

the

great resistance
it to do

latter,
soon
as

superimposed E.M.F.

readilyenables

the short-circuit is broken. In Nobel's of

to

rack-bar exploder(Fig. 38) the three-post

a

method

connecting cables when

be fired is shown.
two series,

considerable
a firing

number

of fuses have number of fuses of which

For

moderate

in
must

leadingwires
with

need

only be used, one

number a large firing should

be connected

the middle For

terminal,and the other with

of fuses be used
;

either of the side terminals. and for submarine

work, three
the middle
a

leading wires
terminal

that connected
at

with with

should

be connected

its outer

end

bared

portion of the wire

afterwards covered

joiningthe
with lating insu-

fuses

the jointbeing together,

tape.
In with firing
must

the

rack-bar
as

exploder,the
far
as as

Firing

with

handle
come,

be then

pulled up
forced down

it will
as

Rack-bar

and

quickly

Exploder.

possible. These
when both hands

are operations
are

best

performed

used

together.

42

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

30.

"Describe

the

Sterling

Type
may

of

Dynamo
scribed debriefly

Exploder.
The

dynamo
as a

type of exploder,which

be

complete by
at
a

series-wound
to

lends

itself

its construction

dynamo in miniature, the productionof a fairly

large current

low pressure, and is,therefore, comparatively low-tension fuses. In dynamo specially adaptedfor firing machines the magnets are excited every time a shot is freshly
ture generatedin the armathrough the field magnet windings. Thus, the passes and are not affected magnets always retain their strength,

because fired,

the whole

of the current

field

by vibration, as
In

is the

case

with

the

magnets

of magneto

ploders. ex-

with shot-firing

magneto

exploders the
is then
reason

circuit is open closed. of the With

until the handle

strikes the

stop, and

dynamo
machine

explodersit
will not in the

is necessary,
or

by

windings
the automatic

being in series,to
device firing

close

short-circuit the

otherwise coils,
The

generate sufficient

current.

dynamo

type, therefore, operates by opening

strikes

the circuit when then

the "handle
on

the stop.

The

current

is

free to flow out

to the line and

greatlyincreased current explainedin connection

An and

is obtained

explode the charge. A by this method as already

of
a

with

the mechanism

rack-bar

ploder. ex-

exploderof
convenient
to

any

kind

must

be

simple in operation,light

capable of withstanding neglectand perature. rough usage, and be unaffected by damp or variation of temThese essentials have been met in the Sterling electric blasting machines to a degree hitherto unapproached by any explodereither of English or Continental manufacture.
carry,

The
a

armature

field wires

in these machines
an

are

insulated process, The

with

enamel special the and wire

covering by
of

entirelynew
laminated

which field
up of

renders

quite impervious to
are

moisture.

magnets
thin

armature

the

type, built
This

stampings of

iron

securelybolted together.
of

method instant

prevents the formation

excitation

eddy

currents

and

ensures

of the field magnets, and

at the terminals

creased consequentlya greatlyin-

output

of the machine.

EXPLODERS.

43

The

apparatus is self-contained
are

in
case.

its

own

framing and
machine
or

no

parts
to the
"

held in

by position
smallest is

the of

The

fore, thereis,

not

liable to be put out The

operationby warping
to

injury
as

case.
"

Sterlingmachine
as

is known

the

BD

type, and

indicated,as
cases

in Fig. 39. construction, small

It is assembled

in the

the

magnets

shown

in

It will, however, fire three shots through Figs.34 and 35. 150yds. of copper cable,as against two shots for the magneto dimensions. exploder of the same

Another
in

of which series, differ from

one

Fig. 40,

generalconstruction another only in their size

the

is shown and capa-

FIG.

39.

"

STEELING

DYNAMO

EXPLODER

"

BD

"

TYPE.

city.
A

They

are

made

to fire from

to

50

shots and

range

in

weight from
novel smaller

6 Ib. to

14lb. this type, which is not found in the

feature

about

machines, is the ingenious method

when
not

adopted for fixing

of
a

the handle block

in

use.

This of the
is

consists handle

small curved At the

into which
a

the

stem

is

passed.
hold the

base of the block

a

small

knob of

recessed, pressedupwards by
is to handle

spring.

The

action
so

this knob

and securely in place, that when the

cause

tion does it perform this funcefficiently of handle is placed in the block no amount The shot-firer will doubtless

shaking will
remember

it to fall out.

to detach

the handle

and

put it into his pocket when

44

THE

SHOT-FIltER'S

GUIDE.

he is above

preparing to
is shown in

fire

charge.
*^fc

The

spring catch

described another

Fig.41, which, however, represents

FIG.

40.

"

ANOTHER

FORM

OF

STERLING

DYNAMO

EXPLODER.

FlG.

41.

"

AXOTHEB

FORM

OF

STEEL'

NG

DYNAMO

EXPLODER.

type, with
and

automatic

gearing. spring-controlled
are

The

small half-

medium-sized

machines

operated by

simple

EXPLODERS.

45

twist of the

handle, but
in

as

the size of the handle

machine

increases,

owing to the appreciable of strength amount to give it the sharp twist necessary essential to fire the shots successfully. In the larger size, the method different. of operationis slightly stead Intherefore, of a sharp twist, the handle is slowly revolved in the direction of the arrow until brought to a stop after half a turn has been made. The hand is then slippedfrom the handle, operatingthe
and the armature is spring)

is found difficulty

(acting under
caused
to

the

pressure

of

powerful
comes

internal

revolve

rapidlyuntil it

to

FIG.

42.

"

THE

"GF"

TYPE

OF

STERLING

DYNAMO

EXPLODER.

the the

of rest of its own position most results, even perfect

accord. with

This

operation ensures
as manipulation,

unskilled

is rendered quite automatic by the action of firing the spring. The 15-shot size weighs 81b. The type (Fig. 42) is designed for the Sterling "GF" and will fire from 70 to 80 shots heaviest blastingoperations

the act of

in

series

simultaneously. It is fitted with

for the

safety firing

attachment

comprisesthe

preventionof premature explosions.This used in the powerfulinternal springmechanism

46

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

type, but instead of its being set free at the end of the stroke,it is wound further,and is up until it will go no then held in positionautomatically all is by a pawl. When
the key is changed ready for firing, rightof the winding hole, and given of the
arrow.

15-shot

into another
a

hole, at the
in the direction allows
manner.

turn slight

This the
in

releases

the

pawl,

and

the

springto
This

actuate

mechanism
cast

in the most

efficient

machine,
5 in. x

aluminium

alloy case,

measures

6| in. x

and weighs 16| Ib. 6f in.,

FIG.

43."

POCKET

TYPE.

FIG.

44.

"

WOOD-CASED

TYPE.

31."

Describe

the

Methods

of

Firing with

Sterling

Exploders.
To

Firing ^ith Sterling

Exploders,

in

fire'with the pockettype hold the machine With in Fig. 43. shown the left hand as

the

right hand
about
a

insert the
a

key firing
contact

into the

socket, and give it

At the shots should be used without

sharp twist
the

to the

right.

half-turn

will strike able Consider-

the stop, when force may With

explode. instantly
type place the machine

injuring the mechanism.

on

the smaller and

wood-cased
a

the

ground

tilt it to

convenient

angle,as

shown

in

Fig. 44.

48

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

acid. The liquid in which the couple is immersed is sulphuric It is absolutely called the electrolyte. essential to the production the that shall be capable of (1)acting of a current electrolyte

couple, (2)conductingthe current, and (3)being decomposed during the action of the cell. the two metallic strips When connected outside the liquid are and current *bya pieceof copper wire, chemical action takes place, at which is said to flow from the strip the chemical action to that at which is least displayed. is most energetic activity such as here described, is set up, it will be If a singlecell,
one

chemicallyon

of the metals

of the

observed
"on

that many

bubbles hence

the copper

strip ;

of gas appear on the zinc,and few it is conventional to say that the

FIG.

45.

-current

flow is in the direction

of zinc to copper,

or

from

the the that

positive (+ ) to the negative (-) strip. Adhering, for sake of simplicity, to this convention, let it be supposed
current

continues

to

flow in the

same

direction,up the

copper
to

thence to its terminal, strip and

so

through the

connecting wire

zinc,

pointwhere it is assumed to start. As the binding this the copper strip is +" and that on the zinc strip on screw terminal is on leads to the apparent anomaly that the positive the positive and the negative terminal the negativestrip, on
to the
"

strip. If, however, it is noted

flows from the

that

inside the

the

cell current

positiveplate (zinc)to

whilst outside the cell current .(copper),

flows

negative plate from the positive

EXPLODERS.

49

terminal

to (copper)

the

terminal (zinc), this little negative liarity pecuof batteries at

once

in the nomenclature

becomes

clear.

it is found that Referringagain to the rudimentary cell, if collected and tested,would the bubbles of gas (which, prove from the zinc to the copper have to be pure hydrogen) passing a tendency to stick to the latter plate. This tendency is,for detrimental the working of the cell. In the to two reasons, the bubbles of hydrogen form a film of insulation, first place, which acts as a counter the internal resistance force,increasing thus reducing the available electromotive of the cell, and force. electromotive force is set Secondly,a further counter up owing to the fact that hydrogen has an opposite electrical in other words, is electropositive, fore to zinc,and therepolarity, tends to send a current from itself againstthe working of the cell. This gaseous action on the plates of voltaic current The thousand-and-one modifications cellsis called polarisation. in construction primary-battery with the

have, for the

most

part, been
inherent

devised

of overcoming this particular object of chemical

defect in the transformation Chemical

in
a

reaction

must

into electrical energy. before current take place be procan duced

as

and primary battery,

an

this is

impossiblein the
The

absence

of moisture

absolutely dry cell is unattainable.

should not, therefore, be taken in its literal dry cell, expression, sense, but rather as a generictitle for all those cells in which and which the exciting mixture is pasty instead of being fluid,
are

sealed

at the

top with

bitumen,
far

or

other

convenient

paration. pre-

In

general, the
are,

composition of the
so as

excitingand
production of

mixtures depolarising
current

the

mere

employed in a common Leclanche but by varying either (orboth) the mechanical cell, of ingredients and proportions construction different makers merits for their particular claim special form of cell. Some further improved by the addition of novel depomakes are larising
agents.
34." Describe the
a

is

concerned, similar

to those

Construction
vertical section fixed

of

Dry

Cell.

Fig. 46 represents
and consists of
S.F.G.

zinc

A, cylinder,

through an Obach cell an on base, insulating

E

50

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

B, and containing a central carbon

rod, (7,surrounded

by

centric con-

and exciting mixtures, covered with granudepolarising lated cork or equivalent material for preventing escape of moisture ; the cork being sealed in with a layerof bituminous
cement.
a

In the

A, is illustration,

base, B. prepared-asphalt of about 50 or 60 per cent, mixture, D, consisting depolarising of manganese bago. peroxide and about 40 or 50 per cent, of plumThis is mixed with a gum-tragacanthto the condition of

cemented to cylinder is a Surrounding a carbon rod, 6',

a

zinc

FIG.

46.

thick

paste,which
of
a

latter is

the form A

hollow

squeezed out column. cylindrical

from this column

of

an

annular

die in

placedin the cell and centred within the upwardly projecting ring b of the base C beingpreviously B the carbon placedwithin it. The annular the depolariser and the zinc is filled in with an space between of about 80 to 90 per cent, of excitingmixture. E, consisting and 10 to 20 per cent, of vegetable calcium sulphate meal, made

suitable

lengthcut

is

into

thin paste with

solution of ammonium

chloride.

The

layer Gr consists of cork, sawdust, or other moisture absorbent, K being the black sealing-compoundthrough which is fixed a small glass tube, -L,to allow the escape of gases.

EXPLODEES.

51

dry cells are used, that they should be enclosed in some kind of casing in order to minimise to liability make accidental contact with the firing line. When used in an condition the negative ( ) connection is also liable unprotected to touch the positive ( + ) terminal,as shown in the figureby dotted lines. This,of course, destroys the cell. In the absence of special of protectionthe negative wire should be cut means off short and bent down, as illustrated at aj, Fig. 46.
"

It is

where desirable,

35."

Describe with

some

Safety

Attachments

for

use

Dry

Cells.

One

of the best known It consists of

a

Fig.47.
the Wood's

safetyarrangements is that shown in leather case, 0, containing dry cells, to

there The
is
an

terminals

of which

attachment

known
ensure

as

patent safetydisc.

latter is

designed to

FIG. 47.

"

DRY

BATTERY

EXPLODER SAFETY

IN

CASK,

WITH

WOOD'S

PATENT

Disc.

that the the

the

cable shot-firing

shall be

totallydisconnected

from In

batteries

immediately after the shot has been

fired.

figurereferred to, the safelydisc A has a brass terminal plateon one side in electrical connection with one pole of the battery through one of the wires in the flexible twin-conductor
B. On the other side of the

safety disc is

brass

terminal

the centre of that plateis Underneath convex. slightly plate, with the other pole of the a brass pin in electrical connection batterythrough one of the wires in the flexible twin-conductor, is pressed inwards To completethe circuit the convex B. plate until it touches the brass pin.
E2

52

THE

SllOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

This occurred

device

adopted owing to a placing the through a man

was

fatal accident wires of

a

having
cable

twin

againstboth
in which
man

sides of the disc of the pattern

each

platewas
him

in direct contact.

issued, originally He was showing a

holding a primed Roburite in his hand, and all connections completed) how to cartridge fire the shot, and thoughtlessly placed the wires againsteach standingbeside
(who
was

side of the disc. Messrs. pressure

on

Wood
one

then

adopted

this

device,which

necessitates circuit.

side of the disc to

complete the

FIG.

48.

"

DAVIS

POCKET

SHOT-FIRBB,
a

WITH

SAFETY

KEY.

It action the the

will
on

be the end

seen

that

predetermined
into electrical has
a

and

deliberate
to

part of the
of the The cable

operator is necessary

bring
with

free

connection

safetydisc.
Davis

apparatus

shot-firing capacityof
21b.

about

2,500 shots,and
and

weighs less
have for
a

than

Messrs.

Son

recentlydesigned a dry battery portable form specially

in
an

shot-firer to meet

the demand

of of

apparatus. This battery is contained

aluminium

case

EXPLODERS.

comply with the rule of dry battery exploders in mines an regulatingthe use is ingeniously arranged detachable press-buttonor firing-key dental provided, which is calculated to render impossible an acciof the fuse. too hasty ignition or At many collieries one, two three dry cells are grouped or side outlid. The together in a pinewood box with screw-down Fig.
48.
+

the

form

shown

in

To

and

"

wires
one

are

respectivelyjoined
side of the
a

to

two

terminals

bolted

through
Nobel

case,

and
a

the handle
use

pleted exploder comor

by the addition of
Messrs. tension
a

key firing
belt

and

sling strap.
their low-

supply a
with
two

battery for
a

with

fuses which

consists of small the

belt carrying military-pattern

leather

pouch
must

dry cells.
Mines

In order to
sets dry-cell

comply
of
a

with

be fitted number
in Table

in Coal Explosives with a firing-key. of

Order,

Particulars

dry

cells

are

given

for

nience conve-

of reference

IV.

36."

Give Cells.

Data

for

Guidance

in

the

Selection

of

The

followingfacts
work under

may

serve

for

guidance in

the selection

of cells to the The

same

E.M.F. is any given conditions : The of size. for all cells of the same type, irrespective of
any

E.M.F.

number

of

cells

joined
one

in

is parallel number of

equal to that of one cell only. cells joinedin series is equal to

the number the number The smaller the of cells
so

The

E.M.F.

of any cell

that of

by multiplied greater
ensues.

joined. The

largerthe

cell the

of shots that it will fire before the cell the

exhaustion

greater its internal

available for

resistance,and

therefore

less energy fuse.

tance overcoming the resis-

of line and

is practically Joining cells in parallel

the to increasing equivalent

size of

permitsof a greater number of firing a lesser number or

37." What is
an

Joining cells in series of shots being fired simultaneously,

a

cell.

over

line. longer or lighter

or

Accumulator,
how
of the

Secondary
Current
French

Battery, and
In the

does

it

produce

early part

nineteenth

century, the

aciduProf. Gautherot, whilst engaged in decomposing physicist

54

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

"D

o.2
t.

a
to
"

to
"

on

0)

03

"U

lljll

Ct

09

"O

9* "O

"5

"0

JS S
o

ioG"OOO"0^ O O

*p

"0

CO

r-

/,

(M

(^

CT

"OCCrH

0)

' . "

""

|| ||

S"S^2

.^~5 -M -0

"

"M

C-

-n

iS

70

"C

.1

xxxxxxxxxxxx -oo^

I
.5 3

I
fe

^'""'^'^fl

" ^

" ^
g
rt
s

"

t
1
xxxxxxxxxxxx

I
(

2
S

"

9
"

"" "o

"H

56

1 UE

SHO

T- FIBER

JS

G UIDE.

in this manner oxidised are plates continually as they are chargedand discharged.

and

deoxidised

38.

"

Are

Accumulators
cells have A
not

much
so

used
far been
"

for

? Shot-firing

Accumulator
to any

used for shot- firing

"

great extent.
and
more

rough treatment
cells
are

shot-firing battery must withstand mulator perhapsan occasional fall. Portable accuor

less of

enclosed in easilynecessity
cost

adoption. Size for size an accumulator will fire a considerably greater of shots than a dry battery, and if suitably number for designed the purpose in view such exploders should prove very serviceable.
39.
"

damaged cases. of upkeep add

Leakage

of

corrosion of terminals and acid, of their

in the way to the difficulties

What

is necessary to ensure the Cells ? satisfactory working of Accumulator

attention

cell should be tested daily, Every secondaryshot-firing by of an means voltmeter. If accurately-calibrated low-reading the
or

P.D.

at

its

terminals be

is

shown for

to

be

1'85

volts this

lower,the cell should

set aside

charging. To

removed and each compartment of are ebonite-plugs the battery is filledwith sulphuric acid,diluted with water to of 1-175 to 1180. The proper a is specific gravity strength ascertained by means of a hydrometer: that of Beaume, for example,would read 22 degs.to correspondwith the abovenamed

end the

specific gravity.

of the mains be ascertained polarity before placing for a charge in the wrong direction a cellin circuit, will ruin the plates ifnot discovered and remedied very quickly.*
*

It is importantthat the

There

are

several methods

of ascertaining the may

"

mains. indicates the mail Another

a

A
"

indicator direct-reading

be
a

positive or

"

"'

negative
of
a

on

polarityof electrical obtained,in which a pointer dial when simply joined across
and fitted with in
a

8.

pole tester consists

at each end.

small
are are

glasstube, capped
two small after

terminal

Within
knobs
a

knobs, immersed

liquid. Before
end becomes

using both
After is

bright,and
use.

using
are

the

negative

purple.

test,the normal
of sent books the

conditions

restored,so

that the apparatus A

as

always ready for

the
use

third method

involves

known chemically-preparedstrips, out in the form of small

pole-finding papers,
to
a

which and

are

books

similar To make

the

litmus
a

turmeric
from

used in chemical

laboratories.
the from

test,
Some

strip is torn
extremities show
papers

book, damped

on slightly

"ach

tongue, and other.

the wire

applied to it,about brightred mark at the negative

1 in. distant

contact.

EXPLODERS.

57

Chargingis continued
of admit
a

until the If the

electrolyte appears
cell is of
a

in

state

vigorous effervescence.
small with

hydrometer, the
that instrument.

state

ascertained
an

design that will of charge may be best dischargedcell may have

densityof 1*150 (itshould not be allowed to fall below while during charging the density will gradually rise, this),
limit of 1 '200, fully charged it reaches a maximum it is If, as is usually the case with accumulator shot-firers, to make a impracticable hydrometer test, the voltage should be ascertained, remembering that a newly-charged cell (ofany higher than the type except lithanode)gives a voltage O5 normal. falls off, This, however, gradually leavingthe normal voltage of 2 to 2-1 after the first discharge. It is desirable that all secondary cells should receive a good in a fortnight, charge at least once even though they may have remained idle in the interim. Cells are injuredby being partially charged and then exhausted, but overchargingdoes harm. Indeed occasional charge prolonged for several no an hours after the electrolyte boil is advantageous, to appears provided, of course, that the proper current- density is not until when

acid

applying the back there is any perceptible warmth, indication that the charging current
on

exceeded.

If

of the hand this may is too be

to

cell
as

case

taken

an

heavy.
for

40."

Describe Accumulators.

an

Apparatus

suitable

charging

Messrs.

Everett, Edgcumbe
shown in

"
to

charging set
from
others

Fig. 49
of

designed the cells charge motor-ignition

Co. have

direct-current
a

mains

any

voltage.
the

It

is, of

course,

brown

mark

where will
:

touched be To

consequent mistakes in the following manner

of
to

Confusion and positivewire. if polarity be ascertained avoided, however,

by

one

wire all

leading
over.

from

main
two

attach short

strip
wires

lead,previously scraped bright

an

Next
on

attach

incandescent free extremities If

now

lamp
to

(of
two

the

kind cleaned

used leaden

the

installation) and
the

join

the

another the

strip and

opposite main

respectively,
for and brown.
a

lead

few that

moments

current
to

will pass the

strips are held in dilute sulphuricacid through the lamp and the liquid,
will be observed to turn next

strip attached

positive main
on

(Vide experiment described

page

.)

58

THE

SHOT-FIREtiS

GUIDE.

there being no to secondary-cell exploders, equallyapplicable difference between

cases protecting one

and

the other

except in the

matter

of

and

contact

The

apparatus consists of

keys. current two lamp holders,

connection
to

direction electric

indicator,adaptor for making

ammeter lightfitting,

with

any
as

reading
a

2J

or

5 amperes

flexible connections, "c., in handle for

closed walnut

box

preferred, with carrying

travelling.

FIG.

49.

41."

How

are

Pole-finding Papers
of Electric

(for testing the

Polarity
The
two

Wires)
were

prepared

following methods
: :
"

recentlygiven

in

the

American Scientific First method

Dissolve

sodium also and

in a teaspoonful, sulphate, dissolve of starch. Soak white about To the

same

"

pint of water, in which quantity of potassium iodide

must

dissolve the

starch the water in this solution size ;

be

heated. it. Cut

and

in. is suitable. | in. Keep the paper in a dry place such as a tin box or a glass bottle. To use, moisten a it, nearer strip and place the two poles upon together or farther apart according to the voltage of the dark A current. the positive pole. at spot will appear Second of
common

dry by 2

it into

blotting paper venient stripsof any con-

method

Dissolve

15

in " grainsof phenol-phthalein also 20 of grains sodium

oz.

alcohol.

Dissolve

sulphate

EXPLODERS.

59

in and second

oz.

of

water.

Soak

blotting

paper

in Then

the soak it

first it
in

solution in the

drain

off solution in

the and the

superfluous
dry
first it. method.

liquid.
Afterwards A red

treat

the

same

manner

as

spot

appears

at

the

negative
It
200

pole.
useful
240
to

is

note

that

on

high-voltage
will and
pass
a

supply,
about
32

say,

from

to 16

volts,

an

c.p.

lamp

ampere,

c.p.

lamp
On
a

about
~

ampere,

c.p. is
to

lamp
say,

about 100 double

|
to

ampere.

low-voltage
currents

circuit
"

that be

from

120

volts"

the

passed

will

approximately

those It for

given.
should hour
2

be is

remembered

that

current

of of and

ampere ampere
on.

flowing
for
two

one

equivalent
for

to

current

J
so

hours,

or

to

amperes

half

an

hour,

CHAPTER

IL"

PAKT

II.

CONNECTING
Conductors
order and of

WIRES Insulators,

FOR
60. p.

SHOT
Tables 61.

FIRING

CIRCUITS.
in Table ing descend-

p.

showing
Resistance,

Substances
p. 61.

Conductivity,
Resistance

showing
with

the

Approximate
p. 61.

of for

Different

Substances
p.

compared
62-5.

Copper,
for

Conductors
p.

Shot-firicg Circuits, Uncoiling

p. and

tions Specificap. p. 68. 65.

Conductors,
and

63.

Coiling

Wires,

Jointing 42."

Insulating the

"Wires,

66-7.

Permanent

Joints,

Explain

meaning
and

of

the show
as

terms the

Conductor,
Resistance with

Insulator, Resistance,
of Different

Substances

compared

Copper.
In and order the
to

place
it

safe

distance
to

between establish

blasting charge
a means

operator

is

necessary the this

of

trical elec-

communication iron wires

were

across

intervening
while

space.

Formerly
parts
of

used

for

purpose,

in
to

those be used

Europe
wire is

where

frictional

exploders
In

continue all modern and

brass

frequently" employed.
copper wire is with the
an

ments blasting equipis the The that

most

suitable

only
reason

kind
for

readily
this will

obtainable be in

insulated

covering.

apparent
relative

when

it is remembered of

metals

vary
or,
as

widely
it is

their

powers have
a

conducting

electricity,

usually expressed, they

in

different

conductivities.

The substance insulator

"

difference,

fact, between
an

conductor

(which
and

is
an

capable (which
of

of is
a

conveying
substance
an

electric
"

current)
under is
in

incapable
electric
a

ordinary
only
one

conditions of

conveying
Y.

current)
substances with the

degree.
order of
of

Table

indicates

few

descending
known

conductivity,

commencing

best

conductor

COXXECTIXG

WIRES

FOR

SHOT-FIRING

CIRCUITS.

61

silver electricity"

"

and

ending with

the worst

known
:"

conductor

is,the (that

best known

insulator)" dry air

Table

V.
Conductors. Insulators. Oils.

Good

Conductors.

Partial Water. Bodies Linen. Cotton

Silver.

Copper.
Aluminium.
Gold. Other metals.

of animals.

Porcelain.
Wool.

Silk.
Resin.

Gas-coke. Charcoal.

Hemp. Mahogany.
Pine.

Gutta-percha.
Shellac. Ebonite.

Graphite.
Strong
Metallic acids.
ores.

Rosewood.

Lignum
Teak.
Marble.

vitae.

Paraffin. Glass.

Moist

earth.

Dry
of which

air.

The passage
any

of quality of
an

conductor,in virtue

it opposes

the
in

electric current, is called its

and resistance,

given

wire

of uniform

cross-section is

to directly proportional

the

and length,

to the sectional area inversely proportional

of the

conductor.' "From either of

a

this it is seen

that resistance may

be increased

the length or by increasing It is also increased for copper

:

the diameter by decreasing if any the other metal

conductor.

(except
VI.

be silver)

substituted

relative resistances~"of
in Table of Different

different substances
Table

being approximatelyshown
the

VI."

Showing

Approximate compared
with

Resistance

Substances

Copper.
1
2

Copper
Aluminium Zinc
'

(pressed)

3"
5

Platinum

Phosphor-bronze
Iron German

5}
6

(Cu4, Ni2, Znl) (Pt33, Ag66) Platinum iridium (Pt80, Ir20) Manganin (Cu70, Mnl2, Ni4) Platinoid (German silver + 1 or 2 Mercury Arc-light carbon
Platinum silver Pure
water

silver

13J

16}
18"
26 per cent, of

tungsten)

27J
59

4,400
2-3billions. 40 trillions. 187 300
serves
"

at

18"C

Bohemian Ebonite

glass

ftutta-percha

The
in

lower part of Table VI. between

A any

to show

the vast difference and the substances

resistance

of the

metals

termed

insulators.

for example, offers pieseof gutta-percha,

62

THE

SlIOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

300
as
a

trillion times

as

much

latively good conductor has a resmall resistance and a good insulator a relatively great resistance is found in the facility with which an easy path may thereby be providedfor the electric current, and be surrounded a

pieceof copper of outcome The practical

to the passage of a opposition equal length and cross-section.

current

of the fact that

with

insulation

to prevent
some

or

minimise

loss by

leakageto

earth.

43."

Describe for

"Cables

"or

Conductors

able suit-

Shot-firing.
circuits shot-firing
of
are

Conductors

for
a

wires,

or

of

number The

wires

twisted the

small cable. and flexibility

latter type have

composed of single togetherto form a advantage of greater

in the

consequent

lessened

to rupture liability

necessarilyfrequent coilingand
A
or

uncoiling of the firingline.

blows
much

stranded rock and

cable will also withstand other

from

of pieces
a

coal

rough

treatment

better than

solid all

wire, and
These

is in

every

respect

decidedly preferable for

stranded,are

circuits. blasting

wires, whether

solid

or

lated, insuvariously and

ozokerite,indiarubber cotton, jute, paraffin,

guttato

percha being the materials

For convenience circuit
in
a

chiefly employed

for the purpose. wires necessary

of
are

complete a
side
as a

manipulationthe two insulated frequently

and

then

enclosed

by side

strong braiding,the double wire being known

wires
as

twin Jiable.
are

In other patterns, insulated braided If

one over

twisted
a

and spirally cable.

all in such of strands inner

manner

to form

circular twin the

or

set

are

laid

around spirally then braided

insulation otherwise

covering an
covered
over

conductor, and

cable a concentric all,

is formed.

Details circuits

of 10 varieties of cable
are

suitable specially
to

for

given refer : explanations

"

in

Table

VII.,

which

the

blasting following
the

Column standard

I. indicates the size of wire wire

gauge.

according

to

specimen, e.y.t is marked meaning a three-stranded cable of (sometimes written 3*22), wire gauge which each wire is No. 22 standard (S.W.G. or L.S.G., Legal Standard Gauge, or I.S.G.,Imperial Standard
1

No.

legal 3/22

"64

THE

SHOT-FIREtiS

GUIDE.

Gauge). Similarly, 4/25 impliesfour stranded together.

Column II. contains Nos.
are

No.

25

S.W.G.

wires

details of insulations
1 to 6 have
most

suited

to various

"classesof work. rubber

or gutta-percha use

vulcanised
or places,

and coatings,

suitable for

in wet

FIG. 50."

CONDUCTORS

FOR

BLASTING

CIRCUITS.

wherever

highly insulated
for

cable

is necessary.

No.

is

cable, suitable high-class

so

but high-tension blasting, work

as

is not similar

well

adapted for heavy

It the addition of
an

the

others

with

insulation.

is,however, sometimes
outer

by .ally

mechanicstrengthened wire armouring. galvanised

CONNECTING

WIRES

FOR

SHOT-FIRING

CIRCUITS.

65

of a low-tension firing cable which has givesparticulars and economical for all underground proved most satisfactory A cable of this kind, though heavier than those more work. and it commonly used, possesses greater wearing capabilities, 7 is not
so

No.

liable

to

short-circuit
8

as

twin

wire

enclosed
same

in

outer single

covering. No.
unit of

has the specification

ductivity con-

length,and is the pattern commonly employed with low-tension exploders. No. 9 is a concentric cable the conductors in which are composed of very fine wires. it exceptionally flexible and well adapted for This makes No. 10 has two No. 22 working off a small reel or drum. wires separatelyinsulated standard wire gauge and then
per braided
over

all.

It is suitable for
is
not obviously

use so

with any durable

as

magneto

on

dynamo
Column

but exploder,

the others

enumerated

in the table.

III. in the of
a

table

gives diameters
to hold
a

from

which

the

dimensions

drum

necessary

given lengthof wire yard

that

may be ascertained. IV. indicates the resistance per double Column the resistance per yard out and return, or the
2

"

is,

resistance per

cable. yds. of single

Columns
the number Column Column

V. and of VII.

VI.

show

the

weight

per

double

yard

and

yards per pound

of cable

respectively.
the in figures

gives the metrical

of equivalent

VI.
to in the

Illustrations of the wires referred

are

shown

in

Fig. 50, the uppermost cable

preceding table with corresponding

No.

1 in the list.

44."

Explain the and Taking

of Paying Proper Method Cable." Up a Shot-firing

"

Out

Unless

shot

firer has

received
seen

special
He his 40

Uncoiling and Coiling Shotfiling Wires,

he is scarcely ever instructions,

a

to handle

coil of wire in

workmanlike
to

manner.

will
or

commonly be observed 50 yard lengthof twin

a

take up
one

cable in the

hand,

separatetwo
them
on
P.F.O.

or

three coils at

time

with

other,and drop
F

the

ground.

66

THE

SHOT-FIRER

'$ GUIDE.

When

the

line is
than

pulled the ringsmay

not, the line closes
on

spiralout straight,
itself and forms
a

but,
kink.

more

often

he will give the by the shot firer, it out, regardless line a vigorous pullto straighten of the fact is precisely that which a man that his method would adopt if he were requiredto break a wire with his hands. The damage caused to a shot-firing wire by this thoughtless
treatment

If the kink

is noticed

is certain to result in breaks

are

sooner

or

later, and

these breaks
occur

all the

more

troublesome
to the

because

they
can

may

without

apparent injury

and insulation,

then

only be found
To pay the fuse
out
a

or by testing carefully feeling along the line.

cable in the proper way

the end
one on

is made

fast

(to
far

clockwise forward
movement
as

wires),the coil gripped by wheel a (as though it were

the hand will take it.
at

hand
a

and

rotated

as spindle)

At

the

end

of the the

forward

the coil is seized

the

point

nearest

body by
nately alter-

the other

hand, which

continues

the motion, each

hand

position. As the cable falls to the ground the operator do so from it backwards, if he can conveniently before him. out the line lyingstraight
"

taking the

other's

walks and

away

"

leaves

To coil a line one

or

end is first turned tied.

secure

into

ring of about

18 in.

2 ft. diameter, and

The

tying is important, for

if the

first circle is not

made

the end will work

loose and make

the proper has been the

of coiling

the line

formed instead

it is rotated of from

the first ring impossible. When as alreadydescribed, but towards

body

the operator meanwhile it,

advancing

in the

direction of the shot hole.

45."

Show be

How

and

Why

Joints

in Wires

should

Properly
When

Made.
a

shot-firer who

has

not

acquired

Joining and Insulating

Wires.

relied upon

not

is conductivity

is elementary electrical information requestedto join two piecesof -wire together he almost invariably does it as illustrated in Fig. 51 (A). Wires so joinedcan probably be. to pull apart, but the question of electrical overlooked. It would be possible for entirely
any

CONNECTING

WIRES

FOR

SHOT-FIRING

CIRCUITS.

67

two

wires

thus

looped togetherto
even

lie

on

the

ground without
the
area

touching one
contact

another,and
be obviously

if

strained tightly

of

would

very

small.
a

Every joint increases the resistance of

reduces the ior firing the amount of current

line and
at the

quently conse-

available

battery

charge. A joint on wire must a be sound both current-carrying On all sizes generally used for mechanically and electrically. a joint is made shot-firing by laying the bare ends across one
in the

.another Each
"one,

position of
turned
not

widely opened pair of scissors.

less than six times
over

wire is then
as seen

the other

done in Fig.51(B)and completed in Fig.52. partly It is important to remember that the wire ends must be -cleaned and rubbed bright with emery cloth before being twisted together, and that they should not be nicked by the knife when paring off insulation.
" "

FIG. 51.

46."

Describe and

How

Joint

should

be

Soldered

Insulated.
is intended joint up
a

When in
an

to

be permanent, as, for short but be made

example,

making
old

new

line from

undamaged piecesof
as

cable,the junctionmust
In

above, soldered,

and and

then insulated. the

soft solder should be used soldering, geneous. jointthoroughlypermeated with it and made homoIt should be cleanlyfinished and free from sharp
or

points either of wire ends

insurance and other

solder.

It is contrary to all fire

use

electrical rules to

any

flux for

joint-

or resin dissolved in methylatedspirit. making except resin, Joints are very easily is taken to soldered, providing care rub all the wires with glassor emery as paper until they are

F2

68

THE

SHOT-FIXER'S

GUIDE.

bright by
to

as

they
two

can

be of

made.

The The

splice
use

must

then

be is

made
fatal

using
easy

pairs

pliers.

of

the

fingers

soldering.
insulate
a

To

joint

cut

away

the

coverings,
rubber
"

as

in

Fig.
one

52
"

braiding,
a

tape,
knife the

vulcanised for the distance

and

pure

one

by

with

sharp
leave Take

required
and

for and

making
free

the from

joint
fibres.

and

insulation of

clean

tapered
indiarubber

lenght
from
one

prepared
of

splice,
wrap the the rubber

and,

mencing com-

side with after

the

joint,
until

strip
is

spirally
reached

round and

the

wire

an

overlap slight
in

covered;
return,
the
same

then,

warming opposite
from

(with

spirit
thus

lamp ending

or

match),
off
at

wrapping
side of
the

the

direction,
which it

joint

started.

Copper
Twisted
f

Strands and Soldered

After

the of

splice

or

strip
should

is

wound be laid

on,

two

independent
all, the
and the lower

layers
layer

adhesive all in

tape
the

on

over

covering covering,

exposed
1

rubber in.
at

strip,
end of

upper

layer

addition,

each

the

braiding.

CHAPTER

II."

PART

III.

TESTING.

Tisting
Test The and p. p.

Explosives
of

for

use

in

Fiery
The

and

Dusty

Mines,

p.

69-71.

Absolute

Safety,

p. 69. p. p.

English
The

(Woolwich) Test,
p.

Safety
70,
of

Test,
The

p.

70.

French German 71.

Test, Tests,

70. 71.

Austrian

Belgian

Testing
Fuses,
p. 73.

Effective 71.

Strength
for

Detonators,

Testing
Magneto
p. 74.

Electric

Appliances
Risks and p.

Fuse

Testing,
p. 73.

72.

High-Tension
and Roburite p. 75.

Fuses, Dynamo
Co.'s

p.

Precautions,
Davis 75.

Testing Tester,
Cell

Exploders, Exploder
p.

74-5.
p.

Exploder
Dry
tinuity Conp. 77for

Tester,
76.

Testing

Exploders,
and

Voltmeter,
p.

Testing
Circuit

Cables

Leakage, Wires,

76-7.

Complete

Testing,

"

Earthed

"

p. 78.

47.

"

Admitting
in that in
some

that

it
or

is

Dangerous
Places Safer what the
?
more

to in

use

plosives Exand

Fiery

Dusty
are

Mines,

Explosives
for

than
means

others
are

Explosive
safe
have of

Atmospheres,
separating Agents

provided
less
Stations purpose

from

the

Blasting
been

established

in various such
or as

countries
pass

for the
scribed pre-

testing explosives and

are

certain

tests

classed

as

"safety"

"permitted" explosives.
of

48.

"

Is there

any
?

Absolute

Test

Safety

for

plosives Ex-

No. will have be

It

is at

present

impossible

to

get

an

explosive
H.M.

which

absolutely safe under

that

all conditions.
"

Inspectors strongly
pressed imall that

frequently reported
on

it cannot

be

too

the

users

of these

(permitted) explosives that

is that

can

be

really claimed
so

for them far

as

they

are

less and
to

dangerous
coal dust

than

gunpowder

the

ignitionof firedamp
as ('safety,'

is concerned.

The

misnomer
to

applied
users

permitted
that

explosives) seems
these

have safer

caused under the

some

to

imagine

explosives are
to

all conditions,
case,

in total
are

tion opposi-

the

true

facts

of with

that

they

absolutely
There

dangerous

unless

used

certain

definite

precautions."

70

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

permittedlist at some time or other caused an explosion of station when fired without testing stemming.
a

is not

on single explosive

the

"

"

which the gas

has not
at

the

49."

What

Method is

of in

Safety
The consists in which
cannon

practised

Testing England

Explosives
?

for

English,more
obtain into

the Woolwich, test as generallyknown the conditions is practicable, so far as reproducing,

in actual work.
an

The

shots of

are

fired from

steel

mixture explosive stemmed

to
secure

Each been

charge is
If 20

with

and air. coal-gas this selection having dry clay,

in

made

in order

uniformity
any

the

conditions

of
plosive ex-

the test.

charges of

sample

are

fired into the

mixture, under
and

certain

stemming, without

entitled to be

placed on
a

conditions as to weight specified is then the explosive causing ignition, the permitted list."
"

50."

Is

it

Fair
in
a

Test
a

of

Safety
?
on

to formed

"Fire"

an

Explosive
Gas
Yes. because

Gas

Mixture

of Coal-

from

Town
there
are

Supply
may
more a

Whatever

error

be is

the side of

safety

coal gas mixtures therefore the test is made found in mines.

sensitive to
more

in

and ignition, dangerous gas than is-

51.

"

What

is the for

French

Method
?

of

testing

plosives Ex-

Safety

the temperature calculating mitted produced by the explosionof each explosivewhich is subfor testing and passing it for use in mines if the The French method consists in

temperature does
52."

not

exceed

certain

point.
of plosives testing Ex-

Explain
the and

the for

Austrian

Method

Safety.
be tested is

In Austria
a

to cartridge

lead and

block
8 per

surrounded of

by

an

placed on atmosphere
from

the top of of between

a

working: of the mixture the remainder and purified, being air. colliery is then detonated, and if there is an ignition The cartridge the weight of the charge is reduced mixture of the inflammable
7
cent,

pit

gas which

is drawn

72

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

the

supposed advantageis
assumed. On
one

of

so

much there

the average

importance as is probably not

is frequently
more

than

defective

fuse per thousand

one

and it may issued, be ascertained

well be

that the defect in that That

test a continuity

cannot
not

by testing.
that
to
a

is

answering to
which The

it will fire may has been drawn from

evidence necessarily be seen by reference

an

fuse

Fig. 53,

actual the

sample.
of

appliancesrequired for comprise : (1) A suitable source

purpose

testingfuses
means

of current,

(2)some

of

current indicating

flow, and

(3) adequate

protection of the
caused detonator The
as

operator from

injury
of the

by

untoward

explosion
test.

fuse under
must

apparatus
be

be

so

constituted sufficient its

to

current

incapableof sending through a fuse to cause

end
can

tion. igniin

This while

be

readilyattained,
latitude weak
a

allowingconsiderable
means.

choice of
FIG. 53." SHOWING

Thus,

very

cell,
be

itseif

incapable of firing a fuse, may

BY
OF IN

SHORT-CIRCUITING CONNECTING FUSE HEAD. WIRES

detector but

galvanometer which interposes additional resistance in the trifling

on

circuit ; or, .of

the other

hand,

any

form

cell may be shot-firing employed in connection with a high-resistancegalvanometer or voltmeter offeringopposition sufficient to reduce the batbelow fuse an a intensityat which tery current might ignite. It should will
must

be remembered fuse.
run

explode a
either be

primary eel! in good order Consequently,the batteryused for testing

or a

that any

down,
A

resistance of

must

be

inserted

in

the
a

circuit. testing

simple method

testingfuses without

in galvanometer is to joineach one (or a group if preferred) series with a single Leclanche cell and a long-distance electric Vibration of the bell hammer bell, or a telephone receiver. or buzzing in the telephone indicates electrical continuity. absence Conversely, of sound is
an

indication of rupture

some-

TESTING.

73

where

in the

and circuit,

may

be taken

to

imply a

defective fuse
are

providedthat bridge,
to

all other

parts of the circuit

known

be intact. A

magneto
for
a

stitute is often used as a subcircuit) telephone (bell and it is, therefore,scarcely exploder, high-tension observe that such
an

necessary

to

instrument

should

not

be

used

for

testing.

ease be tested with comparative fuses may high-tension current neto a through them from a low-tension magby circuiting exploder in series with a suitable galvanometer. The key should be temporarilyfastened down, and exploder firing-

Some

the handle Other

turned

slowly when

making

test.

tested, and may, fuses are not so readily high-tension in some require apparatus not usually available at a cases, of the bridging colliery. As a rule,althoughthe conductivity
of a long, often be ascertained by means "composition may fuses the testing of high-tension distance magneto-telephone, is not considered practical. In all fuse-testing operations personal protectionagainst the possible explosionof a detonator is imperativelyneces.sary.
It is sometimes
.so as

|
claimed
a

that if
current

testingcircuit is arranged
there
is
no

to

pass

only

minute

danger
may

of

tion, ignito

but

although careful choice of apparatus

it cannot
assure absolutely

do much

prevent,

immunity

from

accidental

explosion. flaw in a fuse bridge, A slight which, it should be remembered, cause a rise of in- iQ diameter, might easily is usually only TiyV o less current temperature to ignition point with considerably
than is

normally requiredto
under
test

fire the fuse.

Every detonator
iron

should

be

pipe about 3 in. in diameter, or for the purpose. .arranged where further precautionof placing other detonators The dentally be struck by fragments from a fuse accipossibly they cannot exploded should also be observed. detonators has The Author exploded disconnected -distance of 4J in. from the one purposelyfired.
at
a

suspended freelyin an in a special iron box

74

THE

SI10T-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

56."

the Faults which to Explain Show are Exploders Liable, and may be Remedied?
The troubles with that
may

Mechanical how

they
to

from

time

time

Testing
Mechanical

occur are

mechanicallyoperated exploders
and

usuallytrivial
examination. in the

such

as

can or

be

seen

on

Exploders.
loosened

casual brushes

Displaced
of

worn-out

case

dynamo
similar
are

exploders,
ruptures,

terminals, oxidised
in the partial,

contacts

and

complete or
causes

electrical circuit

of failure.
or

Magneto-explodersmay
of insulation

principal fail through loss of

armature

the

magnetism
The

breakdown

in the

coils. result

latter may arise through imperfect or it may design, from the storage of the exploderin a damp place. Messrs. introduced John
a

Davis

"

Son of

have

simple form
fulfilsall the intended

exploder
be used

tester, which
of
an

requirements
to

instrument

by

shot-firers.

Fig. 54 almost
of its

conveys
to

in itself sufficient information the

consists carried
manner

cate indi-

of in

a a

application.It incandescent special lamp, suitable lamp-holder, and

a

enclosed
one

in
a

small

case

which

has

o"

side

stout

glassdisc
in
are a

about

2 in.

FIG.

54."

EXPLODER

diameter, mounted
from the

bezil.

Wires tively respec-

TESTER.

lamp
the

connected
to make

with
contact

two
a

terminals brass-plate

arranged

wedge-

exploderthat is to be tested. To make a test, the exploder wires are wedged on the indicator terminals, the firing-key is pressedand the handle rotated at normal speed. Satisfactory working condition isshown of the lamp, as seen by incandescence through the disc
in front of the instrument. These
testers

with

pair of

wires

from

may

be

used

to

ascertain the

strengthof either continuous or alternating current, high-tensionor low-tension generators; but, it need
same

scarcelybe observed, the

every machine. To
ensure

instrument

is not

to applicable

the reliability,

makers

should

be

TESTING.

75

advised be used.

as

to

the kind

of

exploderwith

which

it is intended

to-

supplied by the Eoburite Company consists small polished board fitted with terminals and a resistance in Fig. 55. in the style shown
The
tester

of

coil

The
one

machine of the

to

be

tested

is connected

to the

terminals

at to

end

board, a fuse (not a detonator fuse)is joined

at

the terminals
as

the

oppositeend
If it is in have
a

and

the

exploderoperated
the fuse bursts.

for

a charge. firing

good

order

The the

resistance usual

coil should

resistance

equal

to

that of for bad

and joints

line and fuse plus a margin to allow firing of loss of power. similar possible sources

FIG. 55.

"

BESISTANCE

COIL

FOB

TESTING

CONDITION

OF

L.T.

EXPLODEKS.

57."

How

is the

Condition

of

Dry

Battery

or

Accumulator

Shot-firing Set
be

Ascertained

and, it might exploders, Dry-cell

generators, are
best tested

added, all other chemical

by

means

oi" an

accurately-calibrated
E.M.F. cell 1'5 the of
a

voltmeter. low-reading Knowing secondary cell is 2 volts and single the

that bhe normal that of

a

dry

volts,

simple applicationof
movement

pair of wires
needle

from

terminals

of the cell to those

of the instrument voltmeter

gives visible indication,

over
a

by

of the

scale,as

to

the

exact

pressure

available. cell

An

accumulator

showing

less than voltmeter

1'85

volts

requires

re-charging. A
1 volt should

dry

cell

giving a

deflection below

be discarded.

76

THE

SHOT-PIKER'S

GUIDE.

of cells coupled together in series, testinga number the pointer should indicate a pressure equal to that of a of cells in the group. singlecell multiplied by the number When A very cells is

compact form
5 in.

of cell tester for accumulators This

a

or measures

dry
is

represented in Fig. 56.

instrument

5f in. by

by
a

3 in.

It has

even perfectly

scale and The If

provided
range it
can

with

pointer and knife-edged

on

mirror.
zero.

usual

is 3 volts

either side
a

of

central

required

be fitted with

simple

attachment

showing the actual

internal

resistance of the cell under

working conditions.

FIG.

56.

58."

Describe ''Cables"

Methods for

Testing (a) Continuity

Wires,
Earth.
used

of

Shot of

-firing Circuit,

(b) Leakage
between Wire
The

between and
cables

(c) Leakage
of

for the purpose

placing
and the

Testing

Firing

safe distance

between

the operator

Lines.

explosivecharge are liable to be injured by debris,rough handling,lying in water falling

ways. Sometimes
a

and

in other

wire

may

break

inside

the

TESTING.

either insulation, the

as

the result of

blow

or

more

probably by
there lie
on

out frequentstraightening

of kinks.

Again, the insulation may be abraded, in which case would be leakage to earth, supposing the faultyspot to moist ground.
A
test

would

be made the

"

(a) To (b) To
two

ascertain determine
or

of the circuit. continuity of leakage either the amount wire

to

between

the

wires

from

each

earth.
can

Continuity of circuit
Continuity
of Circuit,
two

be tested

by joining
touchof

ends

of the other

line togetherand firing

on

ing the
a

extremities

the terminals

combined
If the

shown

in

Fig. 57.
a

asgalvanometer and dry battery, circuit is good the fact is indicated

by deflection of the galvanometerneedle.

or

Absence that the

of

ment, move-

very

irregular one,

shows

wire

is

broken,

or

partlyso.

FIG.

57.

If two

ends of of
a

Leakage
between Wires.

terminals

line are joinedto firing testingset as above and

a

the the

oppositeends
each the other and

are

left free from the

contact

with

with

galvanometer
The be

ground, deflection of needle indicates leakage

between

the wires. for it to

considerable
tester.

leakage would, however, need to be proved by the use of a dry-battery

proper for insulation
sets testing
are

It is advisable obtainable of
to

wherever
use

make A

of them

determiningthe
not
measure

condition

lines. firing

galvanometerdoes

either pressure

78

THE

SHO

T-FIRER

*S

VIDE.

or

current,
of

it

merely
flow. To

serves

to

indicate

the

presence

or

absence

current

detect end

leakage
of each

between cable of
"

main

and

earth

Leakage
between and Wire

join
the

one

to

the

tester

leaving
and
con-

opposite
the

extremity
other indicates
to

one

free

Earth,

necting
the

earth."

Deflection the
wire

of

pointer
"earthed" with the

leakage
(for

on

tvhich

has

not

been

purposely
the the
test

explanation
of free and be

see

p.

76).
"

By
wires

repeating
reversed

positions
of the other

"

earthed

condition

one

can

similarly

ascertained.

80

THE

SHOT-FIREH'S

GUIDE.

explosives containing nitro-glycerine (v. p. 4) this action is very liable to cause disaster, of owing to the explosionof particles exuded nitro-glycerine by friction againstthe sides of the hole. gunpowder (v. p. 8) is used sufficient heat be developed by the contact of particlesof grit or stone may to produce ignition.
even

And

where

It when
to

is, therefore,important that

drills should

not

be

used

they
test

become

so

worn

as

to

fail of

giving easy

clearance

the A

charge.
gauge

might be carried and applied to the pointsof each "bit" before drilling of guarding a hole, as a means the danger referred to. Holes should be well scraped against out and,if damp, dried as far as may be practicable. The maxi mum rendingeffect, apart from the influence of other conditions,
-

is obtained The

when

the

charge exactlyfits the

is, however,
make than
use

shot hole.

maximum

effect
to

not
an

since always desirable, which explosive of the material is more

to

it is often necessary violent

in

of

its action

the

nature

be

blasted in itself requires.

comparable explosions to follow to powerful hammer

a
"

force

with
out

Gunpowder, it is well known, exerts that of a wedge, while dynamite the analogy are more allied closely
"

blows.

Permitted
a

as

whole

may

be said to lie in and

explosives (v. p. 9) graduated range of effect

to

between And
as

gunpowder
the

dynamite.
class tends be used almost sively exclu-

Permitted

mining,it is often found advantageousto reduce the tendency towards in some local pulverisation. way Many practical pitmen claim that less damage is done to coal of considerably smaller diameter than the by using cartridges
shot thus allowinga portion of the initial explosive hole, energy
to be lost

for coal

Monobel

by expansion. Fig. 58 fin. diameter cartridge

The
manner

shows in
a

the

of application

IJin. hole.
or

of

attachinga fuse

detonator

Preparing

charge varies in different localities. It is the instances of defective Stemming probable that many occur Charge. ignition through neglectto bringa fuse detonator into sufficiently effective contact or in appearance with the primer cartridge.Many explosives are
and to
a

PRACTICAL

APPLICATIONS.

81

not

unlike

sawdust,and

inserted, detonator,if carelessly may

of the mixture, or may, indeed, only touch a few loose particles of stemming. hecome detached during the operation entirely To ensure complete detonation whole of the tonator de-

charge the

should not be smaller than the size the

specified by
makers of the and

sive, explo-

it should be

buried in and entirely into the closest brought contact with the possible explosive. The Lancashire Co. plosives Ex-

the

recognise of this importance

pointby sendingout a special 59) peg (Fig. to be used for boring

detonator holes in It will be cartridges, observed
is

that the peg

stead inchisel-shaped of being pointed.

This enables the shotfirerto bore

exact
a

hole the
a

size of and

nator, detoa

with

square
a

end ; whereas may

pointed stick
an

leave the

air space in

charge beyond

the detonator. The maiks it

S.F.Q,

foregoingrewill have made that

Q
a

evident

82

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

detonator inserted

must in such

be
a

attached securely
manner

to
can

its be

and cartridge, the

not

that there

slightest sible pos-

of during the subsequentoperation stemming. In some special provisionis made for explosives the preventionof mishaps of this kind. Tonite, being a solid has a suitable opening for the insertion compressed explosive, of a detonator left during the moulding process.

risk of its withdrawal

FIG.

59.

The with
a

outer

brass round
man

waterproofed covering is fitted round binding wire, the free ends of which
the conductors
her

its neck
can

be

twisted

for the

securityof the detonator,

after the

shown

in

Fig. 60 (A).

Fia.

60.

Where
may

devices of this kind

rear a

are

not

provided,a detonator
wires turned
in

be put in at the

end

of

the cartridge,
as

back, and secured

An alternative

by

half hitch is

indicated

Fig. 60(B).

method

illustrates a round

detonator

provided in Fig. 60(c), which and secured pushed into a cartridge

the neck

by string.

PRACTICAL

APPLICATIONS.

83

Explosivesof
are
a

the metallic-cased

off the neck primed by cutting hole

such as Ammonite, variety, and boring end of the casing the whole shown in
to

deep to ensure sufficiently as being buried in the explosive,

In wet holes extra
care or

of the

detonator

Fig. 61.
ensure
a

must

be taken

tightjoint

by using a littletar

grease round

the neck

of the

cartridge.

FIG. 61.

to the requiredweight cartridges ready for charging, at a time, to the back of a borehole with one are gently pressed, In ramming chargesinto a shot-hole there a wooden rammer. must danger,and it cannot be too strongly always be some should be carried out with the least urged that this operation exercise of force. possible

When

84

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

Great

care

should

be taken

to avoid
or more

jamming
at

or

"bunching,"
same

i.e., tying two

Danger
of

or cartridges together,

otherwise H.M.
some

several inserting

the

time.

"Bunching"
Cartridges,

of Explosives drew Inspectors

attention

years

ago

to

the

of using desirability

for the boreof a suitable diameter hole, cartridge therein and the necessity for inserting only one cartridge "It is reasonable to conjecture," at a time. says a report relative to certain accidents due to the neglect of these precautions, between the "that either the rammer got jammed

and cartridges

the sides of the

aci oss

hole,or that

one

or

both

of the
to

stuck cartridges used the

the borehole, and the wooden

rammer
on

that

force had
or

be

either to withdraw and cartridges, the

to press down

this force,

acting
the

(probably)a
rock, caused

thin the

smearing of explosion.
41

explosive on

hard

avoidance rigorous the rammer) is to use of anything like tridges carwhich a reasonablyand moderately are easy fitfor the at a time." and only to push home one cartridge borehole, The primer cartridge, the detonator,is viz.,that containing inserted last of all, and the charge is then stemmed, lightly at first with about 6 in. of loose stemming, and afterwards harder Figs.58 and 61). (see This consists in filling up a shot-hole above the charge of explosives, in order to oppose a Stemming or

The

obvious

remedy (inaddition forcible handlingof

to the

Tamping.
carry this out

resistance to the gaseous in the direction of the

productsof explosion
borehole. Failure to

of the stemming. properlyresults in the ejection In other words, it produces that wasteful and, in fiery or dusty mines, most dangerous effect" a blown out shot. It will be noticed in the section on SafetyRegulations that certain materials are prohibitedfor stemming. conditionally Certain specified of are tools, particulars required, moreover, section (v. which will be found in the same p. 169). The most used stemming consists of plastic generally clay, which is first rolled into short

plugs and
in firing

rammed

insertion in the hole,

When

stone

gently after the boringsmade

PRACTICAL

APPLICATIONS.

85

by

employed. The French frequently after conducting experiments with on Explosives, the conclusion clay stemmings, leaned towards
are

the drill

Committee sand that and sand

gave

better results in
to

practice. The
is
a

sand than factor

oppose

greater resistance
of course, of

sidered stemming was consubstances to plastic

blowing out, which,

in the
case

of considerable

portance im-

and dusty mines. fiery the Home Office

Testing Station, has carried out gain of experiments to show the economic and presentedthe results of his thoroughly tamping charges, experience in the Annual Report of H M. Inspectorsof Explosives
of for the
year

Capt. Desborough,

1907.

report, were
and the

fired at the
same

unstemmed, with the

"

Equal charges,according to this and ballistic pendulum, both stemmed 100 grammes weightof charge" viz.,
results
were

following average

obtained

"

It will be twice
cotton.
as

noted

that

the

relative loss of effect is

more

than gun-

explosivesthan great with the gelatinised

In
an

with

earlier series of

experimentswith
was

an

ammonium
to

nitrate

it was found that the loss explosive absence of tamping was even greater than the gelatinised above mentioned. explosives In the
course

of effect due the

case

the with

to the minimum as quantity investigations of of stemming necessary to produce the complete explosion ascertained that, after a certain length of it was the explosive stemming (between two and three times the length of the

of

charge)had

been

well rammed

home, the addition of

further

augmentation to the swing. quantity caused no perceptible most was probably due to This, Capt. Desborough explains, confined to the fact that the explosive was alreadysufficiently which was the production of the maximum ensure energy by the active chemical changes of capableof being generated

86

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

the

and explosion,
not

that

consequently any
energy.

added

stemming

would

increase the muzzle the

As, however,
must

minimum requisite the

nature

vary

to according

of

length of stemming the material employed

probably also accordingto the nature of the only saferule to follow the explosive, is to use as in practice much stemming as possible and to make sure that it is well rammed. that an now Having regard to the probability, recognised, fore forms different decomposition products,and thereexplosive different explosionphenomena, when fired under varying
and conditions

for the purpose,

operationsof shot with regard to the quantityof explosive used the sufficiency of stemming, should receive more
has hitherto been considered necessary.
are a

of pressure,

the

firers in in
a

mines,
than

charge and

attention

60."

What

Precautions
or

Stemming

Necessary Charge ?

when

ming Ram-

H.M. their
must

observed in of Explosives have frequently Inspectors Reports that in ramming charges into a borehole there be too strongly danger,and it cannot always be some be carried out method that the with of
men

should urged that the operation The exercise of force. possible this class of accident is to

the least

best

preventing
are

ensure

not

allowed that the

to use

drills which of the

a

have

become

much such
as

worn, to

and

also

diameter
even ensure

is cartridge

give good

clearance

with

thing

to

is that

drill. The worn important slightly shall not stick in the the cartridge miner is

borehole,as if it does
After other the which

the

quite certain
devoted
are

to use

cient suffi-

force to get it to the bottom

care

of the hole. be
to to (i.)

should

the

the drills, ing bunch-

wise togetheror otherof the use time), (ii.) insertingseveral at the same glycerine the thorough softeningof all nitrowooden (iii.) rammers, three before explosives Even with all the above
use.

pointswhich require attention the cartridges (i.e., tying two or

avoid

however, the use of precautions, undue force may sion impresalways cause an accident. A general to exist that,at any rate in the case of gunpowder, seems

88

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

trate
means

which looped joint, of

is incorrect
current

and

ineffective

as

electric conducting

(v. also p. 91). When

the

have been satisfactorily the cable or firing made line joints be paid out to a place of safety(v. must Rules in Chapter V.). The method cables has been of coiling and uncoiling proper alreadydescribed.* The firing line must ahcays be paid out FROM the shot-hole the place of safety, where TO the exploder (unless it is a belt has been previously or pocketbattery) deposited.

Having reached
into effect such under
own

the

desired

shelter,the shot-firer carries

the rules special and his

and precautionsas inspections he

may

which

be

working (v.Chapter V.)

the free extremities judgment demand ; then he connects line to the exploder, of the firing and fires the charge. NOTE. If the shot-firer has occasion to leave the firing line,even momentarily,after having paid it out, he must take the exploder with him. the shot-firer should immediately After a shot has been fired, both ends of the cable from disconnect the exploder, free it
"

from it up.

any

chance

debris which

may

have

fallen upon

and coil it,

This

instruction

should

be

followed

even

when

miss-fire

has occurred.

61." -How

may

Charge
the

Miss

Fire?
electric is shot-firing kind then

Where Miss-Fire
Shots.

of practice

well

failures of any established, and even happen at rare intervals,

more

only they

are

to likely
a man

have
to

been

brought about by
to any

some

lapseon

the part of

new

the duties than arise where

to the

defect shot-

in materials.

Difficulties often for the first time The low-tension

electric
use

is introduced firing

owing

of for

ill-assorted

apparatus.

system

may,

example,be adopted. A dry cell is obtained,along with 30yds. wire. 40 yds. of shot-firing or Perhaps a thin singlestrand After firingcomparatively wire, say No. 22 S W.G., is used.
*

Chap. II,

Part II.,p. 35.

PRACTICAL

APPLICATIONS

89

and the fact is becomes impossible, ignition of lost sightof that the greater part of the energy frequently the cell has baen used up in overcoming the resistance of the line. (Thispointis further developed in the following pages.) few shots further It is often noticed
are

too, that, under

the conditions

already
of tric Elec-

referred to, there bad

"

frequent complaintsas

to the number

is to oay, electric fuses or well made fuses are, however, now so that caps," be assumed safely

detonators. that
as

general
.
.

rule the fault may In Mines the

to be elsewhere.

report

for

1905,
district

of

the

Chief

Inspector of

(comprisingthe counties of Bedford, Berks, Buckingham, Cambridge, Derby, Hertford, Leicester, Middlesex, Northampton, Nottingham, Huntingdon,
for the Midland

Oxford, Rutland
total number of

Warwick), Mr. A. H. Stokes gives the shots fired (in his district) as 2,305,591, or
and in the year
1902.

162,904
fire shots

more

than
:

The

percentage of miss-

are

High

tension 0'42 per cent.,low tension 0'23 per

0*25 per
cent.

cent., and

gunpowder

The

averge shots

trical percentage of miss-fired elec0-3 per

is thus the

cent., it
shots
are

being
fired

assumed

that

gunpowder
fraction

by

means

of tape fuse.

And small

only
to
a

small

of

even
a

this

as percentage of failures will,

be rule,

traceable In
FIG. 63.
causes
:
-

defects very
or

in fuses few other the of

or

explosives.
be

all but
to
"

failure may the

traced
DIAGRAM

one

following
.

OF

~.

In
LOW-TENSION
WITH

the
nave

FUSE

exPloder" the
fallen below

electrical pressure
,

SEVERED

may

that

necesintensity

BRIDGE.

sary to The

overcome

the resistance of the circuit.

tance, cable may offer too great resisfiring defective insulation, or (6) owing to (a)badly-madejoints either from mechanical absorptionof moisture injury, arising
or use

of too
a

fine gauge

wires. be

In in

low-tension

fuse, (a) the bridge may

severed, as
in

Fig. 63 ; (6) the bridge may be shunted, as (p. 72); (c) there may be insufficient priming,or

Fig.

53

the

latter

90

THE

SIIOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

incandesce the bridge would case damp, in which without causingignition (d) if fuses are tested before ; and a defective firing bridge may then give way without firing. In high-tension fuses,the wires in the fuse heads (a)may may be make
contact

with

each

other,thus passinga
not

current

without

decomposingthe priming ; (b)they may

good
contact

make

sufficiently

with
too

resistance

is

priming,in which case the electrical ploder. exhigh for an ordinary high-tension
the left may

In either the

if a charge be variety,

insulation of the fuse wires

none

but

covered guttapercha
to

in wet

holes,unless the shot is

stemmed.
of

be

overnightin a wet hole, be destroyed. Consequently, wires should be placed fired immediately after connectingup,
be

havingbeen
Accidents may

in tamping and manipulation,

result in missed

shots,thus

"

Whilst abraded

tamping, (a)the
and

insulation This is

of the fuse wires may

liable to occur especially in anthracite mines, where the particles of coal are sharpedged and hard, and may easily cut the wires during the operation of such a circuit in situ, of,say, stemming. On testing by means the a Hold en firingapparatus or rack -bar or Manet exploder, indicator would show continuity and lead one that to suppose the fuse was in good order.

short-circuited.

(b) A

wire may

have

been

inserted in the shot-hole kinked

then, upon
and

tamping, the
operator causes

strain

put upon

the wires

the weakened

pointto

perienced by an inexout straighten

give way

inside the insulation.

may

(c)The
advance

wires

be

partly carried

into the

hole

by

an

out again tamping rod ; they are pulled thus bringingabout result (a)or (6). forcibly, (d) Manipulative accident (c) may result in the detonator the cartridge, the fuse from the from or being withdrawn obviated detonator. by insertingthe (This may be entirely then detonator in the cartridge, doubling back the wires alongsidethe primer aad making a half hitch with them round the same. The detonator end of the primer leads into

stroke

of the

the shot hole.

B, Fig. 60, p. 82). (Set

PR

A OTIC

A L

A PPLICA

TIONS.

91

(e) Splicingfuse wires in

caps

shut-hole. He has

(A miner
to

will have
a

with, say,
so

36 in. wires.

occasion

to bore
on

48 in.

hole, and

he

twists

piecesof old fuse wire

the new,

lays the jointsside by side,and proceedswith his stemming. his exploder, and " wonders The fireman comes along,applies why it won't go off" !) In connectingthe fuse and the exploder, tween be(a) the joints line may the fuse and the firing be dirtyor covered with tallow grease. (They should be rubbed brightbetween thumb with a pinch of coal or shale dust, before splicing.) and finger, of jointingmay be mechanicallybut not (b) The manner electrically good. (Seepp. 67 and 87.) been have (c) The joints, though properly made, may with each other, whilst inadvertently brought into contact off cable. reeling line may have been kinked and afterwards (d) The firing forciblystraightened out, thus breaking a wire. (e)The
;
as

exploderends
also the

of the

line firing
or

may

ing requirecleanstuds
on

may

binding terminals

contact

the

exploderitself.
What is
"

62."

Double
may
occur

Detonation
when
a

"

Double

detonation
"

hangs
causes

fire
or

detonator

partlymisses or form, in fact, of delayed ignition. A damp badly mixed explosiveare the two principal
shot detonation.
a

of double

The
a

insertion of detonator

fuse in

placeof

detonator,or the
in

use

of

weak

may

fail to

detonate,but succeed
Sarrau's be sufficient to

igniting
pressure

charge. Then, accordingto developed by the gases would

remainder of the

the

theory,the

explode the

explosive. (Seealso Question 63, following.)

63."

Can

an

Electrically-Ignited Shot
pitsinkers
were

Hang

Fire

In view
to have

of the fact that four

at injured
a

recently reported
to the
pected unex-

been

Simderland

colliery owing

known

explosionof a blastingcharge,it cannot that electrically ignitedcharges can. and

fire. Under the

be do

too at

well times

hang

Quarries Act

"

If

shot has

apparently

92

THE

SHOT-FIREtiS

GUIDE.

missed the

fire, no

person

shall be allowed

to

go

near

it until after been

lapse of
the

half

an

hour, except where

an

has electricity

used," and
from

in coal mines

electrical miss-fire is the

exempted
boards
or

regulationas
Staffordshire
person
;

to

fixingof

caution

fences. The North Rule providesthat Special

to it
"

if a shot

misses fire, no
at least
one

shall return

until after the

are

lapseof
return

hour

if, however, the shots

or

fired
person

by electricity,
may

the

authorised

shot-firer

competent

after disconnecting the immediately,

cable of the

battery and
in the
may

taking the battery with

and Shropshire idea thus that in
some

him." Chase.

similar rule is in force rules rather favour

not

Cannock

These do

electrically ignitedshots
measure

hang

fire and

prove

source a

of

It is not

unusual

for

one

in

group

danger. of simultaneously-fired always

an

shots to miss, and

there consequently
a

is
nearer

element

of

danger

in

group-firing. Probably
lie in the
use

approximation to
of

perfect safetywould fuses,though it

detonator
must

of

electrically ignitedtime
that the towards
use a

also be admitted
go
a

able suit-

would

long
number

way

ensuring the
in the

simultaneous

of ignition retarded
occur

any

of shots.
occur

or Hang-fire,

ignition, may
in the

electric

detonator

or

it may

explosive. A damp
will sometimes

detonator

might readily hang

It is well known

fire. that the

a

shot

explodeafter
in

prolonged turning of
less than caused half
a

exploderhandle,
The

whereas

general
be broken
minals, ter-

turn

will suffice. resistance

or

retardation

might
and

by

increased

in the circuit dirt of

on

through

wires,bad joints, or grease

springcontacts
latter has the The

permittingthe
energy
to
warm

passage

only justsufficient
The before

electrical
to

the

fuse

bridge.
the

then

be

kept
would for

heated

during

several

seconds

temperature
same

rises to the be

of point of ignition

priming.
Or

effect

produced if the exploderwere by

defects in the fuse, such

to loss of magnetism. instance,

under-powered,owing, might delayed ignition

as

be caused
or

badly mixed, damp,

insufficient

priming,or by

wet

charge.

PRACTICAL

APPLICATIONS.

93

Capt. Desborough (Annual Report for 1905, p. 137) states that he had electrical hang-fires when firing experimental shots
with three different ammonium nitrate interval detonator that explosives, of about and the
50 of

greatest duration
between the the With

involvingan
the all these in each

seconds

explosionof

explosionof

charge.
he

he subsequently had explosives

case,

several

and miss-fires, found

when had

the

charge was
when

tracted, ex-

that the detonator The

fired,but had
overcome

failed
a

to

explode the charge.

was

was difficulty

stronger detonator

employed.
that
a

In

this connection carbonite

was

Capt.
found Wales. the

Desborough
to

mentions in
a

of cartridge in
a

be

burning
was

shot-hole

in colliery

South

This

by
seemed

no

means

the first instance of the kind, and

use

caused

to

lie in the

of

faulty or

insufficiently
1906

powerfuldetonator."
The Annual also records electric
to

Report
three
cases one

of H.M.

for of Explosives Inspectors

a cases

in which of these

has hang-fire
two

occurred
were was

with made then

firing.In
shot from

attempts

fire

electrically (high tension); the cable

the detonator leads and tested.

disconnected found

It

was

to be all right. The

no

shot then

exploded.
was a

There
case

is practically of

doubt,
time the the

says

the report, that this the

hangthe

fire.

The

elapsing between
the into
at

disconnection about of

of

cable and After several made Volf.

of explosion introduction

charge was
France St. Etienne

five minutes.

safety explosives,
Collieries and
a were

accidents the The

happened
an

subjectof

and investigation from

a

report by Mr. L.
of Mr. Volf
s

followingnotes appeared in

translation

report, which
the of

the Transactions

of the Institution of
were

show Mining Engineers,

that the accidents

attributed is another

to

phenomenon of double detonation, retarded ignition or hang-fire.

was

which

phase

It

assumed first
was

that in

borehole the

charged with cartridges,

detonator, and
that the

only
others

the

exploded by

became The

minutes.

ignitedafter an interval of a few seconds or followingaccident proved this : Three holes,

each filledwith

3J oz. (100 grammes)

of

were qrisounitc-couche,

94

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

bored

in the and

coal,and ignited by 0-052

oz.

nators (1J grammes) deto-

three fuses.
were was

Three

distinct reports
a

heard, and,
stillsmoking

as

the workmen

were

goingaway,
one

shot which

exploded and injured

The

of them
was

; it appeared to have

exploded twice.

theory

deduced the

that the
a

result of

decompositionof a blasting charge is not singlechemical reaction, but depends on the

the

pressure

to which

products are
nitrate of

exposed during such

ammonia,
and other

tion. reac-

Dynamite, guncotton,
materials

ing blastthe

containingnitrates,decompose graduallyin
in ignited
a

and give out nitric oxide, but if they are air, space

closed

they instantlydecompose,
The if the first slow free evolution The reaction
a

without

nitric oxide. the second

process

forming a trace of changes immediately into

be hindered
a

of gas

and

the

pressure
same
as are

raised. that
so

produced by
closed
space

detonator
at

is the

in by ignition

high

pressure.
once verted con-

Both

rapid that the whole

But burn if the instead

of the

charge is at

into gas.
may
"

and ignite

be defective, the charge ignition of exploding; it is then said to The

cook," and
also

givesoff
varies

nitric oxide. its

explosive power

of

charge
contains. If the

with

composition,and

depends, in
it

grisounite upon

the small

that quantity of nitro-napthalin

charge begins to burn, given off

Mine The
may

the

increasing pressure

caused

by

the gases

produce an

and ignite the explosion

one cartridges

after the other. 20 (Austria) first and holes

were

At

the Karwin series. of

a

bored

and been

fired fired
a

in three

second

series

having

(by means
distance
was

Tirmann

low-tension
was

from dynamo exploder)

of 260

ft., a loud report

fire the

heard, and the workman

when It
was a

proceedingto

remaining holes
after the first.

second

report
the

ensued, about
tell which second

15 seconds

to impossible

of the shots

had

produced
off.

the first, and boreholes

which
were

report, but all had

each

gone

The

about

4 ft. deep, and

or

five contained, besides the firing cartridge,

six others.

96

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

current

through the
available be
at

circuit is less than terminals

to of

the

electromotive hence
an

force
set

the

the

battery;
in

this

may

expected

perform its work

that

efficient

manner.

It need maximum various there This

be said,however, scarcely
economy,

in order
to

to obtain

allowance

must

be made

compensate for
the be
first

sources

of increased internal

resistance. of the

In

place,

is the

resistance

cell to cell

considered.

increases

indeed, if the
internal the terminals of

gradually so long as the exploder is heavilyworked.

means

lasts;rapidly,
as

And,

increased force at

resistance of the

less effective electromotive

may

this alone cell,

render

the cell incapable

a fuse. firing (Itshould be

remembered

that all this

have types of exploders

definite internal
account

and resistance, small

requiresto

be taken

into

when

using very
is
so

machines.

In the

sizes larger

the

margin

of power be

the internal great that in practice

frequent or coal,thus necessitating splices to the resistance; that may not add or may seriously or joints accordingas they are proparlyor improperlymade. in small wires or strands of making a joint The best method An has been explained (seep. 66). injured cable should, of
course,

ignored.) The firing line, again,may of rock cuts from flying pieces
resistance
can

be

expected to

receive

be sent

out

of the mine

for
to

as repairs

soon

as

possible,

but

it is

frequentlynecessary
of
a

make

temporary
be

order

that the round

district may

in splices completed without

delay.
Another needful
source

of failure

which against

it has
two

been

found

to instruct blasters is that of

making
to be

splices opposite
it is better to

each other.
cut

If two
so

jointshave
wire
on

made,

off

foot
on

or

of

one

each

piece.

cables bringingthe long and short wires of opposite each the jointswill be separatedfrom and splicing, together

Then,

other

by insulation.
further be noted saturated be
so

It may becomes wires may

that if the insulation

of

firing-line
the two

with

water, the resistance between reduced

as

much

to

an provide

easier

path for

PRACTICAL

APPLICATIONS.

97
the fuse. off.

the current

than
as a

through the bridge of

matter

The

latter gous analo-

would

then,
sources

of course,

fail to go

Other

of failure in the

line firing

will doubtless

readily

suggest themselves. Passing now

to the

fuses,it is found

that

they

are

of

what some-

widely varying resistance ; from which it follows that a of one battery and line admirably adapted for the ignition
make of fuse may be

utterlyuseless with another

pattern.
of

bridges are variouslymade and and iridio-platinum, platinum-silver, range

Low-tension fuse resistance from about
0'3 ohm
to

platinum,
as

in electrical

T65

ohms.

Hence, when, unknown,

is often the case, the resistance of the desirable that

an

fuse is
in the

it is

ample margin of

power

should exploder

always be available.

65."

How

do

Permitted class compare Coal

Explosives
with Getters
?

of

the

powder Gun-

other

Permitted

Explosives
Some Bobbinite that
recent

as

experiments,which
go to prove

were

carried

out

for the

Committee,

the

gunpowder and its allies are producing strong coals, not only because these non-detonants the whole get the coal with less production of small, but on
because coal
so

generally acceptedbelief stillthe best explosives for

got is not

shattered

or

cracked,

and

suffers the

least amount
to

of

in conveyance disintegration

from

the coal face

the Table

consumer.

VIII.

shows

the

which These

were were

made the
"

in the

generalresult of the experiments, of widely varying nature. four seams

"

Stanley Main

seam

at

the Don

Pedro
;

Pit,
the in
at

Whitwood
"

Collieries, Normanton,
" "

in South

Yorkshire

at Eastwood, seam Moorgreen Colliery, Deep Hard Black Vein seam Nottinghamshire; the Bydelog or
" "

the Victoria
"

Ebbw Colliery,
" "

Vale, in Monmouthshiro
"

; and

the

Nine

Feet

or

Big

Vein

seam

at

Ystradgynlais Colliery
H

in the Swansea
S.F.Q.

Coal

Field.

98

THE

SHOT-FIRE

R'S

GUIDE.

"

co

02

.a
HS"
1-H

VI

3
^

.3
i"

w
*

bo

.3

"
o

O
'"H

o
"""*

co
""'

cL

PJ

PJ

CO 'N "M

^H

CO1^
CO

"o

-"
.

"p 55

'

CO

^00

PH

PH

""1 ^"

""

11
P "

PR

A OTIC

A L

A P PLICA

TIONS.

99

BLASTING

IN

PIT

SHAFTS

AND

STONE

HEADINGS.

66.

"

What
in

are

Shaft

of Electric Advantages Sinkings and Headings ?

the

Firing

ought to be the only permissible of firing means blasting chargesin shaft sinkingand tunnelling operations. For rock blasting and all tunnellingwork, shot-firing by sides beis acknowledged to be the most economical electricity Moreover, in being safer than any other system. such places as shafts and ventilation tunnels, where may
be

Ignition by

electric current

defective,it is usual
to

under half
an

the hour
to

old
or

system
more

men for workafter and is each when

wait allow blasts

perhaps
smoke
are

blast to several lost.

and

fumes

clear away, time

made

dailymuch

valuable

thereby

rock when will liftmore fired simultaneously charges than would if the holes were fired by electricity greater ones with tape safetyfuse. It has also been proved independently that

Smaller

accomplished with a less number of holes where is employed than electricity would be required if the chargeswere fired singly with tape
same

the

amount

of work

can

be

fuse. is more advantage of electric firing there evident,as, if the holes are not simultaneously exploded, of a smouldering fuse lying dormant is but little possibility and less unexpected,* and, consequently, exploding when of danger in approaching the charge to ascertain the cause In
case
a

of

miss-fire the

miss- fire. Given and

a

code of

as rules,

protection thoughtlessness against

use

ignorance of the risks involved,it should,by the

and for the enforced observance
to
occur.

of

electrical methods, made

assuming that adequate provisionis

of the be almost rules,
possible im-

for any

accident
*

See

"Hangfires," p.

91.

H2

100

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

67."

State Series

the and

Advantages
Parallel the

Disadvantages how Firing; Show

of the Puses.
be

and

of to for of

calculate each

Resistance
and

the

Circuit

System;
and

give

Resistance

High
Fuses in
as parallel,

Low-Tension

for simultaneous shown in

ignition may
Fig. 66.

joined in series, or
fuse wires
are

In

the

series system, wherein

line and

all

the total external resistance of the coupled consecutively, of the separate resistances nal circuit is equal to the sum (exterresistance RZ-t-(R/xN)) ; where R" is resistance of line,
=

E/

resistance of the

one

fuse,and N the number

the

of fuses in series.

parallel system ladder, the line forming

fuse
a

In

circuit may be the ladder sides and

compared
each

to

detonator

stave.

The

total external
seen

resistance in this system is El the resistance varies

It is thus number The

that

(R/-f-N). inverselyas the

+

of fuses. resistance of H.T. fuses is very and variable, may be

anything from
The about As 0-7 ohm,
a

50 ohms

upwards.
L.T.

resistance

of

fuse,on

the other
1'5 ohms.

hand, is usually
and parallel L.T.

and

rarelyexceeds
H.T. fuses
are

rule general

fired in

fuses in series.
from lighting ignition mains, a bad fuse simply misses fire while the rest explode. the other hand, a defective fuse usually In a series circuit, on the entire blast to miss fire, causes though the system has the When in parallel, is usual as firing
in

advantage that
If
a

fault

can

be

easilylocated.
to be

great number

of fuses have them

fired, say,

more

than

50, the best way

is to arrange
groups

and jointhe series, that the

can

in groups of about 20 in in parallel. In this way the number

be

fired is limited

only by

the current

available and

of carryingcapacity
"

the mains.

68.

How Shaft

are

Shot-Holes
?

arranged

in

modern

Sinking
were

In

the

Sherwood

the shot-holes

England),all sinking(Mansfield, Colliery from a centre line : set out systematically

"

PRACTICAL

APPLICATIONS.

101

Six inner drilled in

sumper
a

holes, 6 ft. deep and

2 in. in 16 outer
a

diameter,
sumper

were

circle of 4ft.
2 in. in

radius;

and

holes,

6 ft. deep and 9 ft. radius.

diameter,were
outer

drilled in

circle of about

Tne

whole

of these inner and

sumper

holes

were

fired

and togetherby electricity, Then

24
a

the debris cleared away. side holes,6ft. deep and l^in. in diameter, were radius of 11 ft. These side holes
were

drilled at

all fired

and together, was dressing The

left the shaft-side done

and practically no quite clean,

by

the

average

rate

of

pick. sinking only through

this

(magnesian

was limestone)

22^ ft. per week.

In the softer coal-measures, five sumper

2 in. in

holes,7 ft. deep and

diameter, were
sumper
a

drilled in

circle of

4J

ft. radius ; and

10

outer

holes, 7ft. deep and

inches of rock

2 in. in

diameter, were
off

drilled in The when

circle of 10 ft. radius.

were

remaining 16
the

dressed hard

by hand
were countered, enwere

ground

was

soft ; and

where

rocks

side holes drilled

was as

6Jfb. deep and

The

l^in. in diameter

in the limestone.

finished diameter

of the shaft

20ft.

(J.W.

Fryar, Trans. I.M.E., Vol. XXVI.,

Precautions

1903-4.)
be
?

69."

What taken

Shot-firing
when
the

should Ground

Sinking

through

Frozen

plosives exfreezingprocess at Dawdon Colliery used to blast through the limestone,the natural were intensified by the frost. Great care hardness of which was tha shot-holes and regulating the quanin placing was required, tity of explosive used, to prevent any breakage of the freezing tubes surrounding the shaft and so cause a leakage of brine,

In

sinkingby

which

might damage the ice-wall. The following were shot-firing regulations (a) Black compressed powder must be (6) Sumping
Not
more

adopted :
used than

"

for all shots.

50 in.

holes

must

not

be of

more

than
be

12 in.

deep powder, including tht,

hole.
not

primer,may
be fired holes may

used

in any

The
more

shots than

must

and by electricity, be fired at

one

three

time.

102

THE

SHO

T-FIR

Eli

*S

G VIDE.

(c) Connect
40 in.

or

side holes must the side of the Not

more

not

be

placed nearer
not
more

than than
cluding in-

1 2 in. to

shaft,and
than be used

deep.
the

6 in. of

powder,
hole.

primer, may
be drilled at
an

in any

The

holes must towards shot may The number

angleof

1 7 to 20
more

degrees
than
one

the centre

of the shaft. Not

one

be fired at

time. the
a

necessitated precedingregulations of shot-holes, and rock

were

of drilling

large
of

also entailed

great

amount

of shearing-back The shot-holes

to

dress the shaft-sides

down. straight

kept

from

solution of 6 per cent, of caustic soda.

freezingeither by using a soda or 10 percent, of washing

I.M.E., Vol. XXXIL,
p.

(E,Seymour Wood,

Trans.

566.)

FIG.

64.

70."

How the the

is Electrical

Connection the the Bottom Surface

the bottom

made of
? of
a

between Shaft and

Charges Exploder

at

at

Electrical connection
the surface from the sump
or

between

shaft
on

and lators insu-

may

be shaft

made

by suspending bare wires

to
a

the

mouthing
The

point a
end

few

yards above
cable

shaft bottom.
to

lower

of the

being

liable specially

debris,a separate length of injury by flying

connection This between the shaft
to be

twin flexible cable is used to make wires and the

charges
as

fired.

method

necessitates It is" twin

jointmaking
insulated wire

the

sinking of the shaft progresses.

to preferable

often considered therefore, upon

a

carry
at

length of
surface

drum

situated

the

of the

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

by mark,
same

and

shall be

relative

the straight, positionthroughout

centre

line to be

in the the

the

whole

length of
or

drift ; and hand

(4)No

shot shall be fired within affected include of tUd.

1 ft.of the roof

sides,

all loose stone

; to rate

by
cost

shots of

shall be dressed which explosives,

back

by

(5)Price supplied at the

all shots safe ; appearance drift shall

will be shall fire selves them-

per Ib. ;

(6) Contractors
to

in drift and

shall set sufficient timber be

keep

(7) All stones to of anything except

filled into tubs ;

(8) The

solid stone the

in the face of the

;

(9)The drift shall be driven continuously from 10 p.m. Sunday till 12 noon the succeeding on Saturday; (10) Contractors will be supplied with power drill and gear all drills and picksbeing sharpened by the company; (11) A priceper yard for drivingthe drift in
terminate immediately
contract
"

accordance in
a
"

with and
was

all the above workmanlike let to five

the drift conditions,

manner,
men

to

be driven

proper The

"c.

drift

at the

priceof
was

35s.

per
per 20

yard
cent.

plus the then existingpercentage, which 5 ft. by 5 ft. by 3 ft., Refuge holes, were
and the
were

27^
every
was

made The
or

yds.

let

complete at
of 158

32s.

6d. each. 19

drift

driven

full distance

yds. in
per week

weeks,

4f months, the

yardage driven fortnight. The maximum

average
20

being 8*3, or 16-6 yds. per was yardage in any one fortnight

yds. of drift and

of shifts worked average wage

over

refuge hole. The average number was 16, and the per fortnight per contractor ing the whole time of drivingwas not includone
"

who fillers,

were

paid

fixed wage
men

"

12s.

6d. per

shift of

eighthours.
the drill and filled the stones

Out

of the five

in the

three worked drift,

two

prepared and
made in the
wage

fired the

holes,while the
were,
as

fillers

and night shift,

rate

mentioned

above, paid a fixed

"

at the

of 5s. per shift.

was

The

method with

of

working

the drift

similar to that

usually

exceptionthat all holes drilled by machine, the face being sometimes fired right were and sometimes worked and back-end,accordingas across sump the conditions suggested. Sumping, covering and flanking holes were employed and placedaccordingto the judgment of employed
hand with drilling, the the

contractors, who

took

advantage

of

the

bedding

and

PR

A CTICAL

APPLICA

TIONS.

1 05

cleavageplanesof
13 to 16

the stone

in

their placing in

holes.

As

rule,

holes,of from
favourable

5 ft. to 6 ft. each

was

for each round. hours under

per

This work

sometimes

drilled were length, in four accomplished of 24 lineal ft. and of

or conditions,

at the rate

of hole

hour, includingall time

while drill,
as

spent in settingup
two

taking down
holes
were

many

as

complete rounds
stones
two

fired and the drilled, occasionally

10 ft.of drift. In hours, clearing
two occupied in drilling
as

filled away

in the 24 the times

actual instances different

ditions con-

holes under

were

follows
metal

"

1st hole in blue 2nd

nodules with ironstone hole in mild blue metal was

6 ft.,drilled in 16'5

min.

drilled 6 ft. h.
m.

Started

drilling
drill

11 11 11 12 12
12

57 58 58'5 0 0'75 2 3'o 5

1st drill up Started 2nd 2nd

..?

\,

jlmin-

_.

drill up Started 3rd drill

3rd

Started
4th

drill up 4th drill

12 12

drill up Total

time
...

8 min.

valve Ingersoll-Sergeant auxiliary rock-drill of the D 24 type, diameter of drills 2 J in. to 2 in. Drills used in soft ground were of chisel section, while in hard drill used
was
an

"The

ground, where
a

ironstone bit
were

nodules used. from

a

were

encountered,drills with
of best tool steel drills, blue
at the

rose

or

star

The

were

tempered
to

in water
a a

peacock
body.
Air

cutting
were

edge through to
necessary
were

dull red

in the

Three

drills

drill
the

6 ft. hole.
a

pipes of
the drill

3 in. diameter
at the

laid up

drift from

12 in. air main

bottom,
1 in. in

the

flexible hose for connection The

to

with
430

being

diameter.

drill,running
100
to

strokes cubic

per

minute, is
air per

supposed
minute.

consume

110

ft. of free

used was Saxonite,with high-tension explosive detonators. The cost 2,271 lb.,which quantity used was 10s. 4d., equal to 12s. 2'6d. per yard of drift; 2,076 "96. used, making the total detonators,costing"10 15s. 9d.,were for explosive and detonators "107. 6s. Id., equal to cost 13s. 7d. per yard. The quantity of explosiveper average hole was 1 '09 lb. The greatest quantityof explosive used in The

106

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

one

was fortnight

350 Ib. with

25 Ib. per

260
or

detonators, for
1*35 Ib. per
a

14

yds.
a

of

drift, equal
of 21s.

to

yard,

shot, at
of 23s.

cost

3d. per

yard for explosive, or

detonators."

cost

2d.

for both Wires

out

and explosive for

a

from

in headings, "c., shot-firing coil each time they are wanted

should

either be

paid

or, if the

is heading

FIG.

65."

EXAMPLE

OF

SIMULTANEOUS

BLASTING

IN

SKRIKS.

long

one, to

bare the

iron

wires
or

may

be

carried

on

insulators

attached
case a

timbering
between

side of the road. wire fuse is used wires in the and

In the latter head-end

to

twin

flexible insulated the

make mains.

connection

the

permanent

PRACTICAL

APPLICATIONS.

107

72.

"

Give

an

Illustration in of
a

of

Simultaneous and indicate

Series the vantages Ad-

Blasting
In

Quarry
this

Method.
a

Quarry ivork it is generallyagreed that

substantial

is to be obtained by simultaneous firing, saving of explosives since each shot helps its neighbour and there is no binding / end of the line of holes. This advantage except at the extreme
is further

increased

in certain kinds

of work

by usingexplosives
same

of different the and

may

in strengths

different parts of the

hole.

By

exercise

of individual the

similar ways be

judgment and experiencein this qualityand quantity of stone obtained

simultaneous

considerablyincreased.
in

method

is shown

quarrying by Fig. 65.

of

blastingin

series

4 in
_

Parallel"

in

Series

FIG.

66.

"

METHOD

OF

CONNECTING

FUSES

FOR

GROUP

FIRING.

73."

Give

an

Illustration Methods of

Parallel

showing Connecting

Series Fuses

and for

Simultaneous
Various series and methods
are parallel

Firing.
of

connecting fuses for group

in

in firing

shown

Fig. 66

above.

CHAPTER
^"Jfff"\!tt\!gfSM^\XM""!/%

IV.
'499y?/9y?

BLASTING
PAET

ACCIDENTS.
I.

RISKS
Accidents

IMMEDIATELY Classified, p. 110.

for the
use

CAUSED
Accidents in

BY

THE

EXPLOSIVE.
110.
odical Peri-

Handling Explosives, p.
Weather,
The p. 111.

Directions

of

Explosives

in Cold

Recurrence p. 112.

of Frozen

Accidents

with

Nitro-glycerineExplosives,
112.

Thawing
with
to

Explosives, p.
Detonator p.

Russbach
p. 114-115. in

Pot

f or Risk

Thawing Dynamite,
of and

p. 112. Naked

Accidents,
116.

Working Preparing
117.

Lights,
p. 116.

Fire,
when

Cartridges, p.
p.

117.

Accidents

Stemming through "Bunching" through boring into Unexploded Charges,

Accidents 119. Accidents p. 121.
to

Accidents

Accidents

firing, p.

Electric Portions

Signalling Wires,
of

Accidents leave the

through Use of through Allowing

p. 123.

Unexploded Charges
use

Mine,

The

risks

followingthe
into
:
"

of

explosivesin

mines

may

be

broadly divided
(1) Those (2) Those
an

immediately
from resulting inflammable

caused the

by

the

and explosive, the

ignition by

explosiveof

atmosphere.
most

The

former and
as

arise,for the
on

part, owing

to

want

ledge of know-

skill

the part of those in the

engaged

in

blastingoperations,
of their

will appear It

subsequent development though

the

causes.

might
of

be said, too, that the latter,the risks classed in the is

same

under
a

are (2),

often caused

way,

as

perhaps by

higher order they

knowledge
be
a

for requisite
excuse

prevention of

these risks there whom

are

may

little more

for the person

brought

about.

110

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

It has been

asserted
now

in evidence

given before

the Coal Mines the

"

Commission,
those who theoretical
most

that sitting,

90 per cent., if not

whole, of
have who
as no

are

acting as

"

competent
to
are

shot-firers

knowledge
men

at all as

explosives. Those
is

know shotof fact

of the type of

who

generally employed
one

firers will be the first to agree

that the statement

rather

than be

mere

personalexpressionof opinion,and
that
men so

it is

to greatly

desired

occupied should
for which
not

be

legally
do of

compelled to acquirethat competence understand the necessity have not or

they either
sense

sufficient

obtain. to voluntarily responsibility in this chapter contain The questions and answers of many accidents blasting the of

accounts

commonly recurring type and,

and
means

as indicating they do

causes principal

of prevention, these

will,it is hoped, help

unfortunate
occurrences.

to

lessen the

frequency of

74."

How

may

the be

various

Accidents

caused

by

Explosives
Accidents
caused

broadly

Classified?

The

accidents

caused be

by explosivesmay
under the follow-

by

for convenience
mg

grouped

Explosives.

sub-heads in

:"

(a) Accidents (6) Accidents (c) Accidents

Handling Explosives. Stemming Firing. Firingor attempting to

of
Fire. and

whilst when after

Preparing to

Fire.

(d) Accidents

75."

Describe which

the
occur

Main in

Sources

Accidents

handling

Explosives.
fruitful
cause

(a) Accidents
accidents is the

in

A Handling Explosives."

of

in countries the

subjectto
part of

low

atmospherictemperature
to

neglecton

users

soften

nitro-glycerine
All

and fit for use. them to render plastic as so explosives as pointedout in Messrs. Nobel's explosives, nitro-glycerine become handsomely prepared Book of High Explosives,"
"

112

THE

SHOT

-FIBERS

GUIDE.

It may allowed do
not to

be

added

that hard

which explosives

have

never

been

become
so once

by

solidification of the
to

nitro-glycerine
which have

show

much and

tendency

freeze

as

those

been

frozen

subsequentlythawed.
80 persons

Knowledge
killed and
ovens,
on

of the fact that since 1871 wounded while

have

been

123

attempting to
their

thaw

explosivesin
should
perly pro-

hot

induce

those and

fires and in over plates, that in authority to see

as

other similar ways

workpeople are

informed frequently

to the most

approved methods

of
to

handlingdangerous material, and which of that familiarity beware

Has it been observed

the shot-firers themselves breeds

contempt.
Accidents
occur more

76."

that

with quently freat

Nitroglycerine
at
one

Explosives
time of the

year

than

another
Yes. months
to

?
accidents The almost number November
occur entirely

These

during the
has been and

cold

of the year.

of accidents

found then

increase from steadily decrease again in May.

till February

77."

What

do

thawing
To thaw them

the safest consider you Frozen Explosives?

in
a

method

of

warming

pan

of the kind

suppliedby

the

A proper warming pan consists explosivesmanufacturers. of a double vessel similar to that used for the puressentially pose is put into of cooking oatmeal porridge. The explosive the The inner
pan

compartment
must not

and

hot

water

poured
other
way.

into the outer. An tion illustra-

be heated

in any in

of

one

of these pans

is shown

Fig.67, on previouspage.
Pot for

78."

Describe

the

Russbach

softening

or

thawing
The
one

Dynamite.
pot consists of
two

Russbach

vessels, cylindrical fitting

To tain mainfor 10

into the other, with double

walls,lined with non-conducting

a

material,and
an

provided with

double-lined

cover.

average

temperature in the pots of, say, 122"F.

EISKS

IMMEDIATELY

CAUSED

BY

THE

EXPLOSIVE.

113

hours, the inner vessel is plunged for

water

15

or

20

minutes

into

kept
the
cover

on

the boil,dried,

and

replaced. A
ago
to

placed inside the other vessel, number of experimentswere made

the temperature After of the walls

about

five years

measure

of the empty
15 minutes

vessel, and

of its interior.

placingit
At

for

in
was

boiling water,
they
air
were

the temperature of the walls when of the interior 105-8"F. 102"F. respectively 53-6"F. The and The the

withdrawn end and

107-6"F., and

of five hours
at the end

87-8"F. ;

of 10 hours, 62-6"F. and

was

ture temperawas

of the outer 305 cubic in.

very

cold.

vessel tested
as

of

and capacity,
at
a

if

heated previously could

next

described,
in three
or

8 to 9 Ib. of

dynamite

time

be

softened

four hours, and

5J Ib. during the

four hours.

79."

What Frozen

other

Accidents may

than
occur

those in

caused

by

Material

handling

Explosives.
Another kind of accident in

of of Heport of H.M. Inspectors many the examples following also taken. A contractor, having are prepared the charge and fixed the detonator, is said to have with the fuse by cutting joint attempted to make a water-tight off a pieceof the explosive Gelatine)and applying a (Blasting the cartridge match to melt it. When caught fire the lighted it by grasping it in his hand, deceased attempted to extinguish

handlingis reportedin from which Explosives,

the 1905

whereupon

it

exploded.
are

Fifty-seven accidents

reported to

have

been

caused

being ignitedby a naked flame or during 1905 by explosives and in every case of blasting spark in the course operations, involved. the explosive but two gunpowder was killed and 63 injured Three persons were by these accidents, due in many to nonconformity with which the cases, were,
usual irom the removal of enjoining regulation the cap before preparinga charge. accidents detonator in also
a occur

the candle

or

lamp

Numerous of
S.F.G. a

in connection

with

the insertion

charge, and

also in the

practiceof
I

114

THE

SHOT-FIRERS

GUIDE.

"

socketing,"which
end
at

consists
a

in the
to

use

of
a

small

charges for

the enlarging be concentrated Others have

of

borehole,

enable

powder charge to
to

the back

of the hole.
to want

arisen

owing

of

knowledge
of

as

the

extremely sensitive
of mercury, There mine then who is which
an

nature

and

violent

propertiesof fulminate
a

is the essential component recorded of

an

detonator.
a

instance

official shot-firer in
a

withdrew

the electric fuse from "the

"

detonator end

cap

and

proceeded to extract by the aid of a pin. The

officiallost Another where
A
"

stuff in the
"

of the

tube"

stuff

of

course

exploded, and the

liery col:

one

eye

and

three

fingers.
in the
manner following

accident electric of

occurred

at

had shot-firing

recentlybeen
were

introduced

number

underground
detonators

officials

together in
One
of them

their
wa"

cabin," engaged in writingtheir reports.

electric testing circuit. the resistance

on

through a dry
had

cell and

galvanometer
one mon, com-

The

latter instrument
two

three

terminals,
low

other coils.

attached certain
"

to respectively

and
no

hightion deflec-

cap," justtested, gave

was

the

galvanometer needle, and

An onlooker

therefore

inferred to

be

bad

one.

essayed
was really

to

repeat the test, and,

as faulty, applied,

assuming

that

the detonator
same

he he

thought, the completed

resistance The
man

test

as

before. the

Unfortunately for
low the instead detonator
"

him

the

circuit

through

of the
went
a

highoff."

galvanometer
lost two
a a

coils and

fingers. Another

operator tested

detonator
in his

through
way,

low-resistance

galvanometer, and,

cautious

dry cell supposed to be almost exhausted. He, too, neglectedthe important precautionof placingthe
used in
an as

detonator

iron tube its

"

or

otherwise
"

out to

of harm's

way

before weaker

and, testing,
than became Eleven three
were

bridge

chanced
a

be somewhat the
copper

usual, it exploded, and

embedded accidents
cases

piece of

capsule
1905. In

in his eye. of this character it

seems

occurred the

in

of these

probable that
dangerous
blame
nature

injuredpersons
article,and

fullyaware only their

own

of the

of the

had

to folly

for their

injuries.

RISKS

IMMEDIATELY

CAUSED

BY

THE

EXPLOSIVE.

115

In two
persons
cases

cases

there is

no

reason

to

suppose

that

the

injured

that
was

danger they incurred,while in six it may be assumed, from the fact that a light was applied, the injured that they are explosive, but was aware person
any
unaware

had

idea of the

probably

that

they were

dangerouslyso.

80."

Detail
were

some

further
detonator

Detonator
in 1906.

Accidents.
The

There

22

accidents
to

following
tiveness sensi-

examples will, it is hoped, serve

of detonators and

indicate the extreme

the great risk involved

in unskilful

handling.
1. A

boy
of

received been

from

schoolfellow
a

detonator
a

which,

with

others, had

stolen from He

box

at

pit in

the

bourhood neigh,

Linlithgow.
to

put it on

the fire and

it exploded

causinghim
At

lose several
was

of his fingers
a

righthand.
with
a

Glasgow a boy
blew
a

pickingat
in
same

detonator

pin when
a man

it exploded and found the act when it

off two

fingers. At Hett, Durham,

a

loose electric detonator of

box time

and

was,

he said, in the wire, He

was

it,at replacing

the

folding up

his right hand. exploded, seriously injuring at the wires. probably pulling At
a

clay pitin Flint

cause,

detonator

from exploded,
at
a

some

plained unex-

in

man's

hand, and
end

quarry

in

Derbyshire
a

man

was

off the cutting it

of

detonator

to make

ferrule

for his

pipe when

exploded.

At

at

the detonator in Lanarkshire was man a extracting colliery it exploded, and from the primer of a missed shot, when detonator Easter Jaw Colliery, a exploded when a Stirling,
a

pieceof
A

fuse

was

beinginserted

in it. in

boy picked up a detonator with at the composition scraping

and it exploded, At
a so

Glasgow

and of
a

was

merely
when

the butt end

match

his hand injured Warwickshire a man colliery when and it exploded,

a

that it had to be
was a

amputated.
out

pickingdirt

of

detonator
a

detonator

exploded in

man's

quarry in Gloucestershire a pocket while he was drilling

at

hole.
12

116

THE

SHOT-FIBERS

GUIDE.

81."

Is it not

specially risky
in

to work

with

Naked

Lights
Yes, such

proximity
argues

to the

Explosives?
possession of
were a

procedure

defective in 1906

No less than 70 intelligence. being ignitedby by explosives

course

accidents
a

caused
or

of

spark in the gunpowder being the explosive operations, blasting

case

naked

flame

involved

in every

but two.
were

Seventy-sixpersons
were,

injuredby
to

these

accidents, which
with
or

in many

cases,

due

nonconformity
of the candle

the

usual from

enjoiningthe regulations
the cap before

removal

lamp

preparinga charge.
how Accidents whilst have occurred and

82.

"

State recent
to

during
ing prepar-

years Fire.

stemming
of accidents fact which

That whilst

any

considerable

number is
a

are

liable to

occur

tamping charges
were

might easily escape annually assembled

such in

observation

it not

for the evidence in

1905 39

Yet official publications.

seven

accidents caused

deaths

and

injuryto

43 persons

(seeChap. III., p. 86, for

type
means

measures). precautionary
from resulting the
use

Another

of accident of

is that is

of electrical

ignition. It
want

generallycaused
to

either

or by thoughtlessness

of knowledge

be

the exploding apparatus regarding producedby it.

cases

and

the effects liable

Several
use

of premature

have ignition

been

caused

by the

insulated shot-firing cable. The latter is defectively damaged in dailyuse by falling fragments of stone necessarily of
a

or

coal. the
same

Both

wires of

twin cable may

lose their insulation

at

point and
A

come

in contact, thus

short-circuiting

the

line.

pected, charge having failed to explode,the line,if susis examined, the exploder, say of the dry batterytype,

being meanwhile
removed,
and Instances
extent.

left in circuit. the shot

The

"

short

"

is found

and

exploded in doing so. might

and be related to
an

of this kind

almost

indefinite
in

Eight

accidents

in electric

occurred firing five persons.

1905,

in resulting

three deaths

injuryto

RISKS

IMMEDIATELY

CAUSED

BY

THE

EXPLOSIVE.

117

No

less than
more

five of these accidents of

might

have

been the

avoided

by

systematic method
be
an

carrying out
are

operation.
to be
nected con-

It should

invariable

rule that the wires

anyone is at

never

to the

exploder when
last leaves the

and the shot-hole,

one

that
to be

the

man

who

working placeis the only exploder.

allowed

to connect

the wires to the have

"

Accidents
"

which

occurred

through the practice of

"

ing bunch-

Cartridges:
Durham
was

1. At

quarry.

One
a

person

killed and

three

injured.
been

The into
a

deceased shot-hole

ramming
a

final
rammer.

charge of
The been had

three

cartridges

with

wooden

hole had

chambered
23 Ib. of

by
had the

previous shot, and

A
not

recharged with
pan
was

gelatine dynamite.
been used.

proper

warming
"

vided, prowas

but

The three

cause

of the accident bunched

"

probably
which
may
a

jamming
been

of the frozen.

cartridges^

have quarry

2. At

in Fife.

Three
were

persons

injured.
14 ft.

The wooden

three
rammer.

injuredmen
The
men were

charging a
"

hole, using a
of them

one charge exploded,injuring

"

severely.
them
cause

The

bunching

the

by lying cartridges
is
to likely

in bundles them
to

of three

or

which four, a practice

so

stick in the hole and

create

undue

friction in

charging.
3. At
a

in colliery

Kinross.

One

person

killed and

one

jured. in-

Three

had cartridges home

been

bunched in the with

a

together,and
bore-hole. wooden
rammer.

whilst
men

being

rammed

they

stuck home

The

endeavoured
was gelignite

to force them

The

probably frozen.
into

Accidents

through Boring
and
69

Unexploded Charges :
fatal accidents

"

Figs. 68
in 1900 In the
a

illustrate two collieries.

which

occurred

in Lancashire first

(Fig.68), a collier drilled

;
a

hole in the roof for

oz.

rippingshot
made

fireman

charged the
to fire

hole with 8 electric

of

amvis,

and

several

attempts

by

battery,without

118

THE

SHOT-FIRERS

GUIDE.

success.

He

then

told the two

stallmen

of the failure to fire the

shot and it 8 As
or

that

they must
hole and
was

drill another and

not

hole, takingcare

to have

9 in. from

the old one,

to drill into the old hole.

the

second
man

being drilled

the

charge exploded,
Examination

one killing

another. seriously injuring

SECTION

AT

A.B.

PLAN

FIG.

69.

"

FATAL

ACCIDENT

BY

EXPLOSIVES

AT

LIXNYSHAW

COLLIERY,

MAY

31, 1900.

proved

that the second

was so

hole

was

only 5J

in. from

the first hole,

that the hole drill had inches of

directed
some

that it entered

the old hole ; the

two
or

removed

of the then

clay stemming,
the detonator.

three

and explosive,

struck

120

THE

SUOT-FIRERS

GUIDE.

Some
nature
as

eight years happened

of in in
a

ago

an

accident

of

an

almost

incredible is instanced in those

north

and country colliery,

extreme

evidence

the

necessityfor

caution
seen a

engaged
sections
men,

shot-firing.In Fig. 70

will be

plan

and
Two-

through a heading or tunnel driven in the the line father and son, having connected
the head

rock. wire

with

charge,in
second with

end, placedthemselves
door
as

for

safetybehind
man,

the

ventilation
to

shown.

The

young

standing
the
he

his back

the door, fired the shot and, the door

accordingto
dead.

father's statement, the sound of the

opened
his

at

the moment rolled

over

heard

and explosion

son

VENTILATION

DOORS

FIG.

70.

2.

or Through neglect

omission

to see

that all Persons

"

are men

in

safe positions before completing the Firing Circuit.

were was

Two

recently killed

at

different Durham
the detonator taken
cover,
a

collieries.

Each

connectingthe cable to had firer, thinkingthe man

At
a

leads,when

the shot-

exploded the charge.

missed and fire, The
on

in colliery

Northumberland
was

shot

the testing
cut

cable it

found

to

be defective.
sent

shot-firer

off

portionof
end

the cable and cable

the hewer
purpose

to short-circuit

the

further
some

of the

(for the

of

re-test).
it up

Through
with make

the misunderstanding,

latter connected

the detonator the test the

leads,and

on

the shot-firer

attempting to

the charge exploded,killing

hewer.

IMMEDIATELY

CAUSED

BY

THE

EXPLOSIVE.

121

At
up

Durham

whilst colliery,

the

shot-firer turned

was on

connecting
the current,

the

leads, the hewer

shot to

by
a

mistake

causingthe
At
a

explode.
mine shot
use was was

Staffordshire

fired while

the cable

was

being attached, through the

at the
same

of the

cable batteryfor testing another

time.

One

man

killed and
a

injured.
to

shot-firer left the cable

from

missed

shot attached

his

low-tension the

battery. On
accident, the

couplingthe
was

shot wires to the cable

charge exploded and he

killed.
of which

Another
as

cause

will strike the reader

a

being particularly stupid,occurred

A

in

midland between

colliery.
the wires man workoff

shot-firer, having made

to

the connection

connected

the

charge and

his line,requestedanother
so joints,

to hold

the wires apart at the be

that in
an

paying

cable

no

short-circuit would

produced through

tent inadver-

in

pull. Having paid out sufficient length to place himself of he immediately fired the shot, forgetful safe position,
was

the fact that his comrade It is difficult to say inevitable

3.

holdingthe
of the two
men

wires at the shot-hole.

most

which

deserved

the

punishment.
contact

Through

with
some a

Electric
years

Signal
ago

Wires.
stone

"

An

pected unex-

occurred fatality
at

in

ing drift branch-

rightanglesoff
or

main
100

haulage road.
out

In the head

end,

distant, perhaps,80
to

a shot-firer joinedthe fuse wires ft.,

his

line,and proceeded to firing

road
at

pay

the latter towards workmen face.

were gaged en-

the

main in

the

same

time

that the

the

removing

their tools from

working

On

the

arrival of the officialat the

junction of the roads the portionof

was

line remaining uncoiled firing iron electric signal wires. In

of the cable
or

passed
of

over

set

of bare

this act end

either the two

one

free ends

possiblya
in
some

bare
way

and

an

uninsulated

place in
the

the other

completed
a

the circuit the

through
ploded, ex-

signalling battery,and as causingthe death of one

of vicinity

consequence of the workmen

charge

remaining in
to

the

the shot.
cause

Another
of

accident, the

of which
at

was

traced Mesnes

the

use

wires, occurred signalling

the

Worsley

Colliery,

122

THE

SHOT-FIPERS

GUIDE.

with

fatal results to two of the

workmen. Mines

The for the

circumstances

(vide

Eeport
1904)
It of
a

were

Inspectorof extraordinary.
one

LiverpoolDistrict,
the face the appointed

appeared that

three drill holes

of the

were

prepared at
was

steep tunnel, and shot-firer, came

This

deceased, who

his firing there, bringing battery with

him.

he left at the top of the tunnel, and

to

proceeded

charge and
he
was

stem

the three holes,and

to

going down, pleted having com-

this work

heard

say" Which

shall I fire first?"

there was violent explosion. The a Immediately afterwards evidence it clear that the shotgiven at the inquest made used the signalling wires to fire the shot, forgetting, or lighter the fact that the wires were attached to or not appreciating in circuit with an eight-cell battery. An eight-cell is not normallystrong battery(say,8 or 9 volts) enough to fire a detonator such as was used here, but when a bell is in the circuit and it is called in the instant this is rung,
"

there is an
"

induced,

or,

as an

Report,

an

extra

By
,

givinga spark,as is the case experimenting with dummy

that it was
was

breaking current for off a motor. in switching

detonators
to fire the shot

electric (i.e.,

fuses) Mr. Hall found

this touch the
was

quiteeasy
was

by

means

all that

necessary

that the wires should

each other after and of

beingattached
went

to the

shot, then instantly

this accident there

bell rang
a

the shot

off.

In

breach have

did not the

A

Rules in that the Special his firing batterywith him

deceased whilst

shot-lighter couplingup to

charge.
third
out of the fatality arising at
a near colliery

use

of

occurred firing
1908. 4. 20

Wakefield if men

wires for shotsignal so as recently April, learn.

"

Experiencecannot
accidents have

teach

wont

Through misunderstandings between

arisen
a

Workmen.

At

least

serious
a

through misunderstanding
workmen.
goes
to

between
some reason

shot-firer and misses fire.

fellow
man

charge for
the
cause

One

seek

of

failure whilst the other will be

to

waits

by the machine.
and

Some

signals
an

exchanged

and

misunderstood The shot

the operator starts off and

work

his machine. is the result.

unexpectedlygoes
p.

accident

(See also 2,

120.)

RISKS

IMMEDIATELY

CAUSED

BY

THE

EXPLOSIVE.

123

5.

Through
p.

the

use

Cable. Insulated Shot-firing of defectively

"(See
6.

116.)
"

or Through Delayed Ignition

Hang Fire."
have to Fire.

"

(Seepp. 91-5.)
after

83."

State

how
or

Accidents

occurred

Firing
The
appear

attempting
of the accidents

majority
to to

classed
cases

under where the

this

heading
have missed

be the result of the

not

or hang-fires,

miners

returned

shot-hole been

that believing

shot had

fire,or had
A

or ignited,

that it had

fired. occurred
ago.
or

curious

and, it is believed, unexplained accident

mines rock district inspection
some

in the Midland
A

years

charge in
have

roof failed to fire, and

a

somehow

other it is the

passed unnoticed
said to rock.
A A

until about

afterwards, when fortnight

and

exploded spontaneously
occurrence

brought

down

similar

is recorded been much

was

at

in Glamorgan. colliery

charge which exploded while

of the

had
a was

shaken

by

neighbouringshot
wires. the
Pressure

workman

attachingthe
have caused

ground
Has caused
a

supposed

to

explosion.
and Mine ?

84."

Charge

ever

blown

through

injury
in
a

in another
vertical hole level and

part of the
(ina Cumberland
ured inj
a

Yes,
blew there.
At
a

charge fired
an

mine)

through into

upper

youth standing
had been

in colliery from

Northumberland

a a

headways
hewer
was

deflected road
to to

its proper with it ;

he

direction,and

drivinga
was

connect

owing

to

the deflection he
on a firing

closer

the

headways than

thought,and
on

shot it blew

through, injuringa deputy

85. "What

the

other

side.

special and
to

serious for

Danger
traces

is there

in

neglecting
in The and

look

of

Explosive

blown-down

Coal?
find its way into
a

unexploded charge may injuryto

house, private property.

cause

the occupants and

damage

to the

124

THE

SHOT-FJRERS

GUIDE.

Two shovelful few which and coals the the and coal

such of

cases

occurred coals and

in dross

1906.

In the

one,

woman

put
A

small later

on

fire

of

her in

kitchen. the

minutes

violent

explosion
some

occurred done

fireplace,
the house

was

destroyed
woman

damage
husband
were

was

to

and

her

slightly
some

burnt

by

the in

hot but with who

water.

There

was

evidently
to

explosive
this
was

it

was

impossible
coal work violent
or

ascertain it had been would occurred The children of

whether

delivered husband In the

the in his

whether

dropped
use

by

the

as

pit

brusher

explosive.
the coals kitchen

other,

explosion
noise. the the of four

in

grate,
thrown

preceded
out

by

hissing

burning
of the

were

slightly
the The issued
cause

injuring
was

occupier, explosive
the coal be

Undoubtedly
in had the coal. been in

presence

blasting
which

manager

the that

colliery allowing
is
a

from

was

warned from

explosives punishable

to

present

coal

sent

out

colliery

offence.

BLASTING

ACCIDENTS.

CHAPTER

IV."

PART

II.

ACCIDENTS

RESULTING INFLAMMABLE

FROM

THE

IGNITION

OF

ATMOSPHERES.

The
How

Risk
Gases Otherwise

of Ignition by Explosives of Inflammable

and

Atmospheres.
of Gases ing Blastof

Vapours
than

become

Explosive,
p.

p.

126.

Ignition
at

by

Flame,
p.

127*

Temperatures
of

which

Materials
p. 128.

Explode,

127.
p.

Range
128.
p.

Inflammability
for

Gases,

Dust

Explosions,
p. 129.

Reason

Dust

becoming
of
Amount
to

Inflammable,

Occlusion,
What Constitutes

129.
a

Occurrence

Dust

Explosions,
Dust in
a

p.

129. p.

Dangerous Requisite
of
to

of
Render

Mine,

130. p. of in 131.

Degree

of

Fineness

Coal-dust
p.

Explosive, Quantity Atmosphere

Temperature Necessary
of

Ignition produce
p.

of

Coal-dust,
an

131.

Firedamp
the p. for Presence 131. Use

mable Inflamof

Coal-dust,
Holes

131.
in

Ignition
Coal,
p, p.

Coal-dust
Selection

without
of

Gas,

Shot
in

bored

132. 133.

Explosives
p. 133.

Dangerous
of Loss

Atmospheres,
in

Charge

Limite,
p.

Recurrence Annual p. 134.

Explosions
of Life

South

Wales
of

Coalfield,
Fire

134. and p. The the

Average
Coal-dust,
135.

by Explosions Summary
Dust
in

Damp

Dr. of

Payne's

of

Investigations,
pp.
135-146. for
on

Occurrence

Dangerous
pp.

Mines,

Altofts
Removal pp.

Experiments,
of 142-3.

138-141.

Methods Influence
of

Proposed Watering

Dust,

pp.

141-148.
as a

Coal-dust,
in the Cause from

Watering
District,
p.

Means Table
in Rate

of

ing Prevent-

Explosions
the number
and

Midland of the 1872

143.

Showing
Midland

Explosion
to

Fatalities
p. 144.

the of p.

Inspection
of

District p. of 146. Ventilation p Dr. 149.

1905,
of Dust
a

deposition
148.

Dust,

Preparation
to

Dustless

Zone,
p. 149.

The

Relation

the

Danger, by
the of

Excessive
an

Ventilation,
p. 151.
"

Selection Defective

of

Dust

Blast

from

sion, Explo151-3.

Snellon

Eyesight

Deputies,
from Shot

pp.

Most p. 154.

Important
Qualities
p. 154.

Safeguards
and

against
a

Explosions Competent

Firing,
should

Knowledge

Shot-firer

Possess,

126

THE

SIIOT-FIREKS

GUIDE.

86.

"

How

do ?

Gases

and

Vapours

become

Explosive
Gases and

vapours

in with

general
air
or

are

not

actuallyexplosive
and then

except when
the mixture

mixed

oxygen,

only

when

is in definite
gases

proportions.
vapours
cannot

Combustible
on

and

furnish
are

an

explosion
contains
plete com-

unless the air with ignition oxygen

"

which less

they
nor

mixed
"

just sufficient
differs for each 87." How

neither
vapour

more

for the this

combustion
gas

of the
or

present, and

quantity

vapour.

does
?

the

Explosion

of

Gas

or

Vapour

proceed
In the presence
or

of sufficient oxygen

the

explosionof
:
"

gas

vapour

proceeds in the
chemical

manner following

Every

even reaction,

to the

is accompanied smallest, reaction

progresses

by the liberation of heat

it is followed in turn advance

as

the chemical in the

amount ;

by

an

increase

of heat, which and thus the

two

helps to

accelerate in

the

reaction

together,both

highly

intimate

connection substance

and

until the entire mass mutually helpful, been heated and chemicallyconverted. When in contact
of gas
a

of the

has

burning substance
with the extreme

"

match

for instance
an

"

is

placed

outer

limit of

mixture explosive

and

air,the flame of that substance

contact,
"

at produces ignition

the

point of

incites chemical i.e.,

"

reaction. the

This outside
a

reaction

combustion

from proceedssuperficially the centre, and the gaseous

of the mixture combustion

;
on

towards which side the

thereby forms
mixture into
of

plane of
parts

divides
are

two

the
on

one

the

highly heated
in

products

combustion,
The

and

other

is the
vary

still imconsumed

gas.

dimensions

of the
moves

two

parts
from

proportionas
to the
sumed imcon-

the

plane of combustion

the consumed

portion.
The each

velocityat
gaseous

which

this

plane
to

advances
on

is different for

mixture, and depends both

and
on

the it is

compositionof
the subjected,

the mixture

the pressure

which

12S

THE

SHOT-FIRERS

GUIDE.

90."

Discuss different

the Gases

range

and

Explosibility Vapours.
oxygen
vapour

of

01

certain minimum
an

quantity of
any gas
or

is (air)

necessary

to

produce
with the

explosionof
This amount
can

by simple contact
case,

flame. minimum

differs in every within mixture

and,

moreover, to
a

be

exceeded the

certain

limits up becomes

maximum,

beyond
between and vice

which

again
maximum

inex-

plosive.
The for
range gas

the minimum
vapour
;

and

limits differs is

each

if small, the

explosiverange
of

narrow,

and and

versa. a exhibiting narrow as

Gases
are

vapours

range
a

explosibility
range,

far less

dangerous than

such

have

wide

owing

to

the increased
case.

margin

of

of explosion in possibilities existing

the latter
A

antithetical particularly

behaviour

in this respect is

hibited ex-

by acetyleneand
these gases and air become

coal gas

respectively.Mixtures
limits following

of the
:
"

and inexplosive when explosive attain the

percentages of
Coal

gas in the mixture

Explosive
gas 8 3
"

at

Inexplosive at
23 82
"

per

cent

per

cent,

and

over.

Acetylene
It may be well for

colliery managers

to bear this in mind

when

the desirability of usingacetylene considering safetylamps.

91."

What

is

Dust

Explosion?
already been
of air

It has
Dust
case

explained that
in

in the

of gas

explosionsan
or

essential condition
oxygen
a

Explosions,

is the

presence

certain

proportion.
A gas
or

vapour

may,

nevertheless, become

out withexplosive
or

the should
as

presence it contain

of sufficient
any

(or,indeed, any) air

substance in
a

oxygen

powdered
The

state

of suspension

fine dust, which air

or

latter then

the

place of
or

oxygen.

partly or wholly takes explosionof such a mixture

a

of gas

vapour

with air and

dust is termed

dust

explosion.

IGNITION

OF

INFLAMMABLE

ATMOSPHERES.

129

92."

What

is the

chief

reason

for

Dust

ing becom-

Inflammable?
The chief of
reason

for this

of dust is the ready inflammability

or

occlusion

atmospheric oxygen,
Laden with

other dust
or

gases

or

vapours

present, by the minute

absorbent sponge.

of particles

which
vapour,

act

like

an

form a particles with great rapidity, forming an

gas inflammable highly

these

dust

material, which
of

atmosphere
the

ignites hydrocarbons
an

and

carbon

monoxide

that furnishes with is

remaining air

mixture, explosive
of the

which

and exploded by ignited

the flame

burning dust.
What
is

93."

Occlusion?

Occlusion It

is the power the

possessed by
area

solids of

absorbinggases.
varies

on depends largely

of the surface

and exposed,

with

the kind
one

of solid and

gas.

Thus,
absorb

volume

of

boxwood freshly-ignited
10 of oxygen

charcoal

will

90 volumes

of ammonia,
are

and
very

1J of hydrogen.
intimate
not
tact, con-

Gases
so

thus occluded

brought into
on

that chemical

actions will go

which

would

take

admixture. place on mere Freshly raised coal is charged with fire-damp the but in all cases of which varies in different pits,
"

"

position comsists con-

for the most and

part of methane
after in the

and
to

ethane.

The

fresh coal, for

some

lump coal,continues especially

During
oxygen
or

giveoff this gas

of the
may

time. occludes
cent, to

liberation

methane
to

coal 5 per

which quantities in the

attain up

of the

10 per

weight of the coal cent, in lignite.

do Dust

case

of anthracite,and

up

94.

"

How

Explosions
in two

occur

Dust dust

occur explosions

stages : The
the

of and the explosion particles, formed gaseous products. These two phases follow in such form one operation. practically
S.F.G.

of the ignition and readyresulting

rapid

succession

as

to

130

THE

SHOT-FIREKS

GUIDE.

Any
The

kind

of dust
or

in floating
or

the

air

can

be

ignitedby

the

simplestflame,

by electric
dust is

other

sparks.
a

explosionof warming,
or

facilitated by considerably of
a warm

liminary pre-

the introduction

gas.

Violent
to

motion

of

the

dust

will also particles

contribute

their

explosion ; but, on unaccompanied by

dust

the other hand, the

friction or shock, percussion

never cause

production of sparks can

explosions.
"

95.

What
Dust

constitutes in
a

dangerous
little as

amount

of

Mine?
that
as

Experiment
35 cubic

has shown

oz.

of coal dust
an

per

ft. of air will suffice for the it is the

more a

productionof
fineness
to fineness

explosion,
of the the

and

that

question of
In addition
matter

of division

dust than
per

weight.
its

of subdivision
an

centage of volatile
on

in the coal dust has the

same are

important appliesto

influence the
ease

and inflammability,

also

with which

these volatile matters

disengagedunder
de Industrie 1'

the influence of heat. The Minerale Commission

to

appointed by
causes

the

Societe

the investigate that the

of coal-dust

have explosions

pointed out
111

great danger of explosionpresentedby

from the fact that
a

coal-dust floating

is evident

mixture

taining con-

grammes

of dust per cubic metre dioxide

on

of air

in the (i.e.,

carbon proportionfurnishing
a

combustion) develops
with the combustion Even when the

pressure

of 15-5 of 8-9

atmospheres on
of

as ignition, compared

the pressure of
an

atmospheres produced by firedamp and

the above air. is double

mixture explosive of coal-dust is

amount

that carbon so figure,

to

monoxide

produced, the

pressure

generated amounts

6-7

atmospheres.
96.
"

What
a

Degree

of

fineness

suffices

to

render

Coal-dust
H.
a

Explosive?
in
a

Dr. mine

Henry
dust
as

Payne

valuable

paper

on

the

subjectof
states

factor in coal mine

read explosions,

at the June

(1908) meeting of the Coal Mining Institute of America,

that

only coal

dust which

will pass

through a

No.

100

screen

is

IGNITION

OF

INFLAMMABLE

ATMOSPHERES.

131

capable

primary explosion,although secondary be propagated indefinitely sizes. explosions by the larger may Such fine dust, after having been subjected to ordinaryatmospheric air for onlya few hours, becomes largely decomposed and
or as a

of

initial

exists
of

bubble

of constituent and

gases

whose

film is

composed
bustion coma

carbon undisintegrated
are

which, impurities, dust, when

after

known

as

ash.

Such

suspended in

is susceptible homogeneous cloud with a moderate air velocity, of ignition either through shock, compression, sufficient heat or to inaugurate combustion, and the result will be classified

explosion, depending upon its supply of oxygen and the space ignited, takes place.
as or

combustion

the volume within which

of dust
bustion com-

97."

At

what
?

Temperature

does

Coal-dust

ignite
Prof. Henri coal-dust
was

Fayol showed
356"F. of coal. has

that the temperature of

on

of ignition

(180"C.)in his work

described in
an

the spontaneous

inflammation
Dr. has

Bedson Phillips

experimentsin
a

which

he

coal ignited

dust heated

air-bath at

temperature of

284"F. 98."

(140"C.)
What
to in

quantity
produce
the
an

of

Firedamp
Coal-dust
?

will

suffice

Inflammable of

Atmosphere

presence

Prof. that
"

so Galloway proved experimentally, long ago as 1876 of one mixture of firedamp and air in the proportion

volume
at

of the former

to

112

of the latter, becomes

inflammable fine

ordinarypressure

and

temperature, when
which

charged with
on

dry coal-dust,such as that in dry coalmines."

99.
"

is to be found

the roadways

Is

it

possible
with
a

Gas)
Yes. The

ignite Coal-dust Explosive permitted

to occurred
at

(without
?

Wingate Grange from flame Colliery, Wingate on October 14, 1906, originated due to a charge of geloxite ledgeof being fired on a projecting
K2

explosionwhich

132

THE

SHOT-FIRERS

GUIDE.

rock, probably
The
never

covered

by
in
a

mixture

of grease

and

coal-dust.
gas

occurred explosion been

main

intake

airway, where
to

had been

found, and
an

it is

generallyagreed
and

have

caused

by

of ignition

coal-dust

air.

100.

"

What failure Coal?

danger
to

is

to
out

be

apprehended
Shot-holes bored

from
in

clean

There

is

nearlyalways

certain amount

of coal-dust

left in of

holes bored the

on

in coal, the amount of the

depending on
hole, and
the

the hardness
care

coal, the inclination

bestowed

cleaningit out. According to

some

tests
were

carried out drawn that

by the French
the contents of

sion Commis-

the conclusions

blasting
the

cartridges may
in coal and of deflagration is certain smaller
to

become

mixed

with coal-dust in shot-holes bored these conditions

case

that miss-fires under

may

cause

the mixture, in which be

any

firedamp present
present
and
to
a

ignited.
case

This

danger
of

is also

extent

in the

of

complete detonation,
detonation

the carbon
ducing pro-

present increasingthe
carbon
fire

temperature

monoxide,

the thereby facilitating

of ignition

damp.
of the of probability recommend be accidents from arising this
cause,

In view

the Commission coal should

of

that shot- holes bored

ing in the stand-

cleared carefully hard

of dust ; that the

as

practice
and

ramming
mix

the

so cartridges

to

break

the

envelopes

and

the contents

with

coal dust should

should

be abandoned,

that the size of the detonators

be increased.

101."

How

is it that
to
use

some

Explosives
in

are

more

dangerous
or

the

presence

of

Gas

Dust
been

than

others?
that all known

It has

conclusively proved
are

explosives,

provided they
and

used

in

ignite sufficiently largequantities,

coal-dust. It is

and explode both pit-gas

solelyin regard

to the limit of the

another.

This

dangerous quantitythat they differ from one M. Bichel points out in "New as difference,

IGNITION

OF

INFLAMMABLE

ATMOSPHERES.

133

Methods
students

of

Testing Explosives" (a
to

work

which

all

mining
For
ample, ex-

ought
whilst
5

is,however, possess),
of black
1

considerable.

grammes
or

powder, blastinggelatine,
are

gelatinedynamite
mixture of
1 ,000 grammes of

No.

dynamite
fails to

sufficient to fire a

given
safety

for example,of the explosion, firedamp and coal-dust, of carbonite it. ignite
on

The relative

different
and

explosivesdepends
duration of time and

their rate

of detonation,

length
between

flame, afterflame
duration

ratio

(viz.,ratio

detonation

of flame

and beyond it),

temperature.
M.
as

Bichel
:
"

compares

the safest

with explosives

the least safe

follows

Thus

showing that
as

the safest

is four explosive

times safer than

as

the least safe

to detonation

time, 5-6 times safer

duration
as

to

length
safer

of flame, 36 times
as

safer

as

to

of flame, 100
as

times

to afterflame

and twice ratio,

safe

regardstemperature.
of detonation, in
a so

The but

flame
of

of all the
"

outlasts explosives safe !"

the time

that

explosivesdoes
case.

much

less

degree than in the contrary

The
range

of afterflame

therefore

appears

to

be

the

mining deter-

In

of firedamp. ignition should show generalsafetyexplosives

a none

factor in the

minimum

rate
a

of detonation, and

minimum
of

lengthand
should of them

duration exceed
cannot

of flame at

given
as

pressure

these
one

certain be

limits,

the

detrimental

effect of

balanced counter-

by the others, however

favourable.

102.

"

What
"

is

the Limite

meaning
"

of

the

Expression

Charge

? out

One
recent

of the most researches

important practical pointsbrought

is that of
a fixing

by

definite maximum

charge

for every

given explosive. It

has been

proved experimentally

134

THE

SHOT-FIBERS

GUIDE.

that there is for each will M.

a explosive

certain

maximum

which ivcight

an failto ignite ordinarily

Victor

Watteyn,

in

atmosphere. explosive valuable Paper read in Berlin

in

1903, termed

this maximum

weight the charge limite.

annual Loss and of Life Coal-

103.

"

What

is the

average
of

by
dust?

Explosions

Firedamp
and

Taking
the number

the three decades much

beginning1875 deeper mines

427,017
to

ending 1904

"

periodduring which Kingdom)

tons

have

been

opened, and
United the output
statute

of persons increased

employed underground (in the

681,683, and
to

from
from

of coal also increased

"

133,306,485

232,411,784

the

average
was

annual

loss of life from decade

in explosions

the

first decade

256, in the second

60

174, and in the third

ending
104.

with

1904,

lives.

"

To

what
the
to

is this
one

Improvement

attributed

It is said,on
is due

hand, that the diminution

in loss of life

mainly

the fact that coal mines

in the Orders. On

majority of

gunpowder has been prohibited by the Explosives in Coal Mines explosives improvement being
effective ventilation that

the other hand had

the

held opinionis strongly

no

has legislation due

little or
use

effect

the

to the increased

of

safetylamps, more
of the of

and rules

the

more

enforcement rigid the detailed

use

to relating

generaland special explosives.

105.

"

Would

you that

assume

from

period
had

of

tivity inac-

Explosion
1902

risks
until the
was

ceased?
1905 free

No. the from

men cause

From

September 3,
since

beginningof remarkably

South

Wales

for example, coalfield,

and explosions,

lost their lives at has been small. Gowerton

May 25, 1901, when seventy-eight Senghenydd, the loss of life from this
in the first half of 1905 there
were

Yet

explosionsat

and

Clydach

Vale

and

Wattstown,

136

THE

SHOT

-FIBERS

GUIDE.

4. Such

results will be classified

upon

as

combustion

or

explosion,
of

depending
oxygen, and

the

volume within

of dust which

its supply ignited, takes

the space

combustion the mine

place.
dust,

5. Where
"

and gas alone is ignited,

"

is free from the

high explosive
local,due strictly

effect is obtained, and

to the

explosion may

be

effects of cooling dust

the walls.

6. The whose

chief

product of
under which

is carbon explosion

monoxide,
that of

expansion
and

combustion

is greater than

methane,

receives the intake.

its continuous

supply of

oxygen

by feedingtoward
7. A

dust

while explosion,

assisted
or

by

the intake

air,must
most

nevertheless material
return upon

follow those entries which

to

the airwaysfurnishing when this

course

feed, and

follows the
to carbon

the airways, renders

conversion

of the carbon

monoxide

dioxide

the air

and prohibits further extinctive,

a

gation. propa-

Evidence

of such formed

condition

will be found

in the coke

or splashing, crusts,

by the depositof red hot cinders,

to testifying

carried

by

the air wave,

and

the

bustion. incompletecom-

8.

The

initial
amount

largean

does, distil so explosionmay, and generally is impossible of gas that complete combustion
mass

at the site of

and this distillation,

of gas and
at
a

dust, in

ing vary-

and stages of ignition in

excess

combustion,

temperature greatly present,

of the

were pointof ignition

sufficient oxygen

will
ever

develop into

local

at irregular intervals,whereexplosions

adequate atmospheric
falls of roof
"

oxygen

is available, such
for

as

at
or

junctionsof airways, widened

cavities where
called
9. When

passages

side

tracks
are

rock

have

occurred, and

quently fre-

flame
an

areas." either primary explosion, end its of

an or

such
a

secondary,
the
causes pression coman

travels

toward

dead

entry

or

passage,

generatedby
almost various incredible

expansion and

momentum

rise in temperature,
even

sufficient to

distil the

hydrocarbons from
a

and the ribs of the coal itself, in

excess

supplementingit with through radiation

and

heat

far potential

of its losses

expansion.

IGNITION

OF

INFLAMMABLE

ATMOSPHERES.

137

10. The almost

of liability

any

coal

dust

to

explosion increases
that is of volatile
of

with directly

its percentage of volatile matter

combustible, i.e.,the
matter
matter

quotient of
sum

its percentage

divided and While

by

the

of

the

percentages

volatile

fixed carbon. coal dust alone, under the conditions

of
even

11.

enumerated,
the smallest

is

the explosive, distinctively of methane

presence

amount

augments

the susceptibility to materially

ignition.
12. On
that almost
account
no

of the great

it is highlyprobof air, able elasticity been attained of the

proper

conception has yet

with which
a

incredible

speed

dust

explosion, through
of portions

its gaseous
a
"

products, may

be extended

to far distant

mine, under

the force of initial expansion,properlycalled the

percussive theory."
13.

Changes

in barometric
so

pressure

only

affect the

liability
is falling, from but
a

to

in explosion
a

far
any

as

they allow,when
into the
are

the barometer
of methane
;

of settling

accumulation possible

dome small
current

in the roof rock of quantities of air than

even

current ventilating

such

gas

safer infinitely in
a

when

diffused in the

when

concentrated

one

place.
barometer allows sion for the diffu-

Moreover,

if it is

granted that

low

greater occlusion,it also allows easier ventilation

of such
14. A
a

occlusion.
may

mine

be over-ventilated

until the air current and would feed any die out.

has

such

that it stirs up dust, velocity which ignition might take place and

slight
(See'

otherwise

Q. 1U.)
15.

The

difference in the amount electric chain

on

of real dust made is

so

by either
so

air

punchers or

machines

and slight

able, vari-

depending
machine
man,

the nature

of the coal and be said that the other. electric

the skill of the

as a

that it cannot
more

either machine,

class,creates
16.

dust

than

The that

results of the

experiments with
from electric of dust cloud from

of ignition
no

dust

show

danger
a

wiring is
a

greater than
air

that of

stirring up

broken

pipe or

loose connection.

138

THE

SHOT-FIRERS

GUIDE.

17.

Coal dust cannot used

be made

wet, in the usual

sense.

The

method

Butler by Superintendent
even

is indicative of the best the

most

results, but

then

it is

if hypothetical
an an

careful

system of wateringis not merely

"

infinitesimal
open

portion of the
it

ounce

of

and prevention,"

it is

questionwhether

is not
18.

detrimental. positively While

(See Q, 107.) by
and

th" abolition of all explosives, recommended as

unnecessary

the

impracticable in this country,* yet the greatest field of investigation lies along that line, and only those explosives now carefully to be uniformly prepared, by well-known tested, and known should be used. and responsible manufacturers
107.
the Explain Experiments
British
on

Belgian authorities,appears

"

Objects
at

of

the

Coal

Dust

Altofts.
on

The evidence this

Royal Commission the subjectof coal

in

Mines

now

took sitting of

dust

during the earlypart

towards

year,! their inquiries being directed

coal dust

(1) the part

played by
in mines the
means

engendering and
to

(2) the
to

means

prevent such
of

prevent the extension

fostering explosions (3) explosions ; and such explosions. In

to

consequence

of the failure of the Commission

obtain

mous unani-

of it

expressionof opinion from witnesses as to the efficacy methods the numerous suggested for allayingexplosions,
was

decided

to

institute

experiments in
of

order

to

definitely regard

settle if
to this

such differences possible important problem. G. Garforth, chairman

opinion as

exist in

Mr.

W.

of Messrs.

Pope

"

Pearson's W.
H.

Colliery Co.,
Atkinson

Ltd.,

Prof.

Wm.

Galloway,

Mr.

(H.M. SuperintendingInspector of Mines

Mr.

for South

Wales) and
This the

Henry

Hall

(H.M. Inspectorof Mines

concluded that

for the

were District) Liverpool

selected to advise the

Royal Commission.
an

advisory committee
and
a

installation of

dimensions

character

necessary
over an an

for

experiments on
could

large scale, and

maintained
U.S. America.

carrying out extended period,

"10.000,

be erected and
*

at

inclusive cost of
t 1908.

IGNITION

OF

INFLAMMABLE

ATMOSPHERES.

139

and

the Commission be raised

recommended accordingly and the

that coal

this
owners

sum

should

by the Government

in

equal proportions.
For
to

various

reasons,
sum

however, the Government

this purpose, Britain
means

were

unable

allocate the

requiredfor
of Great funds

and

eventually
to
a

the

Mining

Association

decided
a

raise the

whole

of the necessary

by

of

levy on

tonnage

basis,to which
It
was

all the collieries have

to erect

subscribed.
a

decided ultimately
of

at Altofts, full gallery

particularsof which, and

may

the

first series of
of

experiments,
28

be

found

in the

Guardian" ''Colliery the

"

August

and
"

September 4, 1908, and September 4, 1908.

In view dust
years,

Iron and

Coal Trades

Eeview

of

of the immense has

amount

of information

on

the coal
25

theory which
how there
to

been

accumulated the

during the past

"

"it is difficult," says could

Guardian* Colliery

to

stand under-

exist two
a

opinionsas

to

the
a

of ability in the

coal dust absence

setting up

in dangerous explosion

mine

fire-damp. Yet there is a considerable body of in spiteof the expert opinion still opposed to this view, even largequantity of experimental evidence in its favour and the
reports of the Royal Commissions Austria, all of which
It will be these endorse the in

of

England, Germany
the

and

theory of coal-dust explosions.

examine
reasons

therefore, to interesting,
have
not

why
The

results

been

unanimously accepted.
offered the In the

opponents
of the
none

of this

theory have

experimental evidence.
of the
as

criticisms following first place, they state that under the

same

experimentshave
an

been

made

tions condi-

exist in

ordinaryworking coal-mine. experimentsis usuallyfar

even

The
excess

quantity
of what

of dust used would obvious

to what at
was

in the

in

be

normally present
to
a

in the most

dusty mine.
we

The know
a

answer

this latter

is that objection stir up

do not

extent moment

blown-out

shot may

the dust in further

were on

mine

the

preceding an

explosion. A

objection
too

that the scale. The

experimentshitherto performed experimental gallery, they

*

small be
as

say,

should

September 4, 1"08,

pp.

454-5.

140

THE

SHOT-FIRERS

GUIDE.

and should be from 200 yds. large as an ordinarymine gallery, with regardto to 400 yds.in lengthor even longer. Then, again, the absence been
no

fire-damp. It has been urged that there that fire-damp was absent in many of certainty
Of
course,

of

has the

tests. previous

it is difficult to prove Prof.

are

the

complete ments experiBut it is

absence
on

of

when fire-damp,especially

Bedson's

the gases occluded

to

by

coal dust,

recalled. of any
of

comparatively easy

prove

the presence

appreciable
testing the
gas

quantity of fire-damp by the simple process air before each experiment. Quantities gallery
too

of occluded of

minute

for chemical

detection

would

be scarcely

practical

in connection with colliery workings. significance of the previousexperiments, and notably Although many
"

those

of Mr. H.

Hall, had

come

very

near

to

the observance

of

these conditions, objections were of the taken

a source

stillraised from them.

againstthe legitimacy
A
common

deductions

drawn

form

was by these objections

the unlikelihood
some

of coal dust
are

being
fired

of
year

danger,seeingthat
in this country,
a

20,000,000 shots
them

every

largeproportion of

being in

are dry and dusty mines, and yet explosions comparativelyrare. of 1894 made The Royal Commission the obvious reply to
"

this

objection.

In order to set up

an

combination the
"

of circumstances of
a

which

there must explosion probably rarelyoccurs

be

in

working practical
When
we

mine. these factors are, the difficultiesof becomes obvious.

goes,
are

consider in

what

them controlling The main

practical experiments
far
"

factors, so

as

our

knowledge
of the dust. of the dust.

at

present

probably the following:

"1.
"

The

chemical

character

2. The 3. 4.

physicalcharacter quantityof
distribution
nature

"

The The

dust present and its suspension in the air, of dust

zones

"

"

5. The
6.

of the flame the shot. of the of the and

gallery. causingignition.

in the

"

The

positionof
dimensions condition pressure

"

7. The 8.

gallery.

"

The

atmosphere as regardstemperature, humidity.

IGNITION

OF

INFLAMMABLE

ATMOSPHERES.

141

"9.
"

The

of velocity

the ventilation

current.

10.

The volume Heat

of air and

its relation to the volume the material

of dust.

"11.

of conductivity the gallery.

forming the

walls of

"

It is, however,

that possible quite

some

there would

are

other factors not

amongst which yet appreciated,

the

be inclined to

place

caused by the initial compressionwaves The have concussion, to which we already alluded above. time factor is also by no means a negligible especially quantity, in connection with the heat conductivity.

heatingeffect due

to

"

The

primary objectof
to

the Altofts tests, therefore

a

must

be

considered

of be, in the first place, the

confirmatory character.

They have been designedwith that have been the objections

carried fail to which
carry

special object of overcoming made to the experiments previously

already achieved
to cannot

out, and

the with

results

conviction
may

regard

the

coal dust

quantityof
explosion." Having

in the absence play,even and even gas, in intensifying

important part of any appreciable an originating

is in itself explosive,

established

the fact that coal dust

the committee
to according

conductingthe experimentsnext proceeded,

"

the report in the

to

Iron and

Coal Trades

Eeview

"

above

mentioned,
are

preventivemeasures, investigate
the next
answer.

lars particu-

of which

quoted in

108."

What

Principal Remedies for allaying the

? remedies principal
are

have Dust

been

Danger

suggested in

Mines
The three

the suggestedfor allaying

dust

danger in mines 1. Watering.

2. Dustless 3. Stone

:
"

zones. zones.

dust

The

first method

is

for,while disliked, generally

it has many

back its effect on the roof of the mine is a great drawgood points, involve the danger of falls ; and not only does watering treat every to effectually of roof, but it is almost impossible crevice and dust-laden
comer

of the mine.

142

THE

SHOT-FIRERS

GUIDE.

it were regard to the second suggested remedy, even dustless zones to maintain ful), (which is doubtpossible perfectly In it has still to be in
very
so cases

proved that these

are

an

effectual preventive

small

explosion.Experiments have shown that a of dust will serve to propagate an explosion, quantity
zones

of

to be efficacious these

would, in any
dust zone, and

case,

to require

be

dustless. practically perfectly There

remains, then, the

dust
zone

stone

it is the effect

of the stone
at Altofts.

that is now

attention receiving particular

The

presence
a

of

certain amount

of stone
on

dust, Mr. Garforth

claims, exerts

coolinginfluence

the blast, and

stirred up also serves to dilute the coal dust in the Being heavy it also offers a decided resistance to the passage of
an

being atmosphere.
on

that Prof. explosiveblast. It will be remembered dust the idea many Galloway originated years ago that stone of safety.It has yet to be determined might afford a means
to what extent

it is necessary

to dilute the coal dust with stone ; at

dust in order to render disaster it was

it harmless

the recent

Courrieres

certain conditions 46 per cent, of stone dust proved effective. This point, however, will be ascertained that under dealt with in the further

experimentswhich

are

to take

place.*
it may

109."

Does
make

water

-spraying,
air of
a

in

so

far

as

the the

Mine
of
an

prevent
It may

spread
whether has

damp, Explosion
means

serve

to

be doubted

moist air is a

of

stopping
ing except-

explosions.Mr.
steam,

Ash worth
p.

pointed
no

out

(Transactions

I.M.E., Vol. XXXIII.,

could saturate
a

193) that
an

form

of water,

air-current

to placea sufficiently

barrier in front of air would

say, 26

gas

or

dust
over

explosion.Koughly estimated,
5 per cent,

have

to contain

of water

vapour,

or,
trolling con-

grains per
influence.

cubic ft., before it could Mr. Ashworth taken

no

exercise any deduced from

further
at

the

observations hygrometrical saturated of

an

with

moisture

was

Wingate Grange that air the extension against protection

hand, it assisted in the
in

explosion. On
process
;

the

other

oxidation
*

and

moreover,

addition,the explosion
later

See

Appendix

III. for

of particulars

experiments.

144

THE

SHOT

FIXERS-GUIDE.

to

either

the

use

of naked

lightsor
number

defective

lamps.

Mr.
1900

Stokes, H.M.

of Mines, in Inspector decrease in the

his report for the year

of

not to explosions but to the watering or to the use of permitted explosives, of safetylamps, these comprising 67 per cent. increased use of lights. of the total number

attributes the

Referringto
occurred
from

period 1888-1892, during which of fire damp, Mr. Stokes says explosion
be due
to

the

no
"

death This the

good
.and

result cannot
many

the

of fire-dampin scarcity

mines, for

mines

in the district would outbursts of

be classed
gas

as

fiery, (1900

enormous occasionally

occur."

Report, p. 30.) Only one explosionhas

the fact that
as recently

been

caused

by gunpowder during
this

the 34 years referred to in the table, and

so

notwithstanding
was

1905 the number

63 per cent,

of shots fired

162,904
were

more

than

in 1902 and bobbinite

of the total number

gunpowder
IX.

and

(44 per

cent,

gunpowder,

19 per

"cent,
TABLE

bobbinite).
"

in the Midland

Cause and Showing the Number Inspection District from

of
1872

the

Explosion Fatalities

to 1905.

IGNITION

OF

INFLAMMABLE

ATMOSPHERES.

145

111.

"

Does

the

use

of

Permitted from it "is Gas

exemption provide that the assumption

that
Rule

Explosive on watering
"

of such
or

a
"

nature
?

it cannot
12

inflame

Dust

(Gen.

(h) (2)).

of Mines, in his Report Inspector which occurred the circumstances on attendingthe explosion Feb. 20, 1908 at Durham, on Washington Glebe Colliery, the generalinterpretation of the on (Cd. 4,183),comments Coal Mines Regulation Acts and Explosives in Coal Mines Orders, and states that a claim of exemption from watering well be, however, that shotIt may be upheld. cannot in this light, firers look upon and do not permittedexplosives such as they would take if using gunpowder. take precautions This would be a veritable playing with fire. I do not altogether share the view held by some of my colleagues, that the in recent decline in explosions due to the years is principally employment of permittedexplosives.I think it is more bably produe to the increased knowledge of the causes of explosions it is insisted and unless that no on generally, explosive be used unless where it that givesoff flame or heat should ever be perfectly safe to fire a gunpowder shot, the use would of Mr. J. B. Atkinson, H.M.
"

permitted explosives may

than and of the
use

become

source

of

danger

rather

safety. Safetyshould be sought outside the shot-hole

of

should only be looked upon, permittedexplosives additional safeguard. In the north of England within as an 16 months four explosions due to permittedexplosives have Oct. 14, 1906, occured, viz., at Wingate Grange Colliery on and causing the death of 24 persons ; at due to geloxite, Dec. 17, 1906, due to westfalite No. 2, on Urpeth Colliery Nov. on causingthe loss of four lives ; at Whitehaven Colliery and the 26, 1907, due to saxonite, causingthe loss of five lives,

present

case.

This

is

worse ever

record

so

far when

as

the North the

use

of

England
heat and
or

is concerned
was

than

occurred
use

of gunpowder

universal.

The

of

that give off explosives with

a some

flame must

alwaysbe

attended

risk in gaseous

dusty mines, but

S.P.G.

believes that with

thorough appreciaL

146

THE

SHOT-FIRER8

GUIDE.

tion of the conditions adherence

very
to

the

danger may arise the risk may statutory regulations

roads of mines
were

under

which

and

rigid

be made free from

small.

If the main

kept
to
one

coal-dust and dust in

a

this risk would

usuallybe
much

confined

district,
from

then, having regard to the fact that the danger

at the state

coal

working
of
very

face is so
fine

less than

when

it is present swift
a

division

(accompanied by carryingforward

air,

currents

capable of maintaining

and

cloud)

dry mines in might be permitted at the face in some blasting the first working of the board-and-pillar system and in long to watering or removing wall workings,with some as provision
dust somewhat different to those with the
some

contained
to

in General

Rule shots

12
so

(Ti) (2),and
as

as provision

the

plantingof

to obviate

of a possibility

cloud

of dust

being raised

from

the floor."

1 12.

"

At

what

rate

is Dust
?

deposited

on

ground Under-

Roadways
Mr. H.M. Henry Hall,I.S.O., that before
any

of Mines, Inspector

has

recently*
be made

pointedout
as was

useful

could suggestions
as

to

the treatment

of coal dust, so

to

render

it

innocuous, it
the rate As
a

idea as to to obtain some absolutely necessary on which dust is deposited underground roadways.
some

at

result above

of

experiments carried
has been shown

out

in furtherance

of the

it inquiry, dust
were

that

something
past the

like 11

J Ib. of coal
where the of air

carried in eight hours

was

point
the The

measurement

taken.
was

The

velocityof
ft. per made with

current

carryingthis
and it was

dust

95 cubic
were

minute.
a

ments measure-

for dust found

in the air

bellows

aspirator,
was

that in 3 cubic ft. of air the amount 0-0005 These gramme,

0-002,

0-001, 0-002
measurement.

and

depending
that there

on was

the
a

point of gradual object

results show
as

diminution

of the dust

it travelled
was

outbye.

A third method of
at arriving
*

of measurement

adopted,with
the

the

the

quantityof

dust

on deposited

floor, sides,
at

general meeting of Edinburgh, September, 1908.

Annual

the Institution

of

Mining Engineers

IGNITION

OF

INFLAMMABLE

ATMOSPHERES.

147

-"c.,as
'Flat which main from
two
screens

it

was

being carried along by

an area

the

current. ventilating

dishes,of porcelain
were

of 1-12 sq. ft., were the main intake and

used, two
two
on

of the

placedat pointson
These
on were

return.

in

operation for periodsvarying

The
come

8 to 10 hours

two

separate days.
have the tubs

dust

pointson
and

the main

intake must

passingthe partlyfrom the

and down the

partly from
tons

passing up

shaft The the

were

(about600

of coal

passedup

the shaft each

day).
the
area

results show

that at the shaft bottom, where grammes the

of

road

is 150 sq. ft.,something like 1147 the air each minute when

of dust

passing in
ft.
"

velocitywas
the floor and

225

that is,18 Ib. in six hours.

So that at least this quantity

on

is

being depositedeach working day

the main
of the

to

ledgesof
the

road

between

the bottom

of the shaft and

If it be

bottom

tunnels

3,000 ft. inbye.

and

assumed

that this road averages lineal foot of such of dust and

a

12 ft. in width

that
an

J Ib. of dust per

ture mixexplosive sheet it would

road is required to make with air, starting

a

clean

require83 ordinary working days to road absolutely dangerous. (Note.

"

render The

this 3,000 ft. of

course,

deposit,of
in.)

will be thicker
An

near

the shaft than

further

Hall Colliery. interesting experiment was made at Garswood The screens the downcast at this colliery are near shaft, and a considerable quantity of dust is made in the process of of which finds its way back into the mine along some screening, with the ventilation.
at the bottom

To

obviate

this,water-sprays have
also from
sprays,
as a

been

fitted up

of the shaft,and
a

frame

has been
ranged ar-

put in the main

around which frame.
out.

airway

little distance
are

the shaft ; the

this frame

several the air

amount

object of
washed Ib.

is to wash

the dust from considerable

it passes

through the

Quite
With

of dust

is thus

40,000 cubic

ft. of

air

passing through, 7J

of a (weightafter drying)of dry dust was recovered by means tank in 14 hours, and probably as much more settling escaped which collection,
means

that the sprays The blown dust would from the

washed

down

14 Ib. or

15 Ib. in the 14 hours.

.screens

and

partlybe

originate partlyat the in the pit shaft. trams

L2

148

THE

SHOT-FIRERS

GUIDE.

The

total
must

quantityof
be very

its way finding when with one large,

dust

back frame

on

ways to the road-

only

so

much

can

be recovered. These made experiments, of accumulation with the view of

gettingan

idea of

the rate

of dust in mines be carried much

common

under

ing ordinaryworkso

conditions, should

further ; but, estimate

far

as

they
and

go, it

seems

clear that the

of the quantity

of dust

depositedday by day
that when
once

far exceeds

the actual facts ;. have

to

it follows

the

roads
not

been

made
any

thoroughly clean, to keep them so Allowing insuperabledifficulty. workings from

ventilation the shafts and
on screens

ought
dust
to amounts

present
into

get back
to

the

poisoningthe

before it starts

its

duty.
of

113."

Describe
less

method

preparing

Dust-

Zone.

Mr.

A. of

M.

Hedley recentlydescribed watering which

that
a

an

effective combination been

brushing and
assume on

had

employed by requiredto
be

Mr. R. Crombie. He would

a

lengthof
On this the
area

300

ft. was which

cleared of dust served

as a an

main

haulage road,

at the

same

time

intake

airway.

side, if
brattice

return

airway) of edge to

inbye side (or the autbye to be treated, a piece of

in

cloth, thoroughly soaked

water,
across

was

attached of
was-

along its upper

the road. deemed
to the

the roof timber,

at such
a

the full width the roof

an as

It

was

hung

distance

from

necessary,

without
;

too offering

great
of
a

obstruction
current

current ventilating
canvas

and, in the

case

strong

of air, the timber the dust

to

should

be

weighted by attachingpiecesof
the brattice cloth
to such
an was

its lower
was

edge.
treated
seams

When

fixed,
aswas

zone

by water-sprays
roof
or

extent

the nature then found

of the that

thill would

allow, and
dust

it

the

operationof brushing the

be carried out with

from The

the

roof and
dust

sides could

impunity.

light
on

raised, if carried forward

wet
canvas

by

the air current,

would,
and

meeting the
layerson

obstruction, be moistened

fall in be

to the

whence, with the bottom floor,

dirt it could

IGNITION

OF

INFLAMMABLE

ATMOSPHERES.

149

removed

and filledinto
a

tub when

the

was operation

completed. give
and better sides
one

Possibly

succession
wet
canvas

of wet

sheets

might along

even

results, and
would

stretched
matters.

the

roof

further

improve
with
a

It
spray
answer

was

possiblethat
of water

sheet, treated
the It

continuous

throughout
ment treat-

brushing operation,would
appeared
to him
on

the

required purpose.
driven
on

of this (Mr. Hedley) that the efficacy the fact that the dust
of the water
was

depended
wet
so

againsta

surface,instead

beingthrown

to the dust and

acting as

an

and agitating

disturbing agent.

114.

"

Is Dust

it

possible,

in
a

connection Mine
to

with be
too

the well

Danger,
? D.

for

ventilated
Mr. Donald M.

Stuart

in

the Wingate Grange discussing Vol. XXXIII., for

over

Explosion (Trans. Inst, M.E.,

that
.any

pp.

183-4) noted
without

this

had colliery

been

worked

40 years

of coal-dust and yet an explosion had or explosion ignition where over Originatedin coal-dust in the main intake-airway

26,000 cubic
"could have dust
no

ft. of air

was

passingper minute,
The

and

where

gas

existence.

inquiryarose,
whether

whether the
were

the coalyears of

possessed explosiveproperties during

from

40

immunity
The had been mines
were

explosion,or

they

of

recent

development.
effect of air currents often

sweeping through haulage

here the
40

roads have
some

been

observed, and
in
a

moisture
years
;

must

largelyabsorbed
both

period of
and
over

but

in

of deposition

coal-dust extend

withdrawal
many years

of moisture before the

gradual,and
was

might

danger stage
It also

reached.
up
to
a

appeared that
by
a

recent

year

the mine cubic

was

quately ade-

ventilated
per

fan

producing 102,000
new

ft. of air

minute

but

subsequentlythe

fan had

yieldednearly

twice the

namely, 193,478 cubic ft. If this increased quantity, intake-airways, quantity of air was taken through the original
must

the velocity of the currents

have

been

raised, considerably

150

THE

SHOT-FIRERS

GUIDE.

the absorption of moisture, increasingleakage accelerating from the

tubs, and
One

adding

to

the

coal-dust

depositsin
ventilation abundant

the

haulage roads.
therefore be

effect of the increased

a more

would

dry intake airways and

to

supply by
the

of coal dust ; another, the increased after exposure air currents, which These

sensitiveness had been

of coal dust observed

Prof. P. P. Bedson.

circumstances coal-dust

suggestedthat
have the been fact that

of the properties explosive development, and this was

might

of recent the

consistent

with

explosion occurred
He

after the

changes in
similar and

the ventilation. circumstances Collieries. in his

(Mr. Stuart) had

had been worked
; but

found

at investigations

the Camerton with

Timsbury

Both

mines from with

immunity

from
was

explosionfor
intake

70 to 100
no

years

the ventilation dimensions

increased largely

alteration

in the

of the

airways,

whereupon explosivepropertiesdeveloped in the coal dust extensive in the haulage roads, and distributed explosions
occurred. The ventilation of mines had claimed attention principal
to dilution and

in

with limitation of view past legislation, of gas ; but

even more

removal factor of

the time

had
energy

now

come

when be

another

disastrous that while

had

to

considered,since it was
harmless
at

evident
at
a

of air,necessarily travelling largequantities noxious time

gases

dilute and render would high velocity, with a largemargin of safety, they serious the main

the

same

developed a more throughout

at only kindling
one

danger

in

tions creatingexplosivecondi-

arteries of the
traverse

mine, that needed

to point,

the whole.
many years

Considerable almost

labour

had of

been

spent for

in the
not

mission hopeless
or

that obtainingexplosives
; the
were

would

ignite gas
and but

coal-dust

in mines

of subjects

dust-

tubs tight
tion, atten-

watering haulage roads

have
at

now

much receiving
to

the potent relations of air-currents been overlooked.

to

the

coal-dust

questionappeared to
With and air-currents tubs loaded

velocities of 400 the

800

ft. per

minute,
at

in travelling

oppositedirection

equal

of coal-dust along the arteries of the mine, speeds,depositions

152

THE

SHOT-FIBERS

GUIDE.

this Snell

"

"

cap

being due
time presence
are

to to

the presence time

of gas

in the air.

Dr.

has

from

mentioned particularly
among

in his and

writings the
others who free from
to
state

of

nystagmus

deputies

for seeing that the pit is chiefly responsible of gas. For long he proceeds dangerous quantities
" "

in his address of the of

it

was

his which

opinion that
forms such in

the apparent
a

dancing
sympton
marked
"c

safety lamps

prominent
of

miners'
a

nystagmus
hindrance

would,
to

wellespecially
a

instances, be
These

the delicate detection Snell to

as

cap."
number

observations

led Dr.

test

practically capacity

of those
"

from nystagmus suffering

"

to their

to

the recognise

gas

cap

over

the flame
13

of

safetylamp.
collieries, were
unless in
was

Forty-eight miners,
examined,
a

from

different detect
a

and

their

incapacityto
of gas
was

"gas cap"
very

dangerous
One

amount
see

present, was
"

marked

all.
"

did not

big

"

gas

cap

as

he said the
see a

lamp
cap
at

spinningtoo much,"
when he could had
not

another

did not he

small

all,

but

steadied
see a

his eyes because the eyes he

recogniseda

1 in. cap.
to

Another

cap

the

lamp appeared recognisea

be the

all jerkingabout, but

when

became

steadied, and
gas

lamp

ceased

to

spin round,

could
was

cap.
a

Another, in whom

the nystagmus

could only see slight,

was

largecap.
reeled like
a

Another, in whom
drunken assumed
a man as

the nystagmus from rising The

very

marked,
the

when

the

on position was

floor he had he detected

*'

for work.

lamp

full before
to

cap.

In another and he There

the whole
see no

lamp appeared
cap

be

swinging round,"
full of blue flame.

could
were

until the
saw

lamp only

was a

several who when

either had

large cap
The method

or

moderate

sized cap

they

steadied

themselves. of

the resting

eyes

steadying the eyes referred to consisted downwards, when by turningthem directly

or

of the

oscillations ceased*
another
"

became
see so a

much small
cap

less when
were

marked. the

Thus,
was

man

could

not

lamp

moving,"
*

but could do
tested

after the eyes

under
treatment

steadied, and he
nystagmus
at

All

the

miners

were

for

the

Sheffield

Royal Infirmary.

The Shot-Firer'sGuide.

FIG. 71.

FIG. 72.

154

THE

8HOT-FIRERS

GUIDE.

Fig. 73 is,of
indistinctness of the

course,

only intended
to

to

give an by

idea

as

to
ments move-

the

occasioned

the miner

the apparent
convey
an

lamp, and
what is

is .not

designed to
prove

exact

of representation The

actuallyobserved
exact

by him.
of considerable
as

point raised by
as especially

Dr. Snell may

no

portance, im-

data is available mines.

to

the prevalence

of nystagmus the

in British miners

If, as

Dr.

Snell estimates,
4 per cent.,
so

of proportion

affected is only about

so

then the percentage of shot-firers

to

affected becomes

low

a" one

eliminate

all risks.
to

On

the other hand, it is difficult for in

cases

individual form far

a

obtain

sufficient data

of

this kind

to

reliable estimate, and has hitherto

are

it is possible that the been

is proportion

higher than
"

supposed.

117.

What

the

most

important
from

against

Explosions
suitable
and intelligent

Safeguards Shot-firing?
p.

1. Selection of the most 2. Selection

are

(seeQ. 101. explosive

conscientious mine
to
can

132).

of

who shot-firers,
possess

known

by

the

Manager

of the

to

sufficient
to ability

technical

knowledge, and lamp they use. by

have

proved

him

their

find the smallest percentage of gas that the type of *3. The 0'5 per

be discovered

with

use

shot-firers of

safety-lampthat

will indicate

cent,

of gas. of shot-firing where prohibition

cent,

*4. Absolute
excess

gas is

present in

of 1 per

of the mine

air. main

5. Absolute

of shot-firing on prohibition

haulageroads,

without 6. 118.
"

written

authorityfrom
to

Rigid adherence
What
a

Manager. shot-firing regulations.

and Information
to

the

Qualifications
or

ought
?

Fireman

Shot-firer
or

possess
be be
a

competent
should

shot-firer

fireman

should should

conscientious

and He

and trustworthyand self-reliant, know Coal well the Coal

good pitman.
and wise other-

Mines
and

Regulation Acts
and physically
gas.

Explosivesin

Mines

Orders,
minute

be

for capable of testing

*

of quantities
I. and
II.

Sec

Appendices

IGNITION

OF

INFLAMMABLE

ATMOSPHERES.

155

He him

should
to

know

at least

as

much
of

as electricity

will enable
as

understand

the

meaning

Ohm's

Law

and

much

what is meant chemistry as will enable him to understand by such expressionsas, for instance, chemical combination,'*
"

"

combustion,"
He should

and

"

detonation."

also know

why
and

it is

dangerous
of

to

fire shots

in.

unstemmed mixtures accordance Prof.

holes, in the
of the with

presence

coal-dust, fire-damp,or
than in strict force.
every

two,
the

generallyotherwise
the time the
a

for regulations has

being in

Galloway
is

expressed
to

opinion*
in
a

that

official who

appointed
of

fire

shot

fiery, dry
do
so,

and

dusty mine, should, before

gone

being

authorised

to

have

through

course

gas, and

obtained in

training ; and
in which that

practical trainingin examining for he has passed through that a certificate that the event of anything happening in a place
a

he has fired

shot, such

as

small

of explosion

damp, fire-

certificate it is
a

punished,because
to

and the man ought to be withdrawn for an absolutely impossible explosion is fired unless there is gas

take

placewhere
R.

shot

present

in the Mr.

place before

the shot is fired.

S. Williamson,

generalmanager
Mines
now

of the Cannock in evidence before

and before

Staffordshire,has Rugeley Collieries,

the

stated

Royal
a

Commission he puts
a

on

that sitting

ing appoint-

fireman

series of

unless questions

he has sufficient

personalknowledge
Mr. Williamson's
to embrace

of the

candidate. which questions, of fireman

to
:
"

series of the duties

follow, is

sidered con-

which

may

well be commended

deputy and is one officialsnot only in Staffordshire

or

but in other
"

mining
(2)Age
?

districts
?

(1)Name
been
?

(3)In what (5)Are

you

has capacity
you

the
are

cant appliyou

(4)How

long ?

sober, and
time
1887

regularat
? yourself

work

(6)Have
the

lost much
was

by absenting
Coal Mine
?

(7)For what
are

purpose

the
a

Act

made What
'

(8)What
the air

duties how
?

of

competent

man

(9)
does the

is ventilation, and
'

is it

arranged ?
the
names

What of

coursing
*

mean

(10) Give
Bobbinite

Minutes

of Evidence

of the

Committee,

p. 29.

15G

THE

SHOT-FIXERS

GUIDE.

different How work

as
"

appliances in
air per minute

connection is necessary

with
to

ventilation. ventilate
you carry
a

(11)

much 500

long wall
the air
so

yds. long ?
with
are

(12) How

would

to

comply

the
met
:

requirementsof
with in mines

the Act when

a

of Parliament

(13) What
is
seen

gases

blue cap would

gas you

or

halo allow in
or

in the flame

what

does this mean,

case

and

blasting where
wastes

such

is the

? ?

(14) What (15)Does

been

is found

and

about

the roof of mines

you

the coal,roof in

the

bottom

of the mine would the

you
to

have

employed

yieldgas
gas

(16) How
mine how What

you

deal with
are

bodies

of inflammable

in the and
?

whilst far would is used

to

workmen

engaged with
to lights

their work,

allow naked ventilate

?

go back

in the wastes

wastes

(17) When
is it to
?

ought safety
examine

lamps
examine

be used

(18) Whose
the Coal Mines and when

duty
Act

safety
you

lamps accordingto
a

(19) How
you

would

safetylamp,
(20)How
and if
one

should
are

consider in
a

it dangerous inch would

sider con-

many

apertures
and

there
was

square what
you

of gauge,
you

of these apertures
name use

broken the

do ?

(21) Give the

describe

lamp
in

the best and do the above

safest for

in mines.

(22)At what
an

velocity explosive
(24)Who
?

lamps explode, supposingthey are

?

atmosphere
be allowed
to

(23)Under
a

what

conditions

ought blastingto
gas ?

in

mine

yieldinginflammable
for the the

ought

in mines where give the order for blasting

it is allowed
to

(25) What

precautionsare
blast ? in connection

necessary
are

men

take

in

preparing to
man

(26) What
with examined of gas
to

duties

of the

petent com-

? blasting

(27)What

parts of
allowed
?

the

ought to be (28) Supposing a body

mine
gas

mine

before be

blastingis
distance

in existing what

the part of the

from

where would

you you

sanction consider

at blasting,

the
to

it safe to blast ? fired ?

(29) What (31) How

ought

be done about
you

after

shot has been and

(30)What
faces ? roof ?

do you

know would

timbering roads
timber
a a

working
with
a

face of work

bad

(32)Supposing
you ?

the roof of

stall beginsto

(33) What
At what

are precautions

what should weightheavily, in drawing timber necessary and where

do ?

(34)
or

distance, when

ought

sprags

to

be set

IGNITION

OF

INFLAMMABLE

ATMOSPHERES.

157

used and the

on

the of

face the

of work mine of
?

(35) How (36) What

do do

you

examine do after

the

roof

sides
roof

you

finding
roads

and
?

sides

working
you
own

places
found and

and
a

travelling
workman

dangerous

(37) Supposing

breaking

the rules, and would

you

endangering
?

his
a

other

people's lives, what

how it ?
? does
a

do

(38) In
a

mine

yielding gas,
affect thermometer
or

ing fall-

barometer is
a

and
?
a

risingthermometer
(40) What
is in
a a a

(39) What (41) Supposing

would such mine of the is it to
?

barometer
you

had be

body

of gas

waste

gob,

how

body

of gas

affected
fan

by

rise of temperature
to act

in the

(42) Supposing the

mine
see

ceased
you

and

the

ventilation

ceased,
every

what

would in the mine

do

(43) Whose

duty
work

workman
to
see

mine

frequently during
of workmen
your ?

hours,

and
you
a

also have

the

cleared

(44) Supposing
often

eight or
shift of
to

ten

stalls under

charge, how
you

during

working

eight hours
me

would of
?
an

visit each examination is the

stall ?
you

(45)
would Mines
are

Just make Act

describe in each of 1887

?

what

sort

stall and

gob

road
are

(46) What
General

Coal where

(47) What
?

the

Rules

and Kules
a

they taken
what
to

from
were

(48) What

are

the

Special

and workman

for

purpose
any

they

made

(49) Supposing
how could Rules Rules workmen he be

violate

of the
to

Special Eules,
me

punished
your your

(50) Now
duties duties. work
man

describe
?

the the

General

relating to
relating
to

(51) Describe (52) How

Special
to

long previous
to

commencing
competent
the main is

has
?

his

working place
many

be

examined be

by the

(53) How
between
gauge

doors and

should
downcast

placed
?

in

roads
a

the used

upcast
for ?
?

shafts does
an

(54) What
on

water
as

(55) What (56) What

gauge
are

inch
you

it represent with
lators regu-

regards

pressure the

would

expect
should

sudden be

rise in

water

(57) Where
used
?

placed;
the

what

they
or

for?

(58) Which
?
"

should

be

largest,intake

return

(59) Why

160

THE

SHOT-

F I RE

GUIDE.

of their

occupation or
To

in other who

ways,
come

may

become the

liable to

risks. explosive these but edicts

those

within

authorityof compulsory,
knows
of the

compliance with

them

is, of
anyone

course,

apart from

this it is clear to

who

strange and unexpected ways

occur

in which has been

accidents blasting drafted without

often

that not

rule single

excellent
attention. of the

cause.

the most careful Consequently they demand almost absurdly elementary some Elementary
" "

instructions the

will appear

to

be, and, perhaps,having regard to

extension
and

of scientific definite

knowledge, and
of it may

the

tardy but still possible to

any

notable

development
soon

general intelligence
be found without tion diminu-

amongst
re-cast

working miners,
and

reduce materially

the number

of safety.

119.

"

What

Enactments

Explosives
Mines
The
use

and

the use regulate and Blasting Apparatus ? Quarries (in England)

in mines

of

in

of

and blasting explosives apparatus

"

and

is regulated by quarries
1. THE 2. THE

EXPLOSIVES

ACT, ACT,

1875.

QUARRIES

1894

certain provisions of (comprising

the Metalliferous Mines

3. THE 4. THE

Act, 1872 and

EEGULATION
FOR THE

1875).
ACTS, 1887
TO

COAL

MINES RULES

1896.
USE OF

SPECIAL
IN

INSTALLATION

AND

ELECTRICITY

MINES, and
IN

5. EXPLOSIVES time Coal

COAL

MINES

ORDERS

made of

from
sec.

time

to

by the Secretary of State in pursuance

Mines

6 of the

Regulation Act,
is the

1896.

120."

What 1876?

Object object of
and

of the

Explosives

Act,

The The

the

Explosives Act, 1875,

is

to control veyance

the manufacture,

Explosives
Act,
1875.

keeping,sale,conimportation of explosives for

legitimate purposes.

STORAGE

AND

USE

OF

EXPLOSIVES.

161

For
seven

the purposes classes I.

III.
,,

of the said Act

:
"

are explosives

divided

into

as

follows

Class
,,

...Gunpowder

Class
,,

V VI

Fulminate Ammunition Firework

II. ...Nitrate mixture

...Nitro-compound

VII
"

IV. ...Chlorate mixture

,,

121."

Define

the

Seven
are

Classes under

into the

which plosives Ex-

Explosives
Act,
CLASS The
term

divided

1875.

L"

GUNPOWDER

CLASS

"gunpowder"

means

exclusively gunpowder

called. so ordinarily

CLASS The than

term
"

II.
"

NITRATE
"

MIXTURE

CLASS. other preparation, nical by the mechaor

nitrate mixture

means

any

formed gunpowder ordinarilyso called,

mixture

of

nitrate substance

with
not

any

form

of carbon,

with

any

carbonaceous whether and

of explosive possessed perties, proto such

sulphurbe or be not added such preparation whether be or be

any other

tion, prepara-

not

mechanically

mixed

with

non-explosivesubstance.

CLASS The
term
"

III,

"

NITRO-COMPOUND
"

CLASS. chemical

nitro- compound

means

any

pound com-

possessedof explosive or properties bining capable of comwith metals to form an explosivecompound, which is by the chemical action of nitric acid (whether mixed produced of a nitrate mixed with sulphuric or acid) or not with sulphuric
acid upon any carbonaceous substance,whether such mixed with other substances or not. is mechanically The

compound

nitro-compoundclass
I.

has two

divisions

"

nitre-glycerine, as comprises such explosives dynamiteand any chemical compound or mechanically mixed glycerine of nitrowhich consists either wholly or partly preparation nitro-compound. other liquid of some or
Division

162

THE

SHOT-FIRERS

GUIDE.

Division
so

II.

as comprises such explosives

narily gun-cotton, ordi-

nitrated gun-cotton, cotton gunpowder, Schultz's called, before defined which is

powder, and any nitro-compound as not comprised in the first division.

CLASS The
a

IV."

CHLORATE
"

MIXTURE
means

CLASS, ing containexplosive

term

* '

chlorate-mixture

any

chlorate. chlorate-mixture I. class has two divisions

:
"

The

Division

partly of
pound.
Division which

which consists comprisesany chlorate preparation of some other liquidnitro-comor nitro-glycerine

II.

is not

comprisesany chlorate mixture comprised in the first division.

as

before defined

CLASS The
term
"

V.

"

FULMINATE
means

CLASS. chemical

compound or included in the foregoingclasses mechanical mixture, whether to detonation, is not, which, from its great susceptibility or suitable for employment in percussion caps or other any appliancesfor developing detonation,or which, from its extreme and from its great instability to explosion, sensibility (thatis to say, readiness to undergo decompositionfrom very causes), is especially exciting dangerous. slight
any This class consists of two I. divisions
:
"

fulminate

"

comprisessuch compounds as of and preparations silver and of mercury, used in percussioncap* ; and such as are
Division

the

fulminates

of

these any

substances,

of a chlorate with consistingof a mixture of phosphorus compounds, certain descriptions the addition
ot
a

preparation phosphorus, or
or

with

without

of carbonaceous

matter, and
chlorate with

any

sisting preparationcon-

mixture
or

of

sulphur, or
matter.

with

with sulphuret, Division the iodide II. of

without

carbonaceous

comprises such substances as nitrogen,fulminating gold

nitrate

the and

chloride

and

silver,diazo

benzol,and the

of diazo benzol.

STORAGE

AND

USE

OF

EXPLOSIVES.

163

CLASS The
term
"

VI.

"

AMMUNITION
"

CLASS.
of explosive
case
or

ammunition

means

an

any

of the

classes when enclosed in foregoing otherwise adapted or preparedso

any
as

contrivance, or
a

to

form other

or cartridge

charge

for

small arms,

cannon,

or

or or to form blasting, any safety to form any tube for firing or to form a or shells, explosives, a a a torpedo, a shell, percussion fog signal, cap, a detonator, war

weapon, or for other fuse for blasting for or

any

rocket,or other contrivance other than

The The
term term
"

firework.
a

percussion cap
detonator
"

"

does not
a

include

detonator. which is of

"

means

or capsule

case
an

such

strengthand
fulminate

construction, and

contains

explosive

class in such quantitythat the explosive of one the exexplosion capsuleor case will communicate plosion to other like capsules or cases. The term fuse fuse for blasting which means a safety and which burns and does not explode, does not contain its of ignition, and which is of such strength and conmeans own struction and contains an in such quantity that the explosive with other burningof such fuse will not communicate laterally
" "

of the

like fuses. The ammunition I. class has three divisions

:
"

fuses for

: safety comprisesexclusively safety cartridges, railway fog signals, percussion blasting, caps. Division II. comprisesany ammunition before defined as

Division

which

does not

contain its

own as

means

of

and is not ignition,

included

for small arms, cartridges not safetycartridges which and chargesfor are ; cartridges other like purposes ; fuses for blasting which are or blasting which do not not safety fuses ; tubes for firing explosives of ignition. means cor tain their own Division III. which
con

in Division

I., such

comprisesany
means

ammunition of

as

before

defined

tains its own such I.,

as

Division
not

detonators

and is not included in ignition, which are and fuses for blasting,

of ignition. means fuses, which do contain their own safety is of ignition means containingits own By ammunition ammunition
or

meant

havingan

arrangement,whether

attached
fire

to it

the

same

which is adaptedto explodeor forming part of it, by friction or percussion.

M2

104

THE

SHOT-FIRKRS

OUIDK.

CLASS

VII.

"

FIREWORK
AND

CLASS,

COMPRISING

FIREWORK FIREWORKS.

COMPOSITION

MANUFACTURED

122."

What
to

are

the of
?

principal

Regulations
and Mixed

as

storage

Gunpowder
as

Explosives
The Mixed

principal Regulations

to
:
"

Storage

of Gunpowder

and

Explosivesare
store must

as

follows

1. The
name

be licensed for

by the local authorityin the

or

of the 2. The 3. The

either occupier

gunpowder

mixed

explosives.
any

licence must
store
or

be renewed
not

annually.
ground in
mine other

must

be situatecl below
or or

or

quarry,

in any
quarry,

tunnel tunnel

underground place,in
work is

which

mine,

underground placeany

being carried on, or in which any persons are employed, or in place opening into, from, or out of such mine, quarry, any in communication therewith. tunnel, or underground place, or
4. The
store

may

not

be used

for

if at keepingexplosives which

any

time

for the division under it is disqualified failure to

it is licensed
to

by

comply

with

certain

as regulations

distance

from The
ranges

protectedworks.
latter
are

divided

into four

and classes,
25

the

distance

accordingto class,between
that quantityof explosive
:
"

yds. and
be

2 miles.

The
not

may

kept in

the store

shall

exceed

If two

or

more

are explosives

kept in the store, they

an

must

be

separatedfrom
substance
or

each

other
as

by

and
one

character

will

of such partition intervening effectually prevent explosion with the other.

"

fire in the

communicating
Class I.

This rule

is,

: however, subjectto the following qualifications

1.

Explosives of
III.

(gunpowder), Class

II.

(nitrate
mix-

Class mixture),

Class (nitro-compound),

IV. chlorate

STORAGE

AND

USE

OF

EXPLOSIVES.

165

ture, safety fuse and

second
any

such

of the

various

of explosives
as

the
tain con-

division of the sixth

(ammunition) class

do not

without
a

exposed iron or steel,may be kept with each other nators partition.(For a few hundred detoany intervening cupboard in the porch of the store, so arranged that it
be

cannot

opened unless the inner door

Detonators
are

of the store

is closed,
cases as

may

be allowed.

part of the allowed

"

quantity of
size copper

weighed with explosive. No.

their

6 detonators
"

that

is, No.

shells with

fulminate

weigh
Ib.

approximately5
per 2.

Ib. per 1,000.

No. 8 detonators

weigh 8-66

1,000.)

Explosivesof the first division of the sixth (ammunition) class may be kept with each other without intervening any partition. 3. Explosivesof the second division of the sixth (ammunition) class which contain any exposed iron or steel may be kept with each other without any intervening partition. 4. Explosives of the third division of the sixth (ammunition) class may be kept with each other without intervening any

partition.
Electric fuses may The
or

store must
or

be

kept with detonators. well and substantially built

in solid rock, earth and closed
or as

be

of brick,stone mine
to

concrete,

excavated

refuse not
authorised un-

liable to

and so made ignition, having access persons without. of other detailed

"

prevent

thereto, and

to

secure

it from

danger from
Particulars

Capt. Thomson's
123." What

official

Guide

in be found regulations may to the Explosives Act, 1875."

is the
The

Quarries

Act?
58

Quarries Act (1894,57 "

Viet.,Chap.

The

of the MetalliQuarries 42) appliescertain provisions and ferous Mines 1875, to all Acts, 1872 Act, 1894.
more quarries

than

20 ft.

deep.
the

124."

What Act?

is

"Quarry"

under

Quarries

"quarry" under the Quarries Act, 1894, is any place(not being a mine) in which persons work gettingminerals, any
A

part of which

is

more

than

20 ft. deep.

166

THE

SHOT

-FIBER'S

GUIDE.

125."

Give Act

the

Special Rules
to

under

the

Quarries

relating
the
"

Blasting.
the

Following are
1. All and
any

Special rules under

Quarries

Act

to blasting relating :
the magazine shall be conveyed from to explosives in till used made and closed as secure kept packages so of the from and explosives danger escape sparks. any the to

quarry,

prevent

Every
them,

workman
not

or

gang

of workmen use, in his

or

possessing explosives shall keep

their
own

when

in actual

locked

box

that purpose free from

The exclusively.

interior of the box

shall be

provided for kept clean and

shall
any

grit.
shall be

Detonators
smoke person When

while
so

boxes. kept in separate and secure carrying,handling or using explosives,or

No

person
near

when

doing. explosives require provided by the

owner

to be thawed, for that

or

safe

and and

proper
no

warming warming

pans

shall be be thawed
2. with No

purpose, than

explosivesshall
pans.
a

by
iron

any
or

other

means

otherwise
for

in such
or

steel

tool shall be used

rammers

charging
shall be

stemming
for

hole
in

any

explosive. Wooden
fuses shall be be

only
After

used

pushing

explosives.
No
no

straw

ussd.

firing a charge
into the

of any

explosive
rent

further

charge

shall

introduced
mm.

hole

nor

into any

made

until after the lapse of 30

3. Due

warning shall
be

be

given by
and
as

an

efficient

system of signals before

In

blasting may
blasting occurs

commenced,

when far
as

it is finished.

quarries where
at fixed

dailyit
from

shall

possible
to

take

place only

stated intervals. Where

danger
to

blasting may
them

arise

the

public, efficient

means

shall be taken
4. A must

give

due
of

warning1.
shelters
,

sufficient

number

proper

shall where

be

provided (which

be used

by

the persons

employed) except
no fire, an

all leave the quarry

daring blasting.
5. If a shot go
near

has

apparently missed
lapse of
whose
of the
or

person

shall

be

allowed

to

it until used.
person

after the

half

hour, except wh"re

electricity
fire shall fire shall
a

has

been

The

or

persons

shot
same.

has A

apparently missed
shot

immediately give warning

not
near

that

has

missed

be
a

unrammed,

bored,
has

picked
missed
or

out.

If it is necessary shall be

to bore

hole it in

charge which
manner as

fire, care

taken

to bore

such
6. for

not
owner

to affect

ignite the

unexploded charge.
to intervals and

The

quarry

shall frame

regulations as
of in and places

signals
quarry

blasting,copies
in
a

of which

shall be

kept constantly

affixed in the

and office,

sufficient number

adjacent to the

quarry.

168 Explosives

THE

SHOT-

FIXER'S

CfUIDF.

y.

chests
as

belonging apart
be
as

to

dillerent

parties

or

gangs

of workmen

shall be kept
10. where
or

far

possible.
in
a

Detonators

shall
not

kept
to be

substantial

locked
of any

box kind.
the

and

placed

they

are

liable

struck shall

by
not

blows be

Detonators

boxes

containing detonators

placed inside

explosives

chests.
11.

No

unauthorised

person

shall have

access

to any

chest

or

receptacle

containing explosives.
12. 13. for No No person tool shall made
or

smoke
or a

white
steel

carrying,handling
or

or

using explosives.
used

of iron

partlyof
any

iron

or

steel s^aall be Wooden

rammers

charging only shall be

No

stemming
for be rammed

hole with
or

explosive.

used

charging
with

stemming

explosives nitre-glycerine
a

explosive shall
14.

violence, or forcibly pressed into

due

hole, to

Before
in

firing shots
the
out other off

under-ground
and of the

warning

must

be

given

persons station
warn

neighbourhood,
of the way

persons

firing the
so as

shots

shall

themselves and
If
a

danger, and

most

to effectively

protect
shot
hole

persons.

15.

goes
or

but

fails

to

do

its work, crack

person until

shall not
after the

charge re-

the

put powder into

any

made,

lapse

of 30 minutes. 16.
be If a hole up and

has
no

apparently
person

missed be

fire,a danger
to

signal shall except

at

once

put

shall

allowed

go

near,

in case

of

emergency,

until

after the lapse of 30

the

minutes.
of out. any In
a

17. No

part
shall

of be

tamping

explosive
missed
fresh far
as

unrammed, removing
be left in

stemming bortd, or picked

or

hole
cases

charged
where that

with it is has

practicable charge

without not the

any

of

the

tamping,
shall be to be

charge
bore

fire shall
on

the hole, but

Care shall of any to be of

exploded by firinga
new

top
a

of it.

taken

holes

a*

possible from

missed

charge

explosive.
shall

18.

High explosives which

a

require
detonator that the

invariablybe exploded by
19. When
care

exploded by a detonator sufficient strength.

should that
a

it is not
to

necessary arrange

shots
so

be fired the

simultaneously,
may
go

shall be taken
so

fuses

shots about

off

in cf

succession,

as

to

prevent the chance

of

mistake

the number

reports.
20. All

holes
of the

shall

be

examined
been

after

blasting
;

to

see

whether
remnants

any
of

remnants

explosives have

left behind
or

any

such

dynamite, blasting gelatine,gelignite,tonite,

or nitro-glycerine

any

other

taining explosive con-

gun-cotton shall be

exploded by firinga

tor detona-

upon 21.
or

them.

No

boring shall
of
a

be

done has

in

or

metal

tool introduced
with

into

the bottom

socket

hole which any

been

blasted

dynamite, blastinggelatine,

tonite,or gelignite,

or gun-cotton. explosive containingnitro-glycerine

'STOP

AGE

AND

USE

OF

EXPLOSIVES.

169

127."

Give Rule
12

the

under Requirements relating to Shot-firing.

The Coal Mines

General

The

Coal

Mines

Acts providea Eegulation comprehensive set of rules designedto put

an

Regulation
Acts 1887 to 1896.

end

to

number

of

common

causes

of

accident. General

These Kule

rules

are

collected

under
plosive ex-

12, which
shall

enacts

that any used

substance mine below

only

be

in the

ground as

follows

"

(a) It (") It
case
or

shall not be stored

shall not be taken

in the mine. into the

more

mine, except
than
5 Ib.
"

in

in cartridges

secure

canister

containing not
that
on

Provided
of any from into

agent or manager Secretary of State may by order exempt such mine mine, much of this rule as forbids taking an explosive substance so the mine, except in cartridges.
owner, the workman of such the
use

the

of application

the

(c)A
than
one

shall not have

cases
or

in use

at one

time

in any

one

placemore

canisters.

(d) In
shall not

process
or

of in
or

have
rod

charging or stemming his possessionany iron

stemmer, and
for

for
or

steel

blasting,a person pricker, scraper, provided by the

charger,tamping
substances
owner

onlyclayor
and

other non-inflammable
be

shall be

used

stemming,

shall

of the mine.

(e) No
and, when

explosiveshall
a

be

pressed into forcibly charged,

be bored for the
a

hole of insufficient size,

be
un-

hole
no

has

been shall

rammecl, and
than 6 in. from

hole any

explosive shall not charge at a distance

fire.

of less

hole which

where the

the charge has missed

use

(f) In anyplace in being requiredby or

no

of

locked

safety lamp
or

is for the time

in pursuance

of this Act,
or

which

is

dry
a

and

shot

shall be fired except by

under
or

the direction of

dusty competent
and has

person such

appointed by
person shall the not both

the

owner,

agent
shot
or

fire the

allow

of the mine, manager it to be fired until he is to be

a

examined

has

place itself where the seam placesof the same safe for such found place firing:.
accessible in any

shot

fired,and
of 20

all

tiguous con-

within

radius

and yds.,

(g) If
to be

mine, at either
a

of the

four

inspectionsunder
gas has been

Rule

corded re-

last before

shot is to be fired, inflammable

presentin

the

districtin which the shot is to ventilating

"

reported the be fired,

shot shall not

1. Unless the

be fired

competent
gas has

person, been
so

has appointedae aforesaid,

examined

place where
gas

repoited to
away,

be

present,and has found

there is not at
to render
or

that such
such

has

been cleared

and

that

near

place sufficient gas fire the shot ; or

or accumulated issuing

it unsafe

to

170
2. Unless water such
a or

THE

SHOT-FIREKS

GUIDE.

the

explosive employed
as

other contrivance that it cannot

a

to

the shot is so used with firing prevent it from inflaming gas, or is of

in gas :

nature

inflame

(h)
shot

If the

place where

shot
one

is to be fired is of the

then dry and dusty,

the

shall not
"

be fired unless

following conditions is observed,

all

that is to say
1. Unless

within

radius

state from in all

contiguous accessible places at the time of firingin a wet are 20yds. therefrom ing, thorough watering or other treatment equivalent to waterdust whether where is lodged, roof,floor,or sides ; or parts
bi
case

the

place

of

and firing,

2. In the

of places in which
so

watering would
with water
or or

injure the
a

roof

or as

floor,unless the explosive is

to

used
or

other

contrivance
nature that

prevent

it from gas

inflaminggas
or

dust,

is of such

it

cannot

inflame

dust

(i) If such dry and dusty place is part of a main haulage road, or is a and showing dust adhering to the roof and sides, place contiguousthereto,
no

shot shall be fired there unless

1. Both the
or

"

conditions

mentioned

in sub-head

(h)(1)( 2) have
in sub-head

been

observed;
2. Unless
may be

such

one

of the

conditions

mentioned been
seam

(h) as
over more-

to the applicable

place has particular

removed
seams

observed,and
in which

all workmen is to be
same

have
from

been all

from

the

the
on

shot the

and fired,

communicating
in

with the shaft

level not

persons,

except the men exceeding 10,

engaged
as are

the ventilatingfurnaces, steam

horses, or apparatus, signals,

or

the shot, and such other firing necessarilyemployed in attending to boilers, engines, machinery, winding in inspectingthe mine.
"

(k)
an

district ventilating independentintake commencing from

In this act
"

means a

such main

part of

seam

as

has
an

intake

air course, air

course

and

independentreturn
"

airway terminating
"

at

main

return
or

; and

main

is,in

haulage road for moving use

a

means

road steam is not

which
or

has

been,

for the time power.

being

trams of
a

by

other

mechanical

(I)Where
the

seam

mine

divided into separate

tricts, disventilating
be

provisionsin
the

this act
"

relatingto ventilatingdistricts shall

"

read

as

though
So

word

seam

were

substituted for the words

"

lating venti-

district."

(m)
the

mine
as

(/)
are

and (k),

requiresthe explosivesubstance taken into of the provisionsof sub-head much so relates to a dry and dusty place,and the provisions (g\ (h),(i), ironstone which shall of stratified not to seaois apply clay or (1)
as

much

of this rule

to be in

and cartridges,

not worked

in connection

with

any

coal seam,

and

which

contain

no

coal in the working.

128."

What under

is the

the Coal

object
Mines
is to

of

Special
Act

Rules,
?

Regulation
rules "for the

The

of Special Rules object in the

provideregulations beyond
conduct and

those contained

general

STORAGE

AND

USE

OF

EXPLOSIVES.

171

guidance of the employed in or

circumstances

of a mine or persons actingin the management state and about a mine as, under the particular

of such

mine,

may

appear
to

best

calculated

to

prevent dangerous accidents

convenience about The mine and proper of the mine."'* establishment under the Coal Mines
a

provide for the safety, of those employed in or discipline

and
is

rules special

compulsory in
so

every

Mines Act.

Act, but

not

in mines under

the

Metalliferous

129."

Give

set

of

Special

Rules

for

Shot-firing

in Mines.

Special Rules,

Special Rules vary in different mining include the following districts but generally : provisions
"

The
Act

Under-

and

of the Manager and Deputies shall enforce the provisions Bulea relatingto the use of gunpowder or other explosive Special in the mine.

substances No person

shall, without

have authority,

in his possession

in the

mine

shall break any explosive. No person any cartridgein the mine. Explosives shall be kept in a box or case, which shall be securely shall have access to the same. locked,and no unauthorised person

No

person

shall fire shots without

from authority
iron

the manager
steel

or

under

manager.

No person

shall have rod

in his
or

possession any
nor

or use

pricker,scraper,
or

charger,tamping
tamping. Every person
persons
are

stemmer,

shall he

coal

coal

dust for

about

to fire of

shot shall,before firing, see

that all other

out

of reach
means

danger from
any and

and the

shall take

to

prevent

placeuntil

such

shot has gone,

of

shot; inadvertently approaching person immediately before firingshout

shots
of
are

the probable effects of such

"Fire."

Each

deputy having charge

his

district in which the

to be fired

shall, before
note if any

commencing district of the ventilating inspections

inflammable
gas has

shift,read
been

reports
and

the

last four

in which

his district is situated, and if inflammable gas

reported;

has been

he reported to be present in any part of the ventilating district, Bule 12. observe the requirements of General must the person After a sbot has been fired, who has fired the shot, or some

other competent person, as shall,as soon practicable examine take steps for its security. and, if necessary,

the place,

Every
ger
or a

case

of

shot missing fire shall be the person

in

reported to

the under-manaof the

deputy,by

charge of the shot

at the time

miss-fire.
*

Sec. 51, C.M.B.

Act, 1887.

172

THE

SHOT-

FIBER'S

GUIDE.

130."

State

the
in

Shot-firing
Mines Power Rules

clauses

in the

tricity Elec-

firing from
Stone

Cables

relating to Shotin Sinkings and

Drifts.

Special Rules
for the Installation and Use

SpecialRules for the Installation ana ^se "fElwtridty"l Mines only contain three clauses relating to shot firing. They are as
:
"

The

of follows

Electricityin
Mines.

from Electricity

lightingor only when

power

cables

shall not
on

be use(j for firingshots, except in

stone and drifts,

sinking shafts
or

then

specialfiringplug,
switch

button

or

switch

is

provided, which
box, and
shall

ping, button,

shall

be

placed
The

in a fixed locked

only be accessible to the authorised

be connected
to this box mediately until im-

shot firer. cables firing before

or

wires shall not

it is

required

for

the

firingof shots, and

fired. used in the

shall be disconnected

When

immediately after the shots are cables wires or are shot-firing

of vicinity

power

or

lightingcables,sufficient precautions shall be taken to prevent the shotfiringcables or wires from coming in contact with the lightingor power
cables.

131."

State Coal

the Mines

Provisions Order
now

of the in force

Explosives (September,

in

1908).
EXPLOSIVES IN

COAL

MINES

ORDERS.

in Coal Mines Orders are issued under Sec. 6 of the Explosives Coal Mines Regulation Act, 1896, which enacts that a Secretary of State,on is,or is likely being satisfied that any explosive the use thereof to become, dangerous, by Order prohibit may in any mine or in any class of mines either absolutely or subject
to conditions.

new

In pursuance Order was revokes

on

conferred by the above Section, of the power a December This Order, issued on 17, 1906. and consolidates all previous Orders,came into
"

which force

March

1,1907, and contains the following provisions :

1.

(a) In
been

all coal mines within to be

a

in which

inflammable

gas

Absolute hibition Of
iu Unsafe

Proecr-

has such

found

quantity as
than

in previous three months indicative of danger, no explo-

the

tain Explosives Mines-

sive, other

as permitted explosive

hereinafter
purpose of

defined, shall be used

in

or

taken

for the

STORAGE

AND

USE

OF

EXPLOSIVES.

173

use

into the
or

seam

or

seams

in which

the

gas

has

been

found,
process

or

any

ehaft

drift

communicating
or

therewith
a3

which
case

is in be.

of being

deepened or
(6) In
be used and

sunk

being driven,
which
are

the not

may

afl.coal other in
or

mines
a

wet naturally

than

permitted explosive as
for the purpose
or

hereinafter
use or or

plosive, throughout, no exshall defined,

taken

of

into

any

road

or

any

dry
as

dusty part
which may be.

of the

mine,
of

any

shaft

drift

communicating,
or

therewith
the
case

is in process

being deepened

sunk

being driven

2. In all such

coal mines

Conditional Prohibition Other of

said, the
unless

use

of

parts thereof as aforepermitted explosives is prohibited

or

Explo-

sives in Unsafe Mines.

the following conditions are observed :" charge shall be fired by a competent Every (") called the shot firer) appointedin (hereinafter person agent or manager writing for this duty by the owner, whose of the mine, and not being a person wages of mineral to be

depend

on

the

amount

gotten. placed in
and each
a

(") Every charge

shot hole consist of
and
a

of the

explosiveshall be stemming,
more

properlydrilled
such

shall have
or

sufficient

cartridge

cartridgesof not
be used unless

than

one

charge shall descriptionof

set

explosive. (c) No
forth
in

cartridge shall
the the Third First

it is marked in

in the to

manner

Schedule Schedule

hereto,
hereto.

addition

any

marking

required by (d) No apparatus so

charge

shall be
as or

fired except by

means

of

an

efficient electrical

enclosed gas, the

a

to afford reasonable
a

of inflammable

by

securityagainst the ignition permittedigniterfuse, as hereinafter defined.

(e) Where
shall not He
use

charge couple
to the

is fired

by

an

electrical

apparatus
and shall

the

shot-firer

cable

for the up

purpose the cable

which
to the

is less than

20yds. in length.
do
so

shall himself cable

charge

before

coupling the
the cable persons he fire,

couple firing apparatus. He shall also himself he shall all Before that see doing so, firing apparatus. in the vicinity have taken proper shelter. Should the charge miss the firing shall immediately disconnect the cable from apparatus.
to the electrical
or

(/) Every
in
or position

firing apparatus shall

be

provided with
shall not
be been fired be

movable re-

handle

safetyplug or push button, which operated until the shot is required to

or or

placed
which
The
movable re-

and

shall be removed

released

as

soon

as

shot

has

fired. in the

handle

safetyplug

shall
on

at all times

remain

personal
the

custody of the (g) Each

Where (7t) shots
are

shot-firer whilst

duty.
in the
manner

explosiveshall be used
the Schedules
more

and

subjectto

ditions con-

in prescribed two
or

hereto.

shots

are

being

fired in the same

place and such

an

not fired

the simultaneously,

shot-firer shall make shot and

tion examinanot firo

for gas the

shot unless he

of each immediately before the firing finds the placewhere the shot 20

shall

is to ba fired gas and safe

contiguous accessible places within

yds. free

from

an^.all for firing

174

-THE

SHOT-FINER'S

GUIDE.

Provided
fuse the iu any

that mine

nothing
in which months 3.

in this order inflammable in such In every iu

shall prohibit the

gas
as

use

of

safety
within

has

not

been

found
of

previous

three

quantity
coal the mine main

to be the
use

indicative
of any roads been

danger.

explosive is
and in

Conditional Prohibition of

prohibited
intakes the
seams seam

haulage
have

the
from all

unless

all workmen the

removed

all Explosives in Main Roads,

addition

in which

and shot is to be fired,

from the the

same

communicating
the
men

with

the

shaft in 10

on

level, except
and
in

engaged exceeding
the

firing
in

shot,
as

such

other in

persons

not

number

are attending to ventilatingfurnaces, steam employed necessarily boilers, engines, machinery, winding apparatus, signals, or horses, or in

inspecting the
conditions

mine

or

unlesi

permitted explosive is used

this

under of the distance

the

prescribed
sides the of the

in Sec. 2 of main where

Order,
or

and

every

part
a

roof,
of

floor, and

haulage
the

road

intake, within
of

20 yds. from

wet, either
This and

place naturally or from

shall not
are

it is used, is,at the time

firing, thoroughly

application of

water the

thereto. main

section
as

apply
100

to such

portions of
the
use

haulage roads

intakes

within not

yds. of

coal of

face. any

This

section the
use

shall of such

authorise

the

explosive
1
or

in

any

case

where

explosive is prohibited by Sees.

4. Detonators
shall into observed shall not be used mine

2 of this
or

Order. for the

in

taken the

Conditional Prohibition Detonators. of

purpose conditions

of

use are

any
:"

unless

following

(a)
owner,

Detonators

be

under

the

control
or some or

of

the

or

persons

agent or manager appointed in writing by specially

and shall be issued

of the the

mine,

person manager persons

owner,

agent,
or

for the

purpose,

only
agent

to shot-firers
or

other

authorised specially

by

the

owner,

manager

in

writing.

(b) Shot-firers
issued
to them from
case a

and

other about

authorised
to be used

persons in
a

until any of
a

keep all detonators securelylocked case or box,

the

shaU

separate
In the

other shaft

explosive. being
sunk from if the of this section surface
a are or

deemed with
the

contravention
on so

surface,it shall not be primers for charges are fitted

taken into the under

detonators
are

the

before

being
taken

shaft, provided
Sec. 47
of the

primers Explosives Act, 1875,

before
use

fitted in and

workshop only
other to

established
into the

shaft
and in

immediately
a

by

the

shot-firer

authorised

person from

thick

felt

bag

or

other

sufficient receptacle 5. Sees.

protect them

shock. shall not

1, 2 and
or

3 of this Order
or

apply to
from

Application
Order.

of

mines shall

of

clay

stratified
to

nodular
of

ironstone, nor being

sunk

they apply

shafts in

course

the surface,or

being

driven
a

from mine
as

the

deepened, or to drifts and other outlets surface,except as provided by Sec. 1 of the Order.
several
a

Where

contains

separate

seams

this Order

shall

apply to

each

seam

if it were

separate mine.

176

THE

SHOT-FIRERS

GUIDE.

2. much

The

shot-tiring
as

cable
be

shall

not to

be

less

than

30

yds.

in

length

(or
reach

as

longer
and

may be

necessary

place

the

operator

beyond

of

danger)
3. that The he

shall

effectively
shall
examine

insulated.
his from

shot-firer is

place danger
or

of

refuge

and
a

assure

himself

adequately
shot

protected
shall not be

before

firing

charge. with,
from
nor

4. shall
time

missed

drawn the

otherwise of

interfered five cannot minutes be

it be of
a

approached

until the

after

expiration
If the

the down at

disconnecting
fresh not for hole less

exploder.
be 12 drilled

charge
with the

wedged

safely,
a

shall
than

parallel

missed-fire

charge

distance
5. Holes who

in. missed-fire
shots shall be shall be

blowing
the

down

put
the

in
same

by

the shot

same

men

bored
shot also

previous
shall,

holes,
before cable

and

fired

by

firer.

6. shot

The wires

firer
to

firing by
means

new

charge,
of wire
or

attach

the to

missedaid in
covering re-

the

firing
shot. and

cord,
he shall

the
the missed

missed fire

Immediately
until he he finds

after

firing
or

search it has

for been with

charge,
second

it,
allow

is satisfied
no

that
to

exploded
the 7.

by

the

shot,

shall

person

interfere

material. When
care

searching
shall
be

for

an

unexploded
the

charge
be

in

material not struck

blown with

down,

great
other
8. any

taken

that

detonator

pick

or

tools. Shot firers

of
an

shall

see

that

mineral

containing shall,
if the

or

supposed
is

to not

contain
able, recover-

portion
be

unexploded packed
in

charge
the
be

explosive possible

securely
and

goaf.

Whenever and

miss-fire to the

nators detounder-

explosives

shall

recovered

returned

manager. 9. in 10. in
use,

Explosives
fast

shall

not,

without

special permission,

be

used

for

ing: break-

ends.
holes shall be be

Shot and air

of

just sufficient
at such
an

diameter

to

pass

the do

cartridges
not

they

shall

drilled

angle

that

they

directly

face 11. 12.

the

current.

Detonators

without
shall

charge
a

shall

not in

be

fired
the book to

in

the

mine. for that

Shot
and
case

firers shall

make

daily report
report
other
in

provided
the

purpose,

also

specially
shot
or

writing

Under-Manager

every

of

missed-fire

unusual

occurrence.

APPENDICES.

NOTE

TO

APPENDICES

I. AND

II.

The been
an

Second

Report

of the the made

Royal

Commission
"

on

Mines

having
Guide,"
clusions Con-

published during
abstract has been

printing of
from

The

Shot-Firer's
of
a

the

Summary
I., and
referred

Main

relatingto Shot-firingin Appendix

of the
"

description
to

Garforth

"

gas

detector

therein

is reproduced

in

Appendix

II.

APPENDIX

I.

SUMMARY

OF

MAIN

CONCLUSIONS SHOT-FIRING.

RELATING

TO

(From
1. very

the Second The various

Report

of the

Royal Commission
force in

on

Mines.*)

regulations in
and

regard

to

shot-firing are
far be
as

complicated
all the

require
as

consolidation.

So

ticable, pracas

regulations

to

shot-firing should
shot-firers.
"

issued

one

code, and
2.

copies should
Roads

be

supplied to
Intakes.
caused

(Page 113.)
the serious main

Main

Haulage
which

and

Owing
should

to

accidents

have the

been

by
shots

shot-firing on
be

haulage
within strictest
on as

roads,
narrow

firing of
limits
as

such

confined
to

possible,
a

and

subjected
of

the

make precautions. We this point. (Page 116.)

at
or near

number

tions recommenda-

3.

Shot-firing
should be
if

the
as

Working
few
men as

Face

""
-

Ripping
are

"

shots

fired

when

possible

in the

mine,

and,

practicable, between
*

the

shifts.

(Page 119.)

Cd.

4,820,

1909. N

S.F.G.

178

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

4.

As

substitute that of

suggested
5.
more

effectiveness
The

watering before firinga shot, it is further to the as experiments should be made soda and wood pulp tamping. (Page 120.)
to
"

for

should be testingfor gas before shot-firing Garappliance similar to the stringent, and some rules
as

forth

"

gas

detector

should

be

brought

into

general

use.

(Page 120.)
6.
as

General

Precautions should
way

as

to

Shotas

fir ing.
"

Persons

appointed
for

shot-firers in the
7.
same

be examined
as

to

their abilities to test

gas

firemen

and

deputies. (Page 121.)

be fired

Permitted

explosives should
the
use

Other

explosivesshould
(Page 122.)

be fired either of
straws
or

safety fuse, and

only by electricity. or by electricity proper squibs should be prohibited.

the the

permitted explosivesare required to be used, be shot hole should charged and stemmed by or under personal supervisionof the shot-firer. (Page 124.)
8.

Where

9.

Firing
as

shots

in the should

"

fast

"

should hole

be
to

prohibited.
be of the

The

Explosives
as

Order

requirethe
The

properly placed
size

well the

properly

drilled.

standardisation be
a

of

cartridge of explosives would

The

great advantage.

(Pages 124, 125.)

defining more clearly the amount stemming required and of fixingsome proportion between of the explosiveand the length of stemming should amount
10.

question

of

of

the be

considered.
11.

(Pages 125, 126.)

should should shot be
a

There which

uniform

rule

dealing with
no one

miss-fired should The

use

shots

provide, pans"
made

inter
a

alia, that

approach
of proper

such

except after

sufficient interval.

"warming
should be

glycerine explosivescontaining nitrocompulsory. (Pages 126, 127.)

"

for

12.
test
on

Testing of Explosives.
the lines recommended in hand. be taken

The

revision

of the

Government Committee

by the

Bobbinite

should
13.

(Page 128.)
"

Storage of Explosives. Explosives should be provided and stored at the colliery. (Pages 128, 129.) by the owners

APPENDIX

II,

(c) TESTING
The

FOE

GAS.* the We

at greatest risk in shot-firing

or

near

working

face

lies in the be made

of possibility clear in the where flame

be

gas

being present.
no

think be
"

it should

rules that
any

shot of
a

must
"

circumstances
on

indication
a

cap

fired in any be seen can the

the

reduced

of

safety lamp, and

a

that radius
the

firingshould
before
may
to

the

shot

carefullytested within is fired. Having regard

roof
or

place of of 20 yds.
gas

to

fact that

lurk detect

in fissures in the with

any

sides which
we
"

it is think

impossible
that
some

form
to

of
"

safety lamp,
gas

appliance
W. For with

similar

the be

detector into who

we

E. Garforth

should

brought

designed by generaluse.
are are

Mr.

the information the

use

of managers
"

not

already familiar
to

of this

gas

detector,"

able

reproduce
"

the attached Mr. Garforth but the

purpose

illustrations has

74, 75, 76, (Figs.

pp.

181-2),with which

tector," kindly furnished us, not only of the gas dealso of a safetylamp specially designedby him for describes of detecting firedamp. Mr. Garforth
as

the arrangement
"

follows

:
"

The

detachable

indiarubber

ball is inserted in it has

to

into been

break

in the roof and, after the

air contained it is allowed of the

expelled
it The

by

pressure

of the hand,
a

expand, whereupon
on

becomes
contents

filled with of the ball

a

sample
are

suspected atmosphere.
to

then

introduced

the flame the

of the brass

lamp through
nozzle of the

safety gauze-protected pipe, which

exactly fits. If firedamp be present it is shown by an elongationof the lamp flame, and by a blue cap burning at the top of the gauze pipe,which latter is fitted with small spring valve raised when desired by the serrated brass a
ball nozzle
"

of the ball. indicate

return
a

To main

low

percentage of firedamp when

found

in

the

mine, the
to surround
*

airways, working places or other parts of a lamp is fitted with an extinguisherwhich is made when the wick tube, consequently, the extinguisher
Second

From

the

Report

of the

Royal

Commission

on

Mines,

p. 121-

Cd.

4.820, 1009.
N2

180

THE

SHO

T- FIR

Eli

*S

G UIDE.

is raised

or

lowered

by

screw

actuated

by the hand
flame

of the
can

officialfrom

the bottom
a

of the
a

lamp, the
or

of the
one. a more

be altered from

largeto

small of
a

non-luminous

lamp By

this

method, and

the addition

nut, regulating

delicate

flame is obtained with less adjustment of a non-luminous the light, and much to extinguish liability quickerthan by the ordinary pricker arrangement. Attached to the extinguisher with it is a white enamelled and movod graduated standard which is placed immediately behind the flame, whereby the heightof the cap or halo of a non-luminous firedampflame may be measured. The lamp is also fitted with a magnifyingglass, be used or not as desired without so arranged that it can the lightof the lamp. It also enables a nonobstructing luminous flame to be more and, when easily required, seen, obscure the throws a brighter roof on or light places. The improvements herein described do not interfere with 20 years'experiencehas the tin shield of the lamp, which an proved to be the safest arrangement in resisting explosive current at a travelling high velocity. of detectingfiredamp by means As the method of the indiarubber ball has been in dailyuse for the past 24 years, it is interesting that the opinionof more liery to know than 100 col' '

"

"

officialsis
"

"

(a) That the ball enables

be

firedamp which cannot lamp, which for reasons Davy.' gas as the
' "

to discover deputy,or fire-trier, found by the ordinary tin shield

a

well known

is not

as

sensitive to detect

bring a suspected atmosphere to the of the ball than to introduce a lamp into gas. lamp by means discovered be safelyand can (c) That firedamp when the necessary sheets to render promptly dealt with by fixing it harmless, which precautions the tin shield not taken when are lamp has failed to indicate gas. risk of the lamp being extinguished (d) That there is not the same when in the ordinary usingthe ball as when testing which is important,especially if the officialis 1J miles way, from the shaft where workmen tions be awaitinghis instrucmay before they can proceedto work. (e) More tests can be made in a given time with the ball, officialis assisted in his work by knowing the an consequently conditions of the coal face,return "c." precise airways,
" " "

(6) That

it is safer to

181

FIG. 74." INSERTING

ROOF
TO COLLECT

THE

INDIARUBBER
OF THE

BAG
SUSPECTED

INTO

BREAK

IN

THE

SAMPLE

ATMOSPHERE.

FIG. 75.

"

FORCING
THE FLAME

THE

COLLECTED
OF THE LAMP

ATMOSPHERE
LEVEL WITH

OR
THE

FIREDAMP
EYE.

ON

TO

182

HALF

SECTION

THROUGH

C.D

HALF

OUTSIDE

ELEVATION

FIG.

76."

THE

GAKFORTH LAMP.

FIREDAMP

SECTIONAL

ELEVATION

THROUGH

DETECTOR
With luminous detachable witli
screw

iudiarubber

bag,
to and

movable

tinguisher glass.

adjustment standard flame, graduated

produce

magnif;

184

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

vided

safetyvalves explosion.
with
In

to

relieve the pressure

set

up

by

the

order to render

the conditions

as

nearly alike
of dust

as

in each from
nut

experiment,the
coal

amount requisite

is

possible ground

explosion. The size of the is based upon samples taken from the highestparts of particles After being ground it is spread on roadways in the mine. tion in imitashelves running on both sides of the gallery narrow of the ledgesand crevices presentedby the packs. "c., of view of interior). an underground roadway (see previous to
each

FK;.

77.

"

VIEW

OF

INTERIOR

OF

GALLERY.

The

amount

of coal dust

agreed upon

having
either

been

spread,

in the air-current it is raised in suspension of

a

by

the

firing
of the

small

cannon,

or

by the merely mechanical

action

air-current,and
from and
cause a

whilst in

large cannon

by the flame suspensionit is ignited which is charged with blasting powder,

a

represents in its effect

of the

blown-out

shot, such

as

was

the

disasters,including majority of the. great colliery the explosion at the Altofts Collieries in 1886. of remedial measures the use The experimentsinvolving are The explosion of the coal dust is obtained similar in nature.

APPENDICES.

185

in

the same precisely strewn by coal dust

encounters

way,

but

the

of disposition the flame

the

is

so

arranged that
zones

of

lengths the explosion

dust,

carbonate less
zones.

in its passage dust, or lengthsof

of

watering,stone

clear gallery

of dust, called dust-

The

effects of such
pressure

measures

reducing the
by

of the

and checking the velocity tically explosionare recorded automain of which have been

means

of

instruments, many

specially designedfor the purpose. The Altofts gallery is on a natural scale and both in sectional area and in length, that has
either in this country or abroad The experimentscarried out have been
of
a

is the
ever

largest,
used

been

for such

work.
year
a

during the present

form

(1909)
series

scientific character, and the idea of

part of

undertaken the

with

explosions. The
to

of the whole nature investigating experience gained during this periodhas

served

reinforce

the

hope that in

stone

dust

an

effective

remedy has been secured.

followingexperiments indicate clearlythe effect of exploding coal dust (1) alone, (2) adjoininga dustless zone, and (3)adjoining dust zone. a stone In the first (experimentNo. 61, July 17th, 1909), a length of 367 ft. of the main intake was spread with coal dust, 1 Ib. or being used per running foot of the gallery, per 41 cubic ft. of gallery space. On explodingthe coal dust a flame about 1 70 ft. long shot manifest signs of the open end of the tube, and there were out of the setting up of great internal pressure. In the second (experimentNo. 55, July 2, 1909), a similar weight of coal dust was exploded,but this time the explosive 150 ft. in force was caused to pass through a dustless zone which are of recording instruments, length. By means attached it was to the gallery, found that the pressure rapidly attained a maximum of 1131b. per square inch, greater by
The
over

68 Ib. than
zone.

that is

which

obtained

at

the

end

of the

coal

dust

This

explainedby
"

the fact that, in the initial in front

"

stage of the explosion,dust is driven

of the

actual

explosion wave,
Turning
which
a now

so

that the

dustless

zone

is in

existent. nonreality

to

experiment
area

No.

stone

dust

takes

the

(July 8th, 1909), in place of that which in the

57

186

THE

SHOT-FIR

EtiS

GUIDE.

described previously

it was found dustless," experiment was instead of rising, that the pressure, decreased, and died away it could be released at the mouth of the soon as as wholly gallery. The plans given in Fig. 78 illustrate diagrammaticaily the results of this set of experiments.

"

Mouth

of

Downcast

of Mouth Downcast

JVe of 95

evidence flame feet

for

Flame ffS ffcf in Stone Oust Zone

Point

Point

at

Paint

of

ignition

ignition

EXPERIMENT

No.

61.

EXPERIMENT

No.

55.

EXPERIMENT

No.

57.

(JULY 17, 1909).

Length
of main

(JULY 2, 1909).
Length of return, 295 area, 41 sq. ft. indicate position of safety valves.

(JULY 8, 1909;.
ft. ; sectional
area, 28 sq. ft.

intake,

600

ft. ; sectional Numbers

FIG.

78.

Later

experiments have
made, and
certain of
an

tended
to have

to

confirm

the

tests

viously pre-

that

it appears class of stone

dust

satisfactorily proved applieddoes arrest suitably

been

the flame

explosion.

APPENDIX

IV.

EXAMINATION

QUESTIONS
SHOT-FIRING.

RELATING

TO

(i.)Describe
state

the how

safety-fuse commonly
it is used. how

employed
is it fired electric with
?

and

What (ii.)

is

blasting gelatine, and

the construction
as

(iii.) Explain
their

of

some

fuses

and

advantages

compared

ordinary blasting
holes

safety fuse.

(iv.) Give
"

some

rules

for

ensuring safety
far
as

in

or

shot-firing,"as
a

possible.
for

(v.) Draw

set

of and
are

hand for

tools

boring

for how

blasting
the

charging
and

them.

Explain
of
"

drills the

sharpened. composition
upon
test
some

(vi.) Describe
the

nature

of

explosives placed
What before is
an

the which is

Permitted has upon

to

List."

the

be this

passed
list?

explosive

placed

(Board

of Education,

Principles
as a

of

Mining,
road which

1901.)
also is

(vii.) A

tunnel,
for

which main

is used
return

haulage
and be
?

and

the

airway,
to

dry

and should words

dusty, requires
the the would shots rules
you

enlarged.
Give in your What

When
own

be

fired

applying
use,

here.
?

sive exploand after

and be

why
taken

What (viii.)

precautions firinga
shot in

must
a

before
?

sinking pit
and Ireland

(Manchester

District, 1902.) of

(ix.) What

is the

chemical

composition

(a) Air; (b) Fire-damp (c) Black-damp

;

188

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

{x.) What

is the and air ?

an

most

mixture explosive what

gases

of

fire-damp
be formed

Show

would

of such a mixture, givingthe explosion relative proportions of the resultant gases. What take to (xi.) precautions would prevent you of coal dust in a mine ? explosions State the most of the Coal (xii.) important requirements in a Mines Regulation Act as to shot-firing What the requirements to as are fierymine. What detonators ? other precautionswould enforce ? understand What do you by you permittedexplosives ?

by

"

"

and (Liverpool

North

Wales

District,1902.)
to be

When (xiii.)

what shot misses fire,

?

are precautions

taken and

in your own words the General SpecialRules applying thereto. Give

Ireland District,1903.)

(Manchester and

State shortlythe requirementsof the Coal Mines (xiv.) in reference Regulation Acts as to explosives
to

(a) Quantity to be taken at a time (6) Stemming and blasting;

(c) Missed shots;
locked

(d) When
the mine

safetylamps is dry and dusty ;

are

used

or

(e) When
to

inflammable

gas has been

reported
In what

be present.
a source

(xv.) Why

is coal dust

of
you

danger ?
be most

part of the mine

find it ? for What

would

arrangement should

to likely you adopt

What (xvi.) What (xvii.) When (xviii.) Name (xix.)

keeping down dust ? of the Coal Mines Acts the requirements are ? where coal dust is existing is the danger arising from a blown-out shot,
and
are a name

how

is it caused

only to be used ? permittedexplosives and few of these permitted explosives,

their constituents, the

(xx.) What

are

requirements of
as

the

Coal

Mines

Acts Regulation

to

? blasting

APPENDICES.

189

Name (xxi.)

as

many

as

you

can

of the various the

used which Name (xxii.)

a

in

mining, and state they are composed.

under

explosives of ingiedients
you consider

the circumstances

which

to ordinary gunhigh explosivepreferable powder.

Are (xxiii.) What (xxiv.)

you

Order ? acquaintedwith the last Explosives If so, state shortly what it is. would precautions adopt for the safety you of the
?
men

where would

shots

are

ously fired simultane-

How

light and at a depth

surface ?

electric deal with you cables when shot-firing shot-firing of

more

than

600

yards

from

the

(StaffordDIstrict, 1904.)

(xxv.) What

(xxvi.)In

important requirementsof the Coal Mines Regulation Act as to shot-firing in rules a fierymine ? And what are the special What other ? (1902) that apply to shot-firing would adopt ? precautions you shots and coal shots, firing roofing down instruct your what precautions would you
are

the most

"

"

shot-firer to take

battery and
when
? firing

in respect to the use cable, and also as to his

of the

position

(Liverpooland North
In (xxvii.) what

Wales

District,1904.)
of pure

proportionsare mixtures and pure air explosive ;

the presence
?

damp fireeffect tures mix-

and
upon

what such

has

of coal dust

(Newcastle District, 1904.)

State (xxviii.) the in Rules requirementof the Acts and Special main haulage roads on regard to shot-firing main
returns.

and What (xxix.)

when percentage of fire-damp is necessary

"

mixed

with air-

(a) To show a faint cap ; (6) To readily explode; point? (c) To be at the most explosive
(Manchesterand
Ireland District,1904.).

190

TUE

SHO

T-F1RER

*S

G VIDE.

(xxx.) Give

with permitted explosives which are practically acquainted. State you for use which you prefer in coal and hard rock and why. What class of explorespectively, sives
names

the

of the

are

liable to

freeze

in winter, and
?

how

should Under (xxxi.)

a

they
of

be dealt with

what
source

circumstances

does

coal dust

become

find it
you

danger in mines ? Where do you would mainly ; and what precautions

in
a

take

fiery mine

to

minimise

the

danger ?
(Manchester and Ireland District,1905.)
What (xxxii.) do shots mine What (xxxiii.)
to
are

you
:

consider
a

the

best

method
;

of

firing
a

first,in

fiery mine
no

second, in
with main

where the the

?

there is

gas

of the Act provisions of explosiveson use

reference

haulage

roads

(Newcastle District,No. 3, 1905.)

(xxxiv.) Why

is coal dust is worked

dangerous in a dry with safety lamps ?

the

mine

which

(xxxv.) In what

circumstances

explosiveson underground ?
would
ensure

is it necessary that Permitted List be the

only
used

Mention

precautionsyou
in order
to

take

before

using

them

safety.

What (xxxvi.)

have to be taken in mines special precautions worked lamps when usingelectricity by safety Give reasons for firing shots ? for the need of these precautions.

(East Scotland District,1906.)

Describe (xxxvii.) Give of the various
gases

found

in coal the

mines.
means

their chemical

and composition

Describe the part their presence. detecting played by coal dust in an explosion. What
are

the various what

means

sources

from
you

which

and

would
?

take

it is got, to render its

presence

harmless

(West Scotland

District,No. 2, 1906.)

192

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

What (xlvi.)

in the Electricity Eules provisions from a power electric regulating or shot-firing lightcircuit ?
are

the

Four (xlvii.)

shots What
are

in

sinking pit
;

the

ready for firing. them to firing objections

are

(a) By tape fuse

? (b) By electricity

How What (xlviii.)

are

can

these

objectionsbe
the

overcome

the Acts

provisionsof the Coal Mines

and

tion Regula-

Explosives in Coal Mines the care of explosives Order, 1899, respecting underground ; the charging and stemming of
shots ; and the detonators above Describe (xlix.) in detail the and

storage, custody and

and below

use

of

ground

ming stemoperationof charging,

shot where there is no a firing dust, showing how you would deal with a fire and givingthe precautions you would throughout.

coal misstake

(Manchester and Ireland District,1906.)

Where (1.)

likely in collieries underground, and to ,be found the dangers arising therefrom ? what are
are

accumulations

of coal dust

most

Describe
so as

how

you

would

deal with

coal dust

to reduce

the risk of accidents. the nitrate

What (li.)

are

the chief differences between and the

of ammonium

classes nitro-glycerine Give examples of two of each of explosives ? scribe dewith their respectivecompositions, and which the special must be precautions taken with each class.
Wales

(Liverpool and North

What (Hi.)
are

District,1906.)
use

the rules
?

the regulating Give

a

of

explosives
you

in coal mines
,

list of the authorised

explosivesand any details with which with the be acquainted connected may
in
use

ciency effi-

of any

one

of them.

District, 1906.) (Staffordshire

APPENDICES.

193

(liii.) Why

is it cable
cover

to dangerouspractice by holding the wires of a safetylamp ?

test to

shot-firing
metallic

the

(Newcastle District,1907.)
Describe (liv.)
any

that may in mines. blasting

means a

be

adopted to
soon

sede super-

(lv.) Why

should shot ?

place be

visited

after

a firing

(Southern District,1907.)
What (Ivi.)
a

must

you

do before fire

a placewhen re-entering

shot has missed

(a) Where

(b)Where
Do (Ivii.)
you

fuse is used ; and is used ? electricity where

consider

that the rule for miss-shots

is the firing medium electricity

?

tion alterarequires

A mixture (Iviii.)

if so, in what way ? of air and fire-damp at the highest sive exploAnd

pointis passing along an

by
4 ft. 6 in. at
a

airway 5

ft. 8 in.

What that of
an

veloc ty of 460 ft.per minute. quantityof fresh air must be added so

cannot

you

detect the gas

?

on

the

flame

ordinarysafetylamp

(Manchester and Ireland District,1907.)

Wliat (lix.) and what fire-damp, for it to ascertain testing the is
means

have

you

of

its percentage in the

air? How (Ix.)

can

safetylamp
Describe

be used

detector ? this What (Ixi.)

use.

some

fire-damp lamps arranged for

as a

are precautions by law to be taken required in the firing of shots by electricity ground underit is ? Say in what circumstances permissibleto use ordinary powder, and whether sive you preferit to any permittedexplo-

you

know

of in the

case

of

(a)Coal getting ; (b)Rock heading.

Give (Ixii.)
a S.F.G. some

definition of coal dusts

as

between,
To 0

say,

very

dangerous and

safe form.

what

104

THE

SHOT-FIRER'S

GUIDE.

extent, if any,
necessary law? What

do you consider precautionsare beyond those alreadyenforced by necessary in should such shots in firing operationbe coal dust

precautions are
main roads.

Why

dangerous ?
Do (Ixiii.)
you

consider

all collieries liable to If not, the

? explosions

point out
rules which

exempt
What (Ixiv.)

name

are why some regulatethe

Name (Ixv.)

of shots in dry and dusty mines. firing have you had experience explosives of, and what are the regulations in force at any colliery with which you are acquaintedin addition to those enforced by law ? of the most two to important rules relating shots. firing

(StaffordDistrict, 1907.)
Describe (Ixvi.) make worked in detail the

arrangements

you
a

would mine

for

in shots by electricity firing with safetylamps.

Describe would make for the arrangements (Ixvii.) you and what storingand distributing explosives, would make for the safe keepregulations ing you in men's of unused explosives the sion possesafter their day's work was done.

(West Scotland
Describe (Ixviii.) round and take
"

District,1908.)

the of
say
as

a operation of charging and firing of a sinking shots at the bottom shaft, what special precautions you would

to
"

"c. signalling,

Where

have

the

shots to be prepared? primers for sinking would Previous to firing a shot, what precautions (Ixix.) shot ? you take to prevent having a blown-out in the special rules to be observed What are the
case

of

"

missed
North

shot

"

(Liverpooland

Wales

District, 1908.)
"

Mention of the more some (Ixx.) explosives contained

"

important
in the What
are

permitted
Order rules the

Coal Mines

of

December,

17

1906.

relative to detonators contained in that Order ?

APPENDICES.

195

How (Ixxi.)

do

explosives vary

as

regards

(a) Temperature of ignition; flame temperature? (6) Maximum

and what the methods latter have been reduce

temperature

employed to in artificially
Metalliferous

? safety explosives

of the Detail carefully the provisions (Ixxii.)

"_

Mines

Give (Ixxiii.)

and RegulationsActs as to explosives blasting. of the more roughly the compositionof some used in mining. important explosives
of (Assistant Inspectorship Mines

Examination,

February, 1908.)
PRACTICE

QUESTIONS
COAL

ON MINES the

THE ORDER.

EXPLOSIVES

IN

1. Name 2. What

the
are

to exceptions

the rules
?

as

to

of the Order. application in cartthe use of explosives ridges

3. Give

the clause

and to charging, drilling relating

"

ming. stem-

4. Define

5.
6.

permitted explosives," permitted igniter main haulage road." and fuse," road State the conditions regulating the use of detonators. Give the rules regulating of electrical firing the use
" " "

"

apparatus
7. What
or more

are precautions

requiredto
fired in the
? regulated

be

taken

when

two

shots
use

are

same

place?

8. How

is the
are

of fuse rules

9. What

the

the qualifications and regulating shot-firers ?

are

appointment of
10.

Under

what

circumstances

certain

11. How

absolutely prohibited, and ? prohibited detonators are permitted to

shafts ? the rule
a as

explosives (a) (6) conditionally

'

be

used

in

sinking

12. State

to

watering in

the

neighbourhood of
men

shot. the rule

as

13. State

to withdrawal

of and

during

shot-

in firing

main

roads haulage,

intakes

INDEX.

Chapter
Sectional

Headings
,,

shown

thus

EXPLOSIVES, EXPLODERS,
New

1"31 34"59

,,

Authors Permitted

Quoted Explosives

Metlwds
9

,,

of Testing Explosives,

133

Albionite,
,,

Abbcite,
Accidents
After

10 when

Accidents

Firing, 119 Firing or attempting

out

to

Fire,

through boring into ploded Charges, 117 with Electric Through contact
Wires,
121

Unex-

Signal

]23

Arising
116 At At At At At At At At At At At At At
a
a

of

premature Flint,
115

Ignition,

Clay

Pit

in

Through Through Through Through

Delayed Ignition, 123 ignitingExplosive.?,113, 110 between misunderstanding

122 and want of

a a a a a a
a

Colliery in Kinross, 117 115 Colliery in Lanarkshire, Collieryin Northumberland, Durham Quarry, 117 Fife Quarry, 117 Quarry in Derbyshire, 115 Quarry in Gloucestershire,
Staffordshire Sunderland Warwickshire
Jaw 115

Workmen,
120 120

neglect
not
use

tion, Cau-

Through Through
Cable,
115

taking Proper Cover, 119 of Defectively Insulated

119

123

Mine,

121

Through using Short Cable, While testing Cable, 121

With With 113-115 Detonators, Ripping Shots, 118 Prohibition of 172

a a

Colliery,91 Colliery, 115

Colliery,
115

Easter

Absolute

CsrtainExplosives

Glasgow,
115

in Unsafe

Mines,

AtHett,
At At At At

Accumulator

Linlithgow, 115 Linnyshaw Colliery,118

St. Etienne

Exploders, 53-57 Apparatus for charging, 57

Care

of, 56
of

[127 Danger

Collieries,93

Acetylene, Temperature
Miners'

Worsley Mesnes Colliery,121 by bunching Cartridges, 117 Caused by Charge blowing through
Caused
to

Lamps,
of of

Explosion of, of using, 127

Range

Advantages
6

Explosibility of, 128 Nitro-glycerineExplosives,

of

another

Level,
123

123 away

Caused in Caused

by sending Explosives
Coal,

And

Parallel Defective

Disadvantages Firing, 100

71 Ratio of

Series

and

by

using

Cables,
Albion

Of
Afterflame

testing Fuses,

117

Explosives,
134

133

Classified, 110
In In In In In More
a a

Colliery Disaster,
9 Coal

Derbyshire Mine, 119 Midland Colliery,121,

Albionite,
123

Altofts Altofts Amasite, Ammonal,

Ammonal

Durham

Collieries', 1 20
110

Dust Experiments, CollieryExplosion, 184

138, 183

handling Explosives,
Lancashire

8, 10
9

Collieries, 117, 118 frequent in Winter, 112

FROM OF INFLAMMABLE 125-157
THE

8, 9
7

RESULTING

TION IGNIAT-

Ammonite,
Ammonite

MOSPHERES,

Cartridges, 83 Experiments with, 98

198

INDEX.

Ammonium And

Nitrate
Nitro-

Ammunition, Amvis, 9, 117 Anthracite, Occlusion Aphosite, 10

Group, 7 glycerine Group, 8 Definition of, 163 Legal

of

BLASTING

IN

PIT 99

SHAFTS

AND

STONE

HEADINGS,

Blasting

Materials

containing Nitrates,
of plosion Ex-

Peculiarities

of, 94

Oxygen by, 129

Blasting Materials, Temperature

of, 129 Bobbinite, 8, 10, 12
Bobbinite

Apparatus for charging Accumulators, 57 sions Appendix I., Summary of Main Concluthe on Shot-firing from Second of the ComReport Royal
mision
on

Mines, 177
on

II., Comments
from the

Gas

Testing
of

and

Committee, Experiments of, quoted, 97 Bobbinite, Experiments with, 98 Evidence Minutes of Committee, quoted. 155
Dust
Medical

description of
Second Coal

Garforth

Lamp,
the

British Coal
British Address
"

Report
on

Experiments, 138, 183 Association, Dr. SnelVs

Royal
183

Commission

Mines, 179

to, 151
"

III.,British
IV.
,

Dust

Experiments,

Britonite, 9

Bunching
9

84, Cartridges,

117

Examination

Questions Relating
Cambrite,
Coal
Mines

187 Shot-firing, Application of Explosives in

to

Camerton Cannock

Order,

174

and

Explosion,150 Rugeley Collieries, Shotreferred

Approximate
Substances,
Arkite, 6

Resistances
61

of

Different

Cannock

firers' Qualifications at, 154 Chase Rule Shot-firing

to, 92

Ashworth, Mr. Atkinson, Mr. Atkinson, Mr.

Ascertaining Polarityof Mains, 56 James, quoted, 142 J. B., quoted, 145

W.

Capt. Desborough (see Desborough)

Carbonite, 9

Carbonite, Experiments with,

Carbonite
Care

98

H.,

reference
to

to, 138

Group,

Attaching
80-82

Detonators

Cartridges,
Shots,

Average Percentage
89

of

Miss-fire

of Accumulator Exploders,56 Cartridges, Standardizing size of, 178 Causes of Failure 88-91 in Shot-firing,

Celtite, 9
Test

Austrian

for of

69 Explosives, 85 Explosives, in

Cell

Tester, 76, 77
of Ammonium

Characteristics Ballistic Tests Barometric

137 Of
to

Nitrates, 7

4 Nitro-glycerine Explosives,

Pressure

Relation

plosions,Charge Ex-

Limite, 5,

133

Bedson, Dr. Phillips, quoted, 131 Bedson, Experiments of Prof.,cited,140,

150

Meaning of, 133 Charging and Stemming, 79, 80-86, 178 Cheddite, Consumption of, in British
Mines and

Quarries, 10 of,162

BelgianTest
Bellite,No.

for

71 Explosives,

Chlorate

Mixture, Legal Definition

1, 9 No. 3, 9

Chlorine

Peroxide, 17

Cilfynnydd Explosion,135

Bichel,M., quoted, 133 Mr. Bickford, Wm., referred to, 12 Bickford's Safety Fuses, Table of, 12 Electric Fuse, 23 Gutta-percha Fuse, 28
Fuse, Igniter
Patent 16

CUfflte/9
Clydach Vale Explosion,134
Clydite, 9
Coal
Cutters in

Relation
111

to

Explosion

Risks, 137 Coal Mines Commission,

Nippers, 18 Bigg-Withers, Mr., Time Fuse, 28 BLASTING ACCIDENTS, Chapter IV. (seeAccidents), 109-157 BlastingGelatine, 6, 10
Accidents

with, 115
of hi British Mines

Coal

Gas, Temperature of Explosionof, 127 of, 128 Gas, Range of Explosibility Dust (seeDviSt) tion Regulation Act, General Interpretaof, 145 ferred reMining Institute of America
to, 130, 143
65

Consumption
Quarries,

and

10

Line, a Shot-firing Coiling

200

INDEX.

Electric Fuse, 19

Firing Explosives Low-tension,

20 Flame A

in Coal

Gas,

70

High-tensionand How 20 ignited,

Roburite

Charge, 88 of Explosives, Duration

J. T., for

of, 133

Co.'s, 25
23

Areas, 136

Tirmann,
Electrical
95 firing,

Forgie,Mr.
successful ShotFrench Test

quoted,

151

Principlesof

Fracturite..9
70 Explosives,

Electronite, 9

Elementary Primary Cell,47 Ensuring Complete Detonation, 81 Ethane, Temperature of Explosion of, 127 Everett, Edgcumbe's Charging Set, 57
Examination
Excellite.

Fryar, Mr. J. W., quoted, 101 Fulminates, 13 Legal Definition of, 162
Mercuric, 13 (secStandard
Mixture for

Detonators)
Fuse 15 Ignition,

Questions,
9

187

Exciting and
EXPLODERS,
Current

Mixtures, Depolarising
33-59

49

Head, 19 Wires, 25

Induction, 34 Dimensions of Dry Cell, 54

34-36

Fuses, Delayed Action, 27 Electric,20

Electric

Detonator, 21
20 26

Magneto, With Safety Firing Attachment, 47, Wood's Dry Battery,51 Explosion at Courrieres, 7, 142 At Wingate Grange Colliery, 131 How produced, 1 Annual Loss of Life by, 134 Explosions,
Barometric Due
to

[51, 52

20, 23, 25, High-tension,

Low-tension, 20-24, Selection of, 26 Venus, 28

Galloway,Prof.,quoted, 131,
Galvanometer
for

142

Pressure

in relation

to, 137

Permitted 136

Explosives,145

Testing, 77 Garforth Gas Detector, 179 Gar forth, Mr. W. G., referred to, 138,
Garswood Hall

142 at,

Local,
Number

Colliery, Experiments

1 by Shot-firing, Periods of Immunity from, 134 Primary and Secondary, 135 1"31 of

of, caused

EXPLOSIVES,
Chief

Act, 1875, 160

Characteristics
Nitro-

Group,

Testing for Gas, 179 [147 Gases and Vapours, 125 [127 Explosion of, 126 than by Flame, Ignition of, otherwise Range of Inflammabilityof, 128 Gelatine of, in Glycerine Dynamite, Consumption British Mines and Quarries, 10
Gelatines, 6 Gelignite, 6

Classification of, 3 133 Comparative Safeties of Different,

Consumption
and

of

in

British

Mines

Consumption
and

Quarries, 10
to

of, Quarries, 10
12 referred for

in

British

Mines

favourable Density most 87 Ignition,

In Coal Mines

plete Com-

Geloxite, Explosion caused

General Rule Test German

by, 145
.

to, 146

Order, General

pretation Inter-

71 Explosives, 119

of, 145
In

Coal

Mines

Order,

17, 37, 53, 119.

3

Gerrard, Mr., quoted, Good Conductors, 61

Good

172, 195

Luck,

Nitro-Glycerine Group,
Tests

Gowerton

Explosion,134
9, 80, 87
British Mines and

for,69-71
9

Gunpowder,

Extra-Carbonite,

Consumption of,in
Quarries, 10

Failure to Fire Shots, Causes

"Fast"

Shots,

Prohibition 9 7

of,87-91 of, 178

Great

Legal Definition of, 161 Western Colliery Explosion,134

Couche,
II., 5
146 93

Faversham
';

Powder,

Grisounite Grisoutine

Favier

Poudre,"
129

Fayol,Prof. Henri, quoted, 131

Fire

Damp,
Detection

also Methane) (see.

of, 151

Firing(see Shot-firing)

Hall, Mr. Henry, cited, 133, 140, Hang- Fire Shots, 91-95, 123 Haylite No. 1, 9

INDEX.

201

Heating
141

Effect

due, to

Compression Waves

Medium Methane

5 per cent. Nitro-glycerines, perature Tem(see also Fire Damp), of

Hedley, Mr. A. M., quoted, 148 Helsby Magneto Exploder, 35 6 High per cent. Nitro-glycerines, Holden Firing Apparatus, 90 Cross Measure Driving Houghton Colliery,
at, 103
How Gases 125 and

Explosion of, 127

Fuses, 28-31
to

Methods

of

carryingE.D.
80-82

Of

attaching
Association

Detonators Great

ridges, Cart-

Mining
referred

of

Britain

Vapours
of

become

plosive, Miss Ex-

to, 139, 183 Fires, 88, 178

Minimum

Quantity
as

of

Stemming,

tigations Inves-

Hydrogen, Temperature
127

Explosion of,
Minite, 9
at

to, 85
of
a

Observations Hygrometrical

Wingate

Mode 129
Monobel

of Occurrence

Dust

Explosion,

Grange,

142 10 Explosives, 64

Powder,
Green

Identification of Permitted
Illustrations of from

Moor Morfa

Cables, Shot-tiring

Experiments at, 98 Colliery, Explosion,134

Association

Periods Explosions, Immunity Drill, 105 Ingersoll-Sergeant Instructions

of,134
National

Managers, of Colliery
103

Shot-tirers,175 of Firing Line, 96 Insulation Insulators, 61 Introduction, 1

to

of, quoted, Proceedings Negro Powder,

New Methods 9

of

Testing

Explosives

quoted, 133
Nisbet, Mr. Norman, quoted, 103 Nitrate Mixture, Legal Definition of, 161 Nitro-compound, Legal Definition of, 161
3 Explosives, Nitro-glycerine in handling, Accidents 111

Iron 141

and

Coal

Trades

Review

quoted, 139,

Lines, 67, Jointing Shot-firing

Karwin
Kolax, 9 9

87

Mine, Experiments at, 94

Advantages of, 6
Characteristics of, 4 Disadvantages of, 7 High per cent, sub-group,
Chief Low per
cent, 4 sub-group, cent,

Kynite, 9 Kynite, Condensed,

Lancashire

ExplosivesCo.'s Fuse. 22 Explosives Co.'s System of Packing

Fuses, 28

Medium

per

Temperature Thawing, 111

Nobel

of

sub-group,5 111 Congealation,

Special Rules,
LAWS AND TO OF THE

Reference

to, 119

Caroonite,

REGULATIONS STORAGE 159-176 and AND

TING RELAUSE

Nobel Nobel's 110

Exploders,37-41, 53 Book quoted, of High Explosives

as

EXPLOSIVES, Wire Leakage between

Earth,

ing Test-

Non-Detonants NonNorth

Coal Getters, 97

for, 78 Between Wires, Testingfor,77 for ExplosivesStores, 164 Licences Loss of, by ExploLife, Average Annual sions,
134

Detonating
5, 9

Mechanical

Mixtures, 8
-

Normanite,

Staffordshire 92

Shot

firing Rule by
Shot-

quoted,
Number 1 firing, Number

of

Explosions caused

Occlusion Lignite,
Lithanode Llanerch Low-tension

of

Oxygen by,

129

Cells,57

of Shots

Explosion,134
Fuses, 47

Nystagmus
Risks, 151
Oaklite plosions, ExObach Gas No.
No.

fired per Annum, 140 with Shot-firing in connection

Magneto Exploders,34-37 in production Main Factors

140, 141
Manet Manner

of

Dust

1, 9 2, 9

Exploder,90 in which Explosion of

126

Cell, 49 Occlusion, 129, 137

Ohm's

ceeds, pro-

Odite, 9

Law, 61, 95

S.F.G

202

INDEX.

Park

SlipExplosion,134
16

Resistance

of

Firing Line, 47,

of

95 61

Partial Detonation,

Resistances,
Retarded

Conductors,

61

Approximate, Ignition(see. Hang Fire)

9

Table

Paying
Payne,

out

Dr.

Peculiarities

Line, 65 firing Henry, quoted, 130, 143 of Blasting Materials

a

Shot-

Rex.te,

10

taining con-

Ripping Ammonal, Rippite, 9

RISKS
IMMEDIATELY

Nitrates, 94

CAUSED

BY

THE

EX-

Peg

Boring Percussive Theory,

Permitite, 10
Permitted
and

for

Holes

in 137

81 Cartridges,

PLOSIVE, Chapter IV., Part I., 109-124 Risks from the Ignitionby the resulting

Explosive
"

of

an

Inflammable

sphere, Atmo-

Explosives, Consumption of, 10

109, 125

Watering, 145 Compared with Gunpowder, 97 H.M. Inspectorsof Explosiveson,

of, 10 Legal Definition of, 175
List, 5, 9, 80 Tests for, 69-71 Permitted IgniterFuse, 17 Legal Definition of, 175 Permonite, 9 Permonite II.,9 Phoenix Powder, 9 Pitite, 9
Identification

69

Road," Legal Definition of, 175 Main, Legal Definition of, 175 Roburite Co.'s Exploder Tester, 75 Electric Fuses, 25
No. 3, 9 Commission Mines

Roburite

Royal
On

Rules for
For

of 1894 cited, 140 quoted, 151, 177-182 175 Recovery of Miss-fire Charges, Prevention of Blown-out Shots,
Pot
9

175

Russbach
Russelite.

for

thawing Dynamite,

112

Pole-finding Papers, 58
Pope
"

Pearson's
when

Co. Colliery

refer led to, 138

PRACTICAL
Precautions

APPLICATIONS,

79-107

Stemming, 86 Premature 116 Ignition, PreventingSpread of an Explosion,142 Primary Object of Altofts Tests, 141 Primer Manner of preparing, 15 Cartridge,
for Position of Shot-firer, 11 Qualification Quarries Act Rule quoted, 91

SafeguardsagainstExplosions from Shot154 firing, Safe Rule to follow in Stemming, Only, 86 Safety Fuse, 12
For
use

in

Fiery Mines,

16

St.

Legal Definition of, 163 Method of using,13 Rate of burning of, 13 Etienne dents AcciCollieries,Shot-firing
at, 93

St. Helen's

Quarries .QUARRIES

Powder,

Act, Special Rules

relatingto

Sarrau's

166 Blasting,

ACT, THE,

160, 165
165
,

Quarry, Legal Definition of Quarrying by Simultaneous

Rack-bar Rate Reason 131 of

Blasting,107
146

Exploder, 37 depositionof Coal Dust,

for Dust

Theory, 91 Saxonite, Explosion caused by, 145 Experiments with, 98 American, The, quoted, 58 Scientific Senghenydd Explosion. 134 Separation of Coal from Shale Dust
Blast, 151
Series Shaft and Parallel Methods of of

by
[107

becoming

Inflammable,

100, Firing, in, -firing

Sinking,Methods

Shot

Regulations as to Storage of Gunpowder and Mixed Explosives,164 Report of Commission appointedby Societe de r Industrie Minerale quoted,
130, 132, 143

100-103

Sherwood

Colliery Sinking,100

[178

Shot-firer, Qualifications of, 11, 110. 154, Causes of Failure in, 87-91 Shot-firing, From Power Cables, 172
In In In Frozen

Inspectors of Explosives quoted, 85, 93, 113 Inspector of Mines for Liverpool District quoted, 123 Mines. Second, on Royal Commission quoted, 177 19 Resistance, Electrical, Of Electric Fuses, 97

H.M.

Ground,
99

101

Headings,
Pit

Shafts, 99, 100, 102

Number

of Explosions caused by, 1 Sinking, Regulationsat Dawdon Colliery 101

General. Regulations,
Series and Parallel

175,

Methods

177, 178 of, 100

INDEX.

20-*/
Testing Exploders, 74, 75 for Earth," 78 Risks and Precautions,
"

Rule Shropshire Shot -firing

92

referred

to,

Snell, Dr.

Simeon, quoted,

151

73

SofteningNitro-glycerine Explosives,86 SolderingJoints in Wires, 67 SpecialRules for Mines, 166 SpecialRules for Quarries, 166 SpecialRules for the Installation and Use in Mines of Electricity quoted, 172 fot Shot-firing Wires, 62, 63 Specifications
Standard Mixture
for

Tetryl Detonators, 14 Thawing Explosives,112

Theedam's Detonator Rack9 in
a

Case,

30, 31

Three-post
Thunderite,
Time Factor

bar

Exploder, 41 Explosion, 141

Dust

Fuses, 27

Detonators,

14

Timsbury Explosion, 150

Tirmann Time Electric

Stemming, 80-86, 17 "* Only Safe Rule to follow, 86 SterlingMagneto Exploders, 35, Dynamo Exploders, 37-47
Stokes, Mr.
Stone Dust,
of A.

Fuse, 23 Fuse, 27

36

Titanite, 9
Tdnite 82 Cartridges,

H., quoted, 144

Transactions
Trauzl plosives, Tutol, Ex9 Lead

of

the

Institution

of Mining
149

Effective

Percentage of, 142

at

Engineers quoted, 93, 142, 143,

Block

Experiments

with,

Altofts, 186
Mixed

Test, 70

Storage
Stores
Stowite.

Gunpowder
164, 178
164 Explosives",

and

for

Urpeth Colliery Explosion, 145

149 Dust Vacuum

6, 9

Stuart, Mr.

D.M.D.,
141

quoted,
for

produced by Explosion, 127

in 149

Suggested Remedies
Danger,

the allaying

Ventilation
Victoria

Relation

to

Explosion
at, 98

Risks, 137,
on on

of Conclusions Summary by the Royal Commission Table

Shot-Firing
Mines, 177
in

Colliery, Experiments

I..

Consumption
Mines 10 and

of

Explosives

British

Quarries for the

12 tors, Detona-

Victorite, 9 Virite, 8, 10 Volf, Mr. L., quoted, 93 Voltmeter for Testing Circuits, 76

Year,

II.. Bickford's

Safety Fuse,
Mixture for

Washington
145

Glebe

Colliery Explosion,
141.

III., Standard
14

Watering Dust, 138,

"c., of

142, 143, 145

IV.,

Dimensions, Exploders, 54
and

Dry

Cell

In

Midland

Coal

Mines

Inspection

District, 143

V., Conductors
VI., VII.,

Insulators, 61
Resistances.
61

Approximate

Wires, 63 Shot-firing parative Experiments as to the ComMerits of Explosives,98 in Midland IX., Explosion Fatalities 144 District, Inspection Tamping (see Stemming) Temperatures at whichBlasting Materials Explode, 127 At which Gases be Ignited,127 may of Coal Dust, 131 Of Ignition Test Gauge for Drill Bits, 80
VIII..

required to start Watery Vapour, Amount an Explosion, 142 Watteyne,M. Victor, quoted, 134 Wattstown Explosion,134 Westphalite,Explosion caused bv, 145
Westphalite
Whitehaven
No. No.

1, 9 2, 9
R.

Explosion, 145 Colliery

Mr.

Williamson,
149 Wires

8., quoted, 155

145,

Wingate Grange Explosion, 131, 142,

for use in Headings, 106 63 Shot-firing, Wood, Mr. E. Seymour, quoted, 102 Wood's Dry Battery Exploder, 51 Woolwich

TESTING,

69, 78
for
use

Testing Explosives
Effective Electric

in 178

Fiery

and

Dusty Mines, 69-71,

Fuses, 71, 72
77

Test, 5, 6, 69 Case, 30, 31

Strength of Detonators,

71
XL Detonator

Testing, Cables,

Complete Circuits, 76,

77

Experiments at, 98 Ystradgynlais,

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THEORY

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SUBJECT.
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rent

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Separation ot Hysteresisand Eddy Curin Continuous-Current Losses Dynamo Armatures. Efficiency Test of Two Equal Transformers by the Differential (Sumpner's)

T-, "6' "e

AT Measurement

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47.

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Method.
44. of the Measurement Efficiencyand Factor of a Polyphase InduePower tion Motor Method. by the Wattmeter

48. The Test of a Rotary Converter.

49. The

Parallelisation of Alternators. of
an

|
!

50.

The Examination Current Motor.

Alternating-

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RADIO-ACTIVITY
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of Contents

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CONTENTS.

Telegraph Engineer.
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Chapter I." Remarks

,,

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Chapter VII.
,, ,,

"

Measurement

of Inductive

city. Capa-

II.
"

Measurements and

VIII.
IX.
"

"

Localisation ot Disconnections. Localisation of Earth and Contacts. Corrections of Localisation Tests. Submarine Cable Testing durin inng and Manufacture. Laying

" "

III." Natural and IV. Measurement

"

Fault

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sistance. Resistance. Reand

,, ,,

X XI.

"

"

,,

V. VI.

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