Biochemistry 17 GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Prepared and presented by Marc Imhotep Cray, M.D.

Basic Medical Sciences & CK Teacher

Carbohydrate Metabolism

Reference resource: Carbohydrates-Wikipedia

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Summary

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Introduction and Digestion of Carbohydrates. Glucose is the key food molecule for most organisms, and it is the central substance in carbohydrate metabolism. During digestion, carbohydrates are hydrolyzed to the monosaccharides glucose, fructose, and galactose, which are absorbed into the bloodstream through the lining of the small intestine. Blood Glucose. Glucose is the most abundant carbohydrate in the blood. The liver regulates blood glucose levels so that a sufficient concentration is always available to meet the body's energy needs. A lower than normal blood glucose level is referred to as hypoglycemia, whereas a higher than normal blood glucose level is termed hyperglycemia.

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Glycolysis. Glycolysis, a series of ten reactions that occur in the cytoplasm, is a process in which one glucose molecule is converted into two molecules of pyruvate. Two molecules of ATP and two molecules of NADH are produced in the process. Both galactose and fructose are converted into intermediate that enter the glycolysis pathway. The glycolysis pathway is controlled by the regulation of three key enzymes in the reaction sequence.
Fates of Pyruvate. Pyruvate, the product of glycolysis, has three different fates. Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate enters mitochondria and is converted to acetyl CoA. The acetyl CoA enters the citric acid cycle. products of the citric acid cycle enter the electron transport chain where oxidation is completed and ATP is synthesized. A second fate of pyruvate is conversion to lactate. This takes place in anaerobic microorganisms and in our own bodies when glycolysis occurs faster than the oxygen dependent citric acid cycle and electron transport chain can operate. Some microorganisms convert pyruvate to ethanol, the third fate of pyruvate. in each of these three processes, NAD+ is regenerated so that glycolysis can continue.

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The Citric Acid Cycle. This pathway consists of eight reactions that process incoming molecules of acetyl CoA. The carbon atoms leave the cycle in the form of molecules of CO2. The hydrogen atoms and electrons leave the cycle in the form of reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2. The cycle is regulated by three allosteric enzymes in response to cellular levels of ATP. One acetyl CoA molecule entering the citric acid cycle produces three molecules of NADH, one of FADH2, and one of GTP. The Electron Transport Chain. This pathway involves a series of reactions that pass electrons from NADH and FADH to molecular oxygen. Each carrier in the series has an increasing affinity for electrons. Four of the carriers, which are referred to as cytochromes, contain iron, which accepts and then transfers the electrons. As NADH and FADH2 release their hydrogen atoms and electrons, NAD+ and FAD are regenerated for return to the citric acid cycle
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Oxidative Phosphorylation. There are three sites within the electron transport chain where the decrease in free energy is sufficient to cover ADP to ATP. One molecule of NADH produces 2.5 molecules of ATP. FADH2 which enters the chain one step later produces 1.5 molecules of ATP. According to the chemiosmotic hypothesis, the synthesis of ATP occurs because of a flow of protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Complete Oxidation of Glucose. The complete oxidation of 1 mol of glucose produces 30 (or 32) mol of ATP. In contrast, lactate and alcoholic fermentation only produce 2 mol of ATP.

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Glycogen Metabolism. When blood glucose levels are high, excess glucose is converted into glycogen by the process of glycogenesis. The glycogen is stored within the liver and muscle tissue. The breakdown of glycogen occurs when muscles need energy and when the liver is restoring a low blood sugar level to normal. Gluconeogenesis. Lactate, certain amino acids, and glycerol can be converted into glucose. This process, which is called gluconeogenesis, takes place in the liver when glycogen supplies are being depleted and when carbohydrate intake is low. Gluconeogenesis from lactate is especially important during periods of high muscle activity; the liver converts excess lactate from the muscles into glucose, which is then cycled back to the muscles. This process is called the Cori cycle.

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Hormonal Control of Carbohydrate Metabolism Three hormones exert major interactive effects upon carbohydrate metabolism: insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine. insulin promotes the uptake and utilization of glucose by the cells. Thus, insulin lowers the blood sugar levels. Glucagon stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose and thus raises the blood glucose levels. Epinephrine is released in response to anger, fear, and excitement. It also stimulates the release of glucose from glycogen and raises blood glucose levels.
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Formative Assessment

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Which of the following cannot be used by the glycolysis pathway? glucose fructose ribose any can be used

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ribose

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Excessive alcohol consumption will result in the formation of: glyceraldehyde acetaldehyde lactate pyruvate CoA

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acetaldehyde

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Which of the following is NOT a component of the electron transport chain? coenzyme Q flavoprotein iron-sulfur protein ribosome cytochrome C

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ribosome

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Which of the following acts to raise blood sugar levels? glucagon insulin testosterone cytochrome C

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glucagon

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Both glucagon and insulin are produced by the pancreas. True False

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True

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Thank you for your attention

The end

Further Study: Biochemistry and Cell Biology College of Saint Benedict and Saint John's University - Biochemistry Online Indiana University - Medical Biochemistry Page MIT - Biology Hypertextbook NLM - Biochemistry NLM - Molecular Cell Biology University of Utah - NetBiochem

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