1)

Water flow meter Vortex shedding flowmeters These flowmeters utilise the fact that when a non-streamlined or 'bluff' body is placed in a fluid flow, regular vortices are shed from the rear of the body. These vortices can be detected, counted and displayed. Over a range of flows, the rate of vortex shedding is proportional to the flowrate, and this allows the velocity to be measured. The bluff body causes a blockage around which the fluid has to flow. By forcing the fluid to flow around it, the body induces a change in the fluid direction and thus velocity. The fluid which is nearest to the body experiences friction from the body surface and slows down. Because of the area reduction between the bluff body and the pipe diameter, the fluid further away from the body is forced to accelerate to pass the necessary fluid through the reduced space. Once the fluid has passed the bluff body, it strives to fill the space produced behind it, which in turn causes a rotational motion in the fluid creating a spinning vortex. The fluid velocity produced by the restriction is not constant on both sides of the bluff body. As the velocity increases on one side it decreases on the other. This also applies to the pressure. On the high velocity side the pressure is low, and on the low velocity side the pressure is high. As pressure attempts to redistribute itself, the high pressure region moving towards the low pressure region, the pressure regions change places and vortices of different strengths are produced on alternate sides of the body.

Vortex shedder Steam flow meter

Turbine flowmeters

The primary element consists of a multi-bladed rotor which is mounted at right angles to the flow and suspended in the fluid stream on a free-running bearing. The diameter of the rotor is slightly less than the inside diameter of the flowmetering chamber, and its speed of rotation is proportional to the volumetric flowrate. The speed of rotation of the turbine may be determined using an electronic proximity switch mounted on the outside of the pipework, which counts the pulses, as shown in Figure 4.3.5. Since a turbine flowmeter consists of a number of moving parts, there are several influencing factors that need to be considered: The temperature, pressure and viscosity of the fluid being measured. The lubricating qualities of the fluid. The bearing wear and friction. The conditional and dimensional changes of the blades. The inlet velocity profile and the effects of swirl. The pressure drop through the flowmeter.

Because of these factors, calibration of turbine flowmeters must be carried out under operational conditions. In larger pipelines, to minimise cost, the turbine element can be installed in a pipework bypass, or even for the flowmeter body to incorporate a bypass or shunt, as shown in Figure 4.3.6. Bypass flowmeters comprise an orifice plate, which is sized to provide sufficient restriction for a sample of the main flow to pass through a parallel circuit. Whilst the speed of rotation of the turbine may still be determined as explained previously, there are many older units still in existence which have a mechanical output as shown in Figure 4.3.6.

Air flow meter

Anemometers measure the velocity or speed of the wind. Anemometers have three or four small, metal, hollow cups shaped like hemispheres that catch the wind while revolving around a metal rod by which they are each attached to by metal bars. An electrical device inside called the generator records the number of revolutions that the cups take per minute. Wind speed is measured in mph. There are two types of anemometers, hemispherical cup anemometers like what is described above and sonic anemometers. Sonic anemometers instantaneously measure both wind speed and direction. Sonic anemometers use how sound waves travel between transducers speed them up or slow them down 2). Gas meter A gas meter is used to measure the volume of fuel gases such as natural gas and propane. Gas meters are used at residential, commercial, and industrial buildings that consume fuel gas supplied by a gas utility. Gases are more difficult to measure than liquids, as measured volumes are highly affected by temperature and pressure. Gas meters measure a defined volume, regardless of the pressurized quantity or quality of the gas flowing through the meter. Temperature, pressure and heating value compensation must be made to measure actual amount and value of gas moving through a meter. Several different designs of gas meters are in common use, depending on the volumetric flow rate of gas to be measured, the range of flows anticipated, the type of gas being measured and other factors.

A residential gas meter of the usual diaphragm style Oil meter Kent Oil Meters are accurate, reliable and economical way of obtaining all the information a user needs to control oil consumption in Generators, Boilers and to measure exact oil receipts. Wherever oil is received, stored and used, Kent Oil Meters measure, totalise and records flows precisely. Kent oil meters can be installed in the pipeline and would totalise the flow of oil flowing through the line.

analysis
The analysis of gasses requires special sampling and analytical techniques. At WCAS we analyze a variety of gas mixtures, high purity gasses, air samples, landfill gasses, etc. Several of our instruments have sampling manifolds for gasses to monitor the size and pressure of the sample, using anywhere from 10 mL to 500 mL of sample under high pressures or partial vacuum. The analyses are generally performed using GCMS or GC with special columns and detectors.

3) Orsat Apparatus
The Orsat apparatus is used to measure volumes of carbon dioxide, oxygen and carbon monoxide within a fixed volume of a sample gas (100cc). However it is not particularly accurate at detecting very low concentrations. The Orsat apparatus works using a very simple method. To find the volume of a particular gas within the sample a fixed volume of the sampled gas is passed through a specific solution which absorbs only the required gas. The remaining volume of the gas can then be re- measured and compared with the original volume to find the proportion of a specific gas within the sample. The sampled gas is passed through a sequence of solutions each removing one of the gases and the remaining volume calculated afterwards. A solution of caustic potash is used to absorb the carbon dioxide, a mixture of pyrogallic acid, caustic potash and water is used to absorb the oxygen, and to remove the carbon monoxide a solution of cuprous chloride is used.