Introduction Essential Trace Elements Considered essential if a deficiency impairs a biochemical or functional process & replacement of element corrects

s impairment Associated with an enzyme or other protein as an essential component or cofactor Excess concentrations associated with some degree of toxicity Trace elements (mg/L): iron, copper, & zinc Ultratrace elements (<g/L): selenium, chromium, & manganese Non-Essential Trace Elements Of medical interest because many of them are toxic Instrumentation and Methods Sample Collection and Processing Specimens must be collected with scrupulous attention to details such as anticoagulant, collection apparatus, & specimen type. Elements are of low concentration in biologic specimens & ubiquitous in environment. Therefore, much care must be taken to avoid contaminating specimens. Special sampling & collection devices, specially cleaned glassware, & water & reagents of high purity must be used. Lab environment must be carefully controlled: placement of trace elements lab in separate room, use of sticky mats at doors, non-shedding ceiling tiles, controlled air flow, disposable booties. Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (AES) Three most important components of AE spectrophotometer: 1. Source, sufficiently hot to produce excited-state species 2. Wavelength selecting device, for spectral dispersion of radiation & separation of analytic line from other radiation 3. Detector, permitting measurement of radiation intensity

Liquid sample containing element is converted into an aerosol & delivered into source, where it receives energy to emit radiation. Intensity of emitted radiation is correlated to concentration of an analyte & is basis for quantitation. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) An analytic procedure for quantitation of elements through absorption of optical radiation by free atoms in gas phase Spectra of atoms are line spectra, specific for absorbing elements. Four most important components of AA spectrophotometer: 1. Radiation light source, which emits spectrum of analyte 2. Atomizer, in which atoms of element are formed 3. Monochromator, for spectral dispersion of radiation & separation of analytic line from other radiation 4. Detector, permitting measurement of radiation intensity Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) A state-of-the-art analytic technique for elemental analysis Measures mass-to-charge ratio (m/z) of selected analyte ions Includes ion source, m/z analyzer, & ion detector Argon plasma induced by ICP instruments generates high temperature (~6,000 to ~10,000 K) & serves several purposes: Dries droplets produced by nebulizer Vaporizes dried particles Atomizes any molecular species Thermally ionizes atoms Instrumentation and Methods (contd) Elemental Speciation Because toxicity of an element may vary by its chemical form, methods are needed to identify specific chemical forms. Hyphenated analysis: combination of complementary analytic techniques to measure specific form of analyte

Liquid chromatography-ICP-MS (LC-ICPMS) Alternative Analytic Techniques Neutron activation analysis, voltametric methods Ion chromatography, gas chromatography mass spectrometry Laser ablation ICP-MS (LA-ICP-MS) Arsenic Health Effects Non-essential; no known function in human physiology; toxic Absorption, Transport, & Excretion Exposure: ingested in food (seafood), water, drink; inhaled Nontoxic, organic forms clear rapidly; toxic, inorganic forms clear slowly. Toxicity Exposure can lead to acute & chronic intoxication. Inorganic form produces symptoms, can be lethal. Organic species are relatively non-toxic. Cadmium Health Effects Non-essential; no known function in human physiology; toxic Absorption, Transport, & Excretion Exposure: inhaled in tobacco smoke, ingested in food Absorption: 1050% inhaled, 5% GI; excretion: 90% in feces Toxicity Renal dysfunction, nasal epithelial & lung damage, respiratory distress Nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain if ingested in great amounts Lead Health Effects Non-essential; no known function in human physiology; toxic Absorption, Transport, & Excretion Exposure: respiratory & gastrointestinal Absorption: 3040% inhaled, variable in GI; excretion: 76% in urine; 16% in feces; 8% in hair, sweat, nails Toxicity Children: IQ declines, clumsiness, gait issues, headache, behavioral changes, seizures, cognitive & behavioral problems

Adults: peripheral neuropathies, motor weakness, chronic renal insufficiency, systolic hypertension, anemia

Mercury Health Effects Non-essential; no known function in human physiology; toxic Absorption, Transport, & Excretion Exposure: inhalation, ingestion (fish), cutaneous, injection (tattoo pigments), dental amalgams Absorption: 80% inhaled, ~0% in GI; excretion: fecal & urinary Toxicity Primarily through reaction with sulfhydryl groups Inhaled vapor: nervous, digestive, & immune systems Inorganic salts: skin, eyes, GI tract, & kidneys Chromium Health Effects Essential; helps maintain metabolism of glucose, fat, cholesterol Absorption, Transport, & Excretion Absorbed, bound in blood to transferrin, transported by albumin Deficiency/Toxicity Deficiency: glucose intolerance, glycosuria, hypercholesterolemia, decreased longevity, decreased sperm counts, impaired fertility Toxicity: dermatitis, skin ulcers, eczema (cutaneous contact); airway irritation & obstruction, lung cancer (inhaled) Copper Health Effects Essential; a component of several metalloenzymes Absorption, Transport, & Excretion Exposure: ingested in food (~10 mg/day) Absorption: 5080% of dietary intake; excretion: 50% of dietary intake in feces, 3% in urine & sweat Deficiency/Toxicity Deficiency: neutropenia & hypochromic anemia, osteoporosis, decreased pigmentation of skin, general pallor

Toxicity: Wilsons disease (neurologic disorders, liver dysfunction, KayserFleischer rings in cornea)

Iron Health Effects Essential; a component of hemoglobin, myoglobin Absorption, Transport, & Excretion Exposure: ingested in food; must be reduced to FE(II) for absorption Absorption: 10% of dietary intake; transport: carried by transferrin to bone marrow & incorporated into hemoglobin Deficiency/Toxicity Deficiency: anemia Toxicity: tissue accumulation, liver function, hyperpigmentation Manganese Health Effects Essential; a component of metalloenzymes; an enzyme activator Absorption, Transport, & Excretion Absorption: 215% of dietary intake; affected by iron, calcium, phosphates, & fiber Deficiency/Toxicity Deficiency: blood clotting defects, hypocholesterolemia, dermatitis, heart & bone problems, stunted growth (in children) Toxicity: nausea, vomiting, headache, disorientation, memory loss, anxiety, compulsive laughing or crying Molybdenum Health Effects Essential; a component of at least 3 enzymes Absorption, Transport, & Excretion Absorption: 2580% of dietary intake; excretion: urine & bile Deficiency/Toxicity Deficiency: an inherited disorder; causes seizures, anterior lens dislocation, decreased brain weight, death prior to age 1 Toxicity: rare; linked to elevated uric acid in blood & an increased incidence of gout

Selenium Health Effects Essential; part of cellular antioxidant defense system against free radicals; involved in metabolism of thyroid hormones Absorption, Transport, & Excretion Exposure: food, drinking water Absorption: >50% of dietary intake; excretion: urine, feces, sweat Deficiency/Toxicity Deficiency: cardiomyopathy, muscle weakness, osteoarthritis Toxicity: rare; only from 1 form of selenium, not present in food; causes nausea, vomiting, hair loss, nail changes, diarrhea Zinc Health Effects Essential; influences >300 enzymes & synthesis & metabolism of proteins, participates in glycolysis & cholesterol metabolism Absorption, Transport, & Excretion Absorption: occurs mainly in small intestine; in blood, zinc is distributed between red blood cells (80%) & white blood cells (3%); excretion: 90% in feces Deficiency/Toxicity Deficiency: widespread; causes growth retardation, slow skeletal maturation, testicular atrophy, reduced taste perception Toxicity: GI tract symptoms, decreased heme synthesis