Definitions

In summary, an ecosystem is made up of groups of organisms and the non-living environment interacting together as a complex, self sustaining, natural system. The four important points in this definition are: Groups of organisms The non-living environment Interacting together Self sustainability

Distribution
The distribution of a species is the region WHERE! in "hich the species is located. Some organisms may be more evenly distributed than others. #o"ever, usually, species are often clustered together in a specific area "ith appropriate conditions. There are many methods used to estimate distribution. $or a large scale ecosystem such as %ustralia, trapping, personal sightings and observation of tracks or traces, etc, may be used. #o"ever, "ith smaller ecosystems the method used to estimate the distribution of a particular species is dependent on the nature of the ecosystem itself. In order to illustrate distribution, "e use a transect and perform a transect study. % transect study is performed by mar&ing out a straight line across an area and record the types of plants present. The data from the transect study can be used to create a transect. Generally spea&ing, the use of a transect is limited to plants, or animals that stay in the same place. 'hen dra"ing a transect it is common practice to:

S&etch the topography of the cross section S&etch the plants as they occur along the line Include vertical scale for height of plants

Include horizontal scale for the distance across the area

$rom a transect, "e may investigate "hat factors influence the distribution of the species, such as:

Food supply: The species may need to be near the food supply Predators: The species may need to avoid predators Wave Action: Strong foundations to "ithstand the force of "aves E posure to air and light: Tidal changes (o" tide, high tide!, changing the intensity of air and light !oil "ype: The different soils may contain different nutrient concentrations, "hich may lead to plants gro"ing in more concentrated areas

Abundance
The abundance of a species refers to ho# many individuals are in the population of a given species in an ecosystem. %bundance is not consistent throughout the area, and changes over time. % species "ill increase in abundance if the birth or germination rate exceeds the death rate. Increases in the abundance of a species are caused by births and immigrations) decreases are due to deaths and emigrations. The abundance of a species is often determined using one of * methods:

$uadrat !ampling: % +uadrat is a small area that represents the larger area being studied. %t each +uadrat ,drop- the number of the species of interest is counted. %fter a number of ,drops- the more drops, the more accurate! the average number of organisms per +uadrat is calculated. $inally, the estimated population is found by %scaling&up' from the area of the +uadrat to the total area being studied.

E ample $uadrats . * / 0 2 1 4 5 6 .3 Total %verage

(umber of Paperis Yellowis /* . .0 *1 3 .1 4 ** 0 04 .16 .4

Average of 17 Paperis Yellowis per quadrat of 1x1m in a 10 x 10 m perimeter. Abundance = 10 x 10 x 17 = 1700 Capture Mark Recapture: is a method which involves catching a certain number of individuals of a particular species, marking the in a wa which does not affect their life expectanc , releasing them into the wild and then at a later time catching another group and counting the number of tagged amongst the recaptured.

%bundance 7

Abiotic Factors of "errestrial and A)uatic Environments

Abiotic Factor A)uatic Environment *iscosity 8 'ater is very viscous "errestrial Environment 8 %ir is less viscous than "ater

8 Species re+uiring movement have adapted a streamline shape, to allo" them to move easily in "ater

8 Species do not need to adapt for movement 8 9iscosity is one area, "hich terrestrial existence provides an advantage over an a+uatic environment

8 'ater provides a great amount of buoyancy 8 <rovides some buoyancy 8 :aused by the organism being 8 :an only be observed "ith +uoyancy completely surrounded by "ater highly speciali=ed adaptations, 8 #elps to &eep the shape of some such as "ings organisms such as ;ellyfish 8 9ariation in temperatures is small 8 Temperatures vary "ith exposure to 8 (arge variations in temperature sun and depth 8 Temperatures vary "ith the 8 %t a given depth, the temperature is position of the sun, amount of "emperature relatively constant shade, altitude, "ind 8 %+uatic organisms must be adapted 8 >ust adapt to cope "ith large to prevent heat loss by conduction variations in temperature 8 %dapted for movement through "ater 8 'ater absorbs heat faster, causing temperatures to remain constant Heat 8 #eat "ithin organisms is lost +uic&er 8 #eat is lost slo"ly through the ,onduction than in air air 8 Some organisms need to adapt to prevent heat loss by conduction 8 >ore dissolved oxygen?carbon dioxide at surface than deep under "ater 8 The more movement in the "ater, the more oxygen?carbon dioxide "ill 8 #igh abundance of gases -as dissolve in it available for metabolic processes Availability 8 :old "ater tends to have more 8 (ac&s oxygen at high altitudes dissolved gases 8 %ffects of temperature and turbulence cause large variations in dissolved gases 8 Gases diffuse .3,333 times faster 8 Gases diffuses slo"ly in "ater in air than in "ater -as Diffusion 8 Gases are readily dissolved in "ater 8 Gases must dissolve in "ater to pass through the cell membrane Water 8 %bundant in fresh"ater systems 8 @uic&ly lost from organisms Availability 8 >ay not be readily available in a through metabolic processes marine environment 8 >ust be constantly replaced for 8 Salt content in the cells of organisms survival

.on Availability

/ight Availability

Pressure

may be higher than surrounding "ater, causing net "ater loss 8 Ions are freely available in abundance 8 They are present in the "ater as a result of runoff from the land and volcanic activity at deep sea levels 8 These include metallic ions such as calcium, iron, manganese 8 Aegative ions include carbonates, sulphates, phosphates, nitrates 8 >arine organisms can easily access ions in their environment 8 Some species must adapt to excessive salts, causing "ater to diffuse from the roots into the soil 8 'ater reflects /3C of incident light also absorbs light! and only 3.2C of light that penetrates the "ater reaches .33m 8 %ffected by turbidity, cloud cover 8 Deep "ater species lac& light for photosynthesis or vision, needing to adapt to cope "ith the conditions 8 (arge variations in pressure "ith depth 8 Species especially deep-sea! must adapt to high pressures

8 <resent in soil and move in the presence of "ater 8 Brganisms need to extract ions from the ground or other organisms 8 <lants in particular need to deal "ith soils of different salinity levels

8 #ighly available during the daytime and varies "ith cover 8 Scarce on the floors of dense forest and caves 8 Small variations in pressure "ith altitude 8 Species do not re+uire special adaptations to survive

Predation
Predator&Prey 0Predation1 refers to situations "here one animal eats another, not "hen an animal eats a plant. Eoth the predator and prey species have significant effects on the distribution and abundance of the other species2

Predator abundance is al#ays lo#er than prey The peaks and troughs of the predatorFs population al"ays occurs after those of the prey species

There are several reasons "hich explain these observations: .. (umber of prey species increase because of its breeding cycle, or seasonal increase in food availability *. This provides more food for predators, allo"ing them to survive in greater numbers. /. %s predator numbers increase, more prey gets eaten. Therefore, the prey population decreases 0. %s the prey population declines, there is less food available for predators and therefore, predator numbers #ill also decline2 EA,H 3R-A(.!45! A+6(DA(,E AFFE,"! "HE 3"HER5! A+6(DA(,E Allelopathy %llelopathy is a plant relationship "here a plant produces chemicals that can be harmful or give benefit to another plant. It is an example of the competitive exclusion principle. >any %ustralian plants produce allelochemicals. These substances are released by the plants and concentrate in soil. They inhibit the gro"th of other plants in the area and thus, give the plant a competitive advantage. %llelopathy can be used in agriculture as a natural form of "eed control. Gxamples that may occur in our local ecosystem include: Eucalypts and ,asuarinas2 4utualism >utualism is the relationship bet"een t"o organisms "here both organisms benefit from the relationship. The neither can live "ithout the other symbiotic relationship.

% common example of mutualism is the termite and protozoans living inside its gut. The termites che" and s"allo" "ood but cannot digest the cellulose. The proto=oans eat the cellulose and have a safe place to live. ABTG: Thin& >HTH%( thus, both organisms are advantaged. @uite li&e a mutual relationship?agreement to something. Parasitism <arasitism is the close relationship bet#een t#o organisms #here one is benefited and the other is disadvantaged2 The one receiving the benefit is the parasite and species being harmed is the host. %lthough the host is harmed, it is usually not &illed by the parasite. If the parasite &ills its host, then it has to find another host. %n example is the human tape#orm2 It infests the intestinal tract of humans and feeds on food digested by the human and the human suffers malnutrition and loss of "eight and in severe cases, may have intestinal bloc&age and abdominal pain. ,ommensalism :ommensalism is a relationship bet"een * species in "hich one benefits "hile the other is neither harmed or receives any benefit. The species receiving the benefit is the commensal and the other species is the host. %n example of this could be a bird nesting in a tree. That is to say that the bird gains a safe place to raise its young and the tree is not affected.

Human .mpact on Ecosystems

6rban settlement7 industrial activity7 mining activity Deforestation ,ropping and pastoral activities 0.ntensive grazing and dairying1 Range land activities 0grazing sheep and cattle1 .ntroduction of species /and clearing 6se of herbicides

% range of conse+uences result from human activities and habitation. These include:

/oss of habitat Eutrophication .ntroduction of foreign species 0fo 7 cane toad7 rabbit1

Pollution +iological magnification