chap-02 B.V.

Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15

Chapter 2
Sequences and Series
INTRODUCTION
The study of convergence and divergence of a se-
quence, which is an ordered list of things, is a prereq-
uisit for innite series. The unit square in the gure
can be expressed as an innite (geometric) series
1 =
1
2
+
1
4
+
1
8
+
1
16
+
1
32
+
Several functions can be expressed as innite
polynomials (known as power series) using
the concept of innite series. By Fourier series,
certain functions can be represented as an innite
sum of trigonometric functions. Using innite
series, differential equations in problems of signal
transmission, chemical diffusion, vibration and heat
ow can be solved and non elementary integrals
evaluated. The innite process of summing of an
innite series is a puzzle for centuries convergence
and divergence of innite series plays an important
role in engineering applications.
1
2
1
4
1
8
1
16
2.1 SEQUENCES
A sequence is a function from the domain set of
natural numbers N to any set S.
Real sequence is a function from N to R,
the set of real numbers; denoted by f : N R.
Thus the real sequence f is set of all ordered
pairs {n, f (n)}|{n = 1, 2, 3, . . .} i.e., set of all pairs
(n, f (n)) with n a positive integer.
Notation: Since the domainof a sequence is always
the same (the set of positive integers) a sequence may
be written as {f (n)} instead of {n, f (n)}.
Examples:
1.
_
n,
1
n
_
=
_
1
n
_
=
_
1,
1
2
,
1
3
,
1
4
, . . .
1
n
. . .
_
2.
_
n,
1
2
n1
_
=
_
1
2
n1
_
=
_
1,
1
2
,
1
2
2
,
1
2
3
,
1
2
4
, . . . ,
1
2
n1
, . . .
_
constant sequence where range is singleton set {c},
c = constant.
Example: {3, 3, 3, 3, . . .}
Null sequence {0, 0, 0, . . . , 0, . . .}
Asequence is also denoted by {a
n
} whose ordinate
y = a
n
at the abscissa x = n. Thus in a sequence for
each positive integer n, a number a
n
is assigned and
is denoted as a
n
or (a
n
) or
{a
n
} ={a(1), a(2), a(3), . . . , a(n), . . .}
={a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . , a
n
, . . .}
Here a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, . . . a
n
, are known as the rst, second,
third and nth terms of the sequence.
Innite sequence is a sequence in which the
number of terms is innite, andis denotedby{a
n
}

n=1
.
Onthe other hand, nite sequence denotedby{a
n
}
m
n=1
contains only a nite number of terms (m =nite).
Bounded sequence A sequence {a
n
} is said to
be bounded if there exists numbers m and M such
that m < a
n
< M for every n, otherwise it is said to
be unbounded.
Monotonic sequence
A sequence {a
n
} is said to be
a. monotonically increasing if a
n+1
a
n
for
every n
i.e., a
1
a
2
a
3
a
n
a
n+1

2.1
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
2.2 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
b. monotonically decreasing if a
n+1
a
n
for
every n
i.e., a
1
a
2
a
3
a
n
a
n+1

c. monotonic if it is either monotonically
increasing or monotonically decreasing.
Example:
_
1
n
_
=
_
1,
1
2
,
1
3
,
1
4
,
1
5
, . . .
_
bounded
since 0<a
n
=
1
n
< 1 and monotonically decreasing.
Example: {2
n
} = {2, 2
2
, 2
3
, 2
4
, . . .} unbounded
since 2
n
becomes larger and larger as n comes large
and monotonically increasing.
2.2 LIMIT OF A SEQUENCE
Consider a sequence {a
n
} =
_
3 +
1
n
_
.
Plotting the values
n: 1 2 4 5 10 50 100 1000 10000 100000. . .
a
n
: 4 3.5 3.25 3.2 3.1 3.02 3.01 3.001 3.0001 3.00001. . .
As n increases, a
n
= 3 +
1
n
becomes closer to 3.
Thus the difference (or distance) between 3 +
1
n
and
3 becomes smaller and smaller as n becomes larger
and larger i.e., we can make 3 +
1
3
and 3 as close
as we please, by choosing an appropriately (suf-
ciently) large value for n, i.e., the terms of a sequence
cluster around this (limit) point. However note that
3 +
1
n
= 3 for any value of n.
Limit: A number L is said to be a limit of a
sequence {a
n
} and is denoted as
lim
As n
a
n
= lim
n
a
n
= lim a
n
= L
if for every > 0 there exists N such that
|a
n
L| < for all n N.
Note: A sequence may have a unique limit or may
have more thanone limit or maynot have a limit at all.
Result: A monotonic sequence always has a limit
(may be nite or innite).
2.3 CONVERGENCE, DIVERGENCE AND
OSCILLATION OF A SEQUENCE
Convergent A sequence {a
n
} is said to be conver-
gent if it has a nite limit i.e., lim
n
a
n
= L =nite
unique limit value.
Divergent If lim
n
a
n
= innite = .
Oscillatory If limit of a
n
is not unique (oscillates
nitely) or (oscillates innitely).
Examples:
1.
_
1
n
2
_
convergent since lim
n
1
n
2
=0=nite unique
2. {n:} divergent since lim
n
n :=
3. {(1)
n
} oscillates nitely, since
lim
n
(1)
n
=
_
1, n even
1, n odd.
4. {(1)
n
n
2
} oscillates innitely,
since limit = .
Result 1: If sequence {a
n
} converges to limit Land
{b
n
} converges to L

then
a. {a
n
+b
n
} converges to L +L

b. {ca
n
} converges to CL
c. {a
n
b
n
} converges to L L

d. {
a
n
b
n
} converges to
L
L

, provided L

= 0.
Result 2: Every convergent sequence is bounded.
Example:
_
1
n
_
is convergent and is bounded
a
n
=
1
n
< 1, for every n.
Result 3: The converse is not true i.e., a bounded
sequence may not be convergent.
Example: {(1)
n
} is oscillatory (has more than one
limit but is bounded since 1 (1)
n
1.
Result 4: A bounded monotonic sequence is con-
vergent.
Example:
_
1
n
2
_
is bounded since
1
n
2
1 for every n
and monotonically decreasing since
1
n
2
>
1
(n+1)
2
for
every n. Hence the sequence is convergent because
lim
n
a
n
= lim
n
1
n
2
= 0 = nite.
Useful Standard Limits
1. a. lim
n
1
n
= 0, b. lim
n
1
n
2
= 0, c. lim
n
1

n
= 0
2. lim
n
n
1/n
= 1
3. lim
n
log n
n
= 0
4. lim
n
_
1 +
x
n
_
n
= e
x
, for any x
5. lim
n
x
1/n
= 1 for x > 0
6. (a) lim
n
x
n
=0 for |x| < 1 i.e. 1<x <1.
(b) lim
n
x
n
n!
= 0 for any x. In formulas (5) and
6(b) x remains xed as n
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
Determine the nature of the following sequences
whose nth term a
n
is
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
SEQUENCES AND SERIES 2.3
Example 1: a
n
=
n
2
n
2n
2
+n
Solution:
lim
n
a
n
= lim
n
n
2
n
2n
2
+n
= lim
n
1
1
n
2 +
1
n
=
1
2
sequence is convergent since the limit of the se-
quence is unique and nite.
Example 2: a
n
= tanh n.
Solution:
lim
n
a
n
= lim
n
tanh n = lim
n
sinh n
cosh n
= lim
n
e
n
e
n
e
n
+e
n
= lim
n
e
2n
1
e
2n
+1
= lim
n
1
1
e
2n
1 +
1
e
2n
= 1 so convergent.
Example 3: a
n
= e
n
.
Solution: lim
n
e
n
= so divergent.
Example 4: a
n
= 2 +(1)
n
.
Solution:
lim
n
a
2n
= lim
n
{2 +(1)
2n
} = 2 +1 = 3
lim
n
a
2n1
= lim
n
{2 +(1)
2n1
} = 2 1 = 1
sequence oscillates nitely since it has more than
one nite (two) limits.
EXERCISE
1.
2n+1
13n
Ans. convergent, limit =
2
3
2. 1 +
(1)
n
n
Ans. convergent, limit = 1
3.
1+(1)
n
n
Ans. convergent, limit = 0
4. sin n Ans. divergent, limit =
5.
ln n
n
Ans. convergent, limit = 0
Hint: Apply L Hospitals rule.
6.
1
3
n
Ans. convergent, limit =
3
2
7.
(1)
n1
n
3
n
Ans. convergent
8.
_
n
n+1
_
2
Ans. convergent
9.
(n+1)
2
(n+1)!
Ans. convergent
10. 2n Ans. divergent, limit =
11. 1 +
1
n
Ans. convergent, limit = 1
12. [n +(1)
n
]
1
Ans. convergent.
2.4 INFINITE SERIES
Differential Equations are frequently solved by
using innite series. Fourier series, Fourier-Bessel
series, etc. expansions involve innite series. Tran-
scendental functions (trigonometric, exponential,
logarithmic, hyperpolic, etc.) can be expressed
conveniently in terms of innite series. Many prob-
lems that cannot be solved in terms of elementary
(algebraic and transcendental) functions can also be
solved in terms of innite series.
Series
Given a sequence of numbers u
1
, u
2
, u
3
, . . . u
n
, . . .
the expression
u
1
+u
2
+u
3
+ +u
n
+ (1)
which is the sum of the terms of the sequence, is
known as a numerical series or simply series. The
numbers u
1
, u
2
, u
3
, . . . u
n
are known as the rst,
second, third,. . ., nth term of the series (1).
Innite Series
If the number of terms in the series (1) is innite, then
the series is called an innite series (otherwise nite
series when the number of terms is nite). Innite
series (1) is usually denoted as

n=1
u
n
or

u
n
(1)
The main aimof this chapter is to study the nature (or
behaviour) of convergence, divergence or oscillation
of a given innite series. For this purpose, dene {S
n
}
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
2.4 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
the sequence of partial sums as
S
1
=u
1
S
2
=u
1
+u
2
S
3
=u
1
+u
2
+u
3
.
.
.
S
n
=u
1
+u
2
+u
3
+ +u
n
=
n

k=1
u
k
Here S
n
is known as the nth partial sum of the
series, i.e., it is the sum of the rst n terms of the
series (1).
Convergence
An innite series

n=1
u
n
is said to be convergent if

n=1
u
n
= lim
n
_
n

k=1
u
k
_
= lim
n
S
n
=nite limit value=S
Here S is known as the sum (value) of the series (1).
Divergence
If lim
n
S
n
does not exist (i.e., lim
n
S
n
= ) then
series (1) is said to be divergent.
Oscillation
When lim
n
S
n
tends to more than one limit (non
unique) or to then series (1) is said to be os-
cillatory. Thus the behaviour of convergence, diver-
gence or oscillation of a series is the bahaviour of its
sequence of partial sums {S
n
}.
Example: 1 +
1
4
+
1
16
+
1
64
+
Here u
n
=
1
4
n1
so lim
n
S
n
= lim
n
1
1
4
n
1
1
4
=
lim
n
4
3
_
1
1
4
n
_
=
4
3
= nite,
series converges.
Example: 1
2
+2
2
+3
2
+ +n
2
+
lim
n
S
n
= lim
n
n(n+1)(2n+1)
6
= , series diverges.
Example: 7 4 3 +7 4 3 +7 4 3 +
lim
n
S
n
= 0 or 7 or 3 according as the number of
terms is 3m, 3m+1 or 3m+2.
Since the limit is not unique, series oscillates
(nitely).
Example: 12+34+ +(1)
n1
n+
lim
n
S
n
=
n
2
= if n is even
lim
n
S
n
=
n +1
2
= + if n is odd
series oscillates (innitely).
Some General Properties of Series
1. If a series

u
n
converges to a sum s then the
series c

u
n
also converges to the sumcs, where
c is a constant.
2. If the series

u
n
and

v
n
converges to the sums
s

and s

respectively then the series

(u
n
+v
n
)
and

(u
n
v
n
) also converge to s

+s

and
s

respectively. Addition or subtraction of two

series is done by termwise addition or termwise
subtraction.
3. The convergence of a series is not affected by
the suppression (deletion) or addition of a nite
number of its terms, since the deletion or addition
of the sum of these nite number of terms (which
is a nite quantity) does not alter the behaviour
of the sum of the series.
2.5 NECESSARY CONDITION
FOR CONVERGENCE
Necessary condition for convergence of a series

u
n
is that, its nth term u
n
approaches zero as n
becomes innite i.e.,
If series converges, then lim
n
u
n
= 0.
Important Note: This is not a test for convergence.
Proof: Let s be the sum of this convergent series.
Also let S
n
and S
n1
be the nth and (n 1)th partial
sums of the given series so that
u
n
= S
n
S
n1
Taking limit, we have
lim
n
u
n
= lim
n
(S
n
S
n1
) = lim
n
S
n
lim
n
S
n1
=s s = 0.
Note 1: The converse of the above result is not
true, i.e., the above result is not a sufcient condition.
From the fact that the nth term u
n
approaches zero,
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
SEQUENCES AND SERIES 2.5
it does not follow that the series converges, for the
series may diverge.
If lim
n
u
n
= 0, then the series may converge or
may diverge.
Example: 1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+
1
4
+ +
1
n
+ is a di-
vergent series although its nth term approaches zero
i.e.,
lim
n
u
n
= lim
n
1
n
= 0
Note 2: Preliminary test for divergence.
If the nth term of a series does not tend to zero as
n , then the series diverges i.e.,
if lim
n
u
n
= 0 then series diverges.
Example:
1
2
+
2
3
+
3
4
+
4
5
+ +
n
n +1
+
Since lim
n
u
n
= lim
n
n
n+1
= 1 = 0 by the above
preliminary test, the given series diverges.
2.6 STANDARD INFINITE SERIES:
GEOMETRIC SERIES AND
HARMONIC SERIES
Geometric Series Test

n=0
ar
n
= a +ar +ar
2
+ar
3
+ +ar
n1
+ ,
with a = 0 (1)
is a geometric series, whose terms form a geometric
progression with the rst term a and the common
ratio r. For this series
S
n
=
a ar
n
1 r
=
a
1 r

ar
n
1 r
Case 1: When |r| < 1 then lim
n
r
n
= 0 so that
lim
n
S
n
= lim
n
_
a
1 r

ar
n
1 r
_
=
a
1 r

a
1 r
0
=
a
1 r
= nite
Hence geometric series (1) converges to the
sum
a
1r
when |r| < 1 i.e., in the interval 1 <
r < 1.
Case 2: When |r| > 1 then lim
n
r
n
= so that
lim
n
S
n
= lim
n
_
a
1 r

ar
n
1 r
_
=
Thus series (1) diverges when |r| > 1
i.e., when r > 1 or r < 1.
Case 3: If r = 1, the series (1) reduces to
a +a +a +
consequently lim
n
S
n
= lim
n
(na) =
so series diverges.
Case 4: If r = 1, the series (1) reduces to
a a +a a +
In this case,
Sn =
_
0, when n is even
a, when n is odd
Thus lim
n
S
n
is not unique (more than one limit)
hence the series diverges.
Hence the geometric series converges only when
|r| < 1 and diverges for all other values of r.
Example: A ball is dropped from a height b feet
froma at surface. Each time the ball hits the ground
after falling a distance h it rebounds a distance rh
where 0 < r < 1 (Fig. 2.1).
Fig. 2.1
Find the total distance the ball travels if b = 4 ft
and r =
3
4
.
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
2.6 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
Solution: The total distance travelled by the ball is
given by the innite geometric series
s =b +2br +2br
2
+2br
3
+
s =b +
2br
1 r
= b
(1 +r)
(1 r)
For b=4, and r=
3
4
, the distances =4
_
1+
3
4
1
3
4
_
=28 ft.
Harmonic Series of Order p or
p-Harmonic Series or p-Series Test

n=1
1
n
p
=
1
1
p
+
1
2
p
+
1
3
p
+ +
1
n
p
+
This series converges for p > 1 and diverges for
p 1. An easy proof of this test is postponed and is
given in section (1.9) using Integral test.
2.7 TESTS FOR CONVERGENCE
AND DIVERGENCE
Although the behaviour of a series is found from the
behaviour of its sequence of partial sums {S
n
}, most
often it is not possible to nd S
n
, the nth partial sum
and even if it is found, the evaluation of its limit
is cumbersome. Instead simple, practical and useful
test for convergence of a series are presented here
which depending on the individual terms of the series
rather than their sums.
A given innite series is classied as
a. series of positive terms or positive series
b. alternating series
c. plus- and -minus series
d. power series
In the sections 1.8 to 1.14, only series of positive
terms are considered i.e.,
u
1
+u
2
+u
3
+ +u
n
+ with u
n
> 0 for
every n > N where N is a xed positive integer
(baring few nite negative terms at the beginning of
the series).
Example:
8 6 3 2 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 + +n +
Note: Positive series either converge or diverge
(becomes innite) but do not oscillate.
2.8 COMPARISON TEST: ONLY FOR
SERIES WITH POSITIVE TERMS
Comparison test consists of comparison between
a given (unknown) series

n=1
u
n
= u
1
+u
2
+u
3
+ +u
n
+ (1)
and a (known) auxiliary series

n=1
v
n
= v
1
+v
2
+v
3
+ +v
n
+ (2)
whose nature (of convergence or divergence) is
known. Let the two series be with positive terms i.e.,
u
n
> 0 and v
n
> 0 for every n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . . .
Comparison Test for Convergence
If u
n
v
n
for every nand

v
n
converges then

u
n
also converges.
Proof: Let S
n
=
n

k=1
u
k
and
n
=
n

k=1
v
k
then
S
n

n
since u
n
v
n
for every n taking limit
lim
n
S
n
lim
n

n
= = nite sum
since

v
n
converges. Hence lim
n
S
n
has a nite limit
value s and therefore the series

u
n
converges.
Example:

u
n
=

n=1
1
n!
=
1
1!
+
1
2!
+
1
3!
+
1
4!
+
=
1
1
+
1
2
+
1
6
+
1
24
+
choose

v
n
=

1
2
n
=
1
2
+
1
4
+
1
8
+
1
16
+
which is a convergent geometric series with common
ratio r =
1
2
since
u
n
=
1
n!
< v
n
=
1
2
n
for every n,
by comparison test

u
n
also converges.
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
SEQUENCES AND SERIES 2.7
Comparison Test for Divergence
If u
n
v
n
for every n and

v
n
diverges then

u
n
also diverges.
Proof: From the condition u
n
v
n
, it follows that
S
n

n
. Taking the limit lim
n
S
n
lim
n

n
=
since

v
n
is a divergent series. Hence lim
n
S
n
=
and therefore

u
n
also diverges.
Example: Since every term of the series
1 +
1

2
+
1

3
+
1

4
+ +
1

n
+
is greater than the corresponding term of the diver-
gent harmonic series (with p = 1) namely
1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+ +
1
n
+
the original given series

n=1
1

n
also diverges.
Limit form of the comparison test
Let

u
n
and

v
n
be two series of positive terms
only. Then the series

u
n
and

v
n
either both con-
verge or both diverge together if
lim
n
u
n
v
n
= nite value = m = 0.
Note 1: The above comparison tests for conver-
gence and divergence are valid only when both the
series

u
n
and

v
n
are series with positive terms.
Note 2: Most often the geometric series

n=0
ar
n
and the p-harmonic series

n=1
1
n
p
are chosen as

v
n
(known) auxiliary series for
comparison.
Note 3: For the comparison test in the limit form
which is most useful, the nth term v
n
of the (known)
auxiliary series is chosen equal to the term of u
n
which is of highest degree in
1
n
.
Note 4: Although comparison test is most useful
basic test from which other tests are derived, it is
more often difcult, without experience, to nd a
suitable known series for comparison.
Example: u
n
=
n
2
+3n+1
n
3
, choose v
n
=
n
2
n
3
=
1
n
.
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
Test for convergence of the following series (1 to 4):
Example 1:

1
(n2
n
)
Solution: Since n2
n
2
n
so that
1
n2
n

1
2
n
for
all n 1. As the geometric series
_
with a = 1,
r =
1
2
_ _
1
2
_
n
is convergent so is the given series
by comparison of series.
Example 2:

(n +1)
1
n

1
2
Solution: For n 1, n
3
2
+n
1
2
> n
3
2
so that
1
(n +1)n
1
2
<
1
n
3
2
for all n 1
Thus the given series converges since the series
compared

1
n
3/2
is a convergent p-series with
p =
3
2
> 1.
Example 3:

n=1
1
n!
Solution: For n > 3, 2
n
< n! so
1
n!
<
1
2
n
.
Since
_
1
2
_
n
is convergent geometric series (with
a = 1 and r =
1
2
) by comparison the given series is
also convergent.
Example 4:

n=1
_
2
n
+3
3
n
+1
_1
2
Solution: Here the nth term is
u
n
=
_
2
n
+3
3
n
+1
_1
2
For comparison choose a series with nth term
v
n
=
_
2
n
3
n
_1
2
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
2.8 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
so
lim
n
u
n
v
n
= lim
n
_
2
n
+3
3
n
+1

3
n
2
n
_1
2
= lim
n
_
1 +
3
2
n
1 +
1
3
n
_1
2
=1
Thus both the series

u
n
and

v
n
have the same
nature of convergence i.e., both converge or both
diverge. Since v
n
=

__
2
3
_
n
is a geometric
series with a = 1 and r =
_
2
3
< 1 is convergent so
the given series is also convergent.
Example 5:

n=1
_
n
4
+1
_
n
4
1
Solution: Since (n
4
+1) (n
4
1) = 2, we have
__
n
4
+1 +
_
n
4
1
_ __
n
4
+1
_
n
4
1
_
= 2
Thus the nth term of the given series is
u
n
=
__
n
4
+1
_
n
4
1
_
=
2
_
_
n
4
+1 +
_
n
4
1
_
For comparison, choose the series with nth term
v
n
=
2
n
2
Then
lim
n
u
n
v
n
=
2
_
_
n
4
+1 +
_
n
4
1
_
n
2
2
= lim
n
1
_
1 +
1
n
4
+
_
1
1
n
4
=
1
2
< 1
so both the series either converge or diverge.
Since

v
n
= 2

1
n
2
is a convergent p-series
(with p = 2 > 1) so the given series

u
n
also
converges.
Example 6:

n=1
1
(a+n)
p
(b+n)
q
where a, b, p, q are
all positive.
Solution: Choose the auxiliary harmonic series

v
n
=

1
n
p+q
lim
n
u
n
v
n
= lim
n
1
(a +n)
p
(b +n)
q
n
p+q
= lim
n
1
_
a
n
+1
_
p
_
b
n
+1
_
q
= 1
Hence

u
n
and

v
n
both converge or diverge
together. But

v
n
is convergent for p +q > 1 and
divergent for p +q 1.
EXERCISE
Test for convergence of the following series (1 to 5)
whose nth term is:
1. 1/(n(n +2)) Hint: Compare

1
n
2
Ans. convergent
2. (n +1)/(n(n +2)) Hint: Compare

1
n+2
Ans. divergent
3. 1/(2n)
n
Hint: Compare

1
2
n
Ans. convergent
4. 1/

2n Hint: Compare

n
Ans. divergent
5. 1/ ln n Hint: Compare

1
n
Ans. divergent
6.

n=3

2n
2
5n+1
4n
3
7n
2
+2
Hint: Compare

n=3
1
n
2
Ans. convergent
7.

n=1
sin
2
n
2
n
Hint: Compare

1
2
n
Ans. convergent
8.

n
2
+1
n
3
+1
Hint: Compare

1
n
Ans. divergent
9.

n=1
1
n
n
Hint: Compare

1
2
n
Ans. convergent
10.

n=1
tan
_
1
n
_
Hint: Compare

1
n
Ans. divergent
11.

_

n
2
+1

n
2
1
_
Hint: Compare

1
n
Ans. divergent
12.

n=1
1
2
n
+3
n
Hint: Compare
_
1
3
_
n
Ans. convergent
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
SEQUENCES AND SERIES 2.9
13.

n=2
log n
2n
3
1
Hint: Compare

1
n
2
Ans. convergent
14.

n=1
1

n+

n+1
Hint: Compare

n
Ans. divergent
15.

n=1
1
x
n
+x
n
Hint: Compare

x
n
Ans. when x < 1 series is convergent; compare

x
n
when x > 1 series is convergent; For
x = 1 the series is divergent
16.

n
p
(n+1)
q
Hint: Compare

n
p
n
q
Ans. convergent when q > p +1 and divergent
when q p +1
17.
1.2
3.4.5
+
2.3
4.5.6
+
3.4
5.6.7
+
4.5
6.7.8
+
Hint: u
n
=
n(n+1)
(n+2)(n+3)(n+4)
, compare

1
n
Ans. divergent
18.

n=1
(n
1/3
+1)
p
(n
7/3
+n
5/2
+1)
13/11
Hint: Compare

n
p
3

65
22
Ans. convergent if p <
129
22
19.

n=1
x
n

n
Hint: Compare

n
1/2
,
Ans. for x = 1, series is divergent; for x < 1 con-
vergent, for x > 1, divergent.
20.

n=1
_
3

n
3
+1 n
_
Hint: Compare

n
2
Ans. convergent.
2.9 CAUCHYS INTEGRAL TEST
Theorem:
Let

u
n
= u
1
+u
2
+u
3
+ +u
n
+ (1)
be series with positive and non-increasing terms
i.e., u
1
u
2
u
3
(2)
Let f (x) be a continuous non-increasing function
such that
f (1) = u
1
, f (2) = u
2
, f (3) = u
3
, . . . , f (n) = u
n
(3)
Then the improper integral
_

1
f (x) dx (4)
and the innite series (1) are both nite (in which
case series (1) is convergent) or both innite (in
which case series (1) is divergent).
Proof: Plot the terms u
1
, u
2
, u
3
, . . . of the series
(1) on the y- axis so that the rst escribed rectangle
is of area u
2
while the rst inscribed rectangle is of
area u
1
.
Fig. 2.2
Thus the area under the curve y = f (x), above
the x-axis and between any two ordinates x = a and
x = b lies between the sum of the set of inscribed
(solid) and escribed (dotted) rectangles formed
by the ordinates at x = 1, 2, 3, . . ., as shown in
Fig. 2.2. Hence,
(S
n+1
u
1
)
_
n+1
1
f (x) dx S
n
As n the rst inequality becomes
lim
n
S
n+1
lim
n
_
n+1
1
f (x) dx +u
1
=
_

1
f (x) dx +u
1
So if the integral on the R.H.S. is nite, then
lim
n
S
n+1
= nite, therefore series (1) converges.
As n , from the second inequality
lim
n
_
n+1
1
f (x) dx =
_

1
f (x) dx lim
n
S
n
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
2.10 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
It follows that if the integral on the L.H.S. is innite
then lim
n
S
n
= innite therefore series (1) diverges.
p-Series Test: Nature of p-harmonic Series
Using Integral Test
Consider the p-harmonic series

n=1
1
n
p
=
1
1
p
+
1
2
p
+
1
3
p
+ +
1
n
p
+
To apply integral test consider f (x) =
1
x
p
then the
improper integral is
_

1
f (x) dx =
_

1
dx
x
p
= lim
n
_
n
1
dx
x
p
=
_
lim
n
1
1p
x
1p
ln x|
n
1
when p = 1
lim
n
ln x |
n
1
when p = 1
=
_

_
1
p1
= nite when p > 1
= innite when p < 1
= innite when p = 1
Thus the p-harmonic series by integral test is conver-
gent when p > 1 and divergent when p 1.
Note 1: Integral test is used when the terms of the
series are positive and non increasing and when the
evaluation of the integral is easy.
Note 2: The lower limit in the improper integral (4)
need not be 1 but any number N at which the integral
is nite.
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
Using integral test, determine the convergence of the
series:
Example 1: 1 +
1
3
+
1
5
+ +
1
2n1
+
Solution: Take f (x) =
1
2x1
Applying integral test
_

1
dx
2x 1
=
1
2
ln (2x 1)

1
= , so divergent.
Example 2: sin +
1
4
sin

2
+
1
9
sin

3
+
Solution: Here u
n
=
1
n
2
sin

n

Taking f (x) =
1
x
2
sin

x
and applying integral test
_

1
sin /x
x
2
dx =
_

0
sin t dt where

x
= t
=cos t

0
= 1 +1 = 2 so convergent.
Example 3:
1
2
+
4
9
+
9
28
+
Solution: Here the nth term is n
2
/(n
3
+1) so take
f (x) =
x
2
x
3
+1
using integral test.
_

1
x
2
x
3
+1
dx =
1
3
ln (x
3
+1)

1
= so divergent.
Example 4: e
1
+2e
2
+3e
3
+ +ne
n
+
Solution: with f (x) = xe
x
, Integral Test gives
_

1
xe
x
dx =xe
x
e
x
by integration by parts
=0 +e
1
+0 +e
1
=
2
e
, so convergent
since lim
x
xe
x
= lim
x
x
e
x
= 0, by L Hospitals rule
and lim
x
1
e
x
= 0.
EXERCISE
Apply integral test to test for convergence of the
following series:
1. 1 +
1

2
+ +
1

n
+
Ans. f (x) =

x, divergent
2.
1
2
+
1
6
+
1
12
+ +
1
n(n+1)
+
Ans. f (x) =
1
x(x+1)
convergent
3.
1
3
+
1
15
+
1
35
+ +
Hint: u
n
=
1
4n
2
1
=
1
(2n1)(2n+1)
, so f (x)
=
1
4x
2
1
Ans. convergent
4.

n=1
n
n
2
+1
Ans. divergent
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
SEQUENCES AND SERIES 2.11
5.

2n
3
n
4
+3
Ans. divergent
6.

n=2
1
n log n
Ans. divergent
7.

n=1
1
n
2
+1
Ans. convergent
8.

n=1
1
n
2
Ans. convergent
9.

n=1
1
n

n
2
1
Ans. convergent
10.

n=2
1
n(log n)
Hint: Integral =
1
(p1)(log 2)
p1
for p > 1
= for 0 p 1.
Ans. convergent for p > 1
divergent for 0 p 1.
11.

n=1
e
n
e
2n
+9
Ans. convergent
12.

n=1
1

n
2
+9
Ans. divergent
13.

n=3
1
n
2
4
Ans. convergent
14.

n=1
1
10n
Ans. divergent
15.

n=0
e
n
2
Hint: Since
_

0
e
x
2
dx cannot be evaluated,
show that it is nite by comparing it with
_

0
e
x
dx.
Ans. convergent
16.
50
1.2
+
50
2.3
+
50
3.4
+
50
4.5
+
Hint: f (x) =
50
x(x+1)
, limit: 50 ln 2
Ans. convergent.
2.10 DALEMBERTS

RATIO TEST
Theorem:
Let

u
n
= u
1
+u
2
+u
3
+ +u
n
+ (1)

Jean le-Rond dAlembert (17171783) French Mathematician.

be a series with positive terms. The ratio
u
n+1
u
n
measures the rate or growth of the terms of the series
(1),
Let lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
= m (2)
Then
a. the series (1) converges if m < 1
b. the series (1) diverges if m > 1
c. the ratio test fails when m = 1
i.e., series may converge or diverge. Use a different
test.
Proof:
a. Let m < 1 and consider a number q such that
m < q < 1. For n N, where N is a large inte-
ger,
u
n+1
u
n
< q,
so that u
N+1
< qu
N
, u
N+2
< qu
N+1
< q
2
u
N
,
u
N+3
< q
u
n+2
< q
3
u
N
, etc. Thus for n N, the
given series reduces to (leaving the rst N terms)
=u
N
+u
N+1
+u
N+2
+u
N+3
+
=u
N
_
1 +
u
N+1
u
N
+
u
N+2
u
N
+
u
N+3
u
N
+
_
< u
N
(1 +q +q
2
+q
3
+ ) (since q < 1)
=
u
N
1 q
= nite quantity.
Hence

u
n
is convergent.
b. Let m > 1, from limit (2) for n N,
u
n+1
u
n
> 1,
so that u
n+1
> u
n
for all n N, which means
that the terms of the series increase after the
N +1th term. For this reason, the general term
u
n
of the series does not tend to zero. Hence the
series diverges.
c. When m = 1, ratio test fails.
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
2.12 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
Counter Example: For the convergent series

n=1
1
n
2
, lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
= lim
n
1
(n +1)
2
n
2
= 1
Also for the divergent series

n=1
1
n
, lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
= lim
n
1
n +1
n = 1
Thus ratio test can not be used to distinguish between
convergent and divergent series when m = 1
Important Note 1: Ratio test fails when the limit
(2) does not exist or equals to 1. When ratio test fails,
Raabes test may be used.
Note 2: Series diverges when lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
= since
u
n+1
u
n
> 1 for n N.
Note 3: Ratio test is concerned only with value of
limit (2) without any reference to the magnitude of
the ratio
u
n+1
u
n
.
Even if lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
= 1 but
u
n+1
u
n
> 1 for n N
then series diverges because general term does not
approach zero as n .
Note 4: Even though
u
n+1
u
n
< 1 for all n, the series

u
n
is not convergent unless lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
< 1
Example: Although
u
n+1
u
n
=
n
n+1
< 1 for all n the
series

u
n
=

1
n
, diverges since n
u
n+1
u
n
=
lim
n
n
n+1
= 1.
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
Use D Alemberts ratio test to test for convergence
of the following series whose nth term is:
Example 1: (n +3)!/(3!n!3
n
)
Solution:
lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
= lim
n
(n +4)!
3!(n +1)!3
n+1

3!n!3
n
(n +3)!
= lim
n
n +4
(n +1) 3
=
1
3
lim
n
1 +
4
n
1
n
+1
=
1
3
< 1
series is convergent.
Example 2: (2n)!/(n!)
2
Solution:
lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
= lim
n
(2n +2)!
[(n +1)!]
2

(n!)
2
(2n)!
= lim
n
(2n +1)(2n +2)
(n +1)
2
= lim
n
2
_
2n +1
n +1
_
= 2 lim
n
_
2 +
1
n
1 +
1
n
_
=2.2 = 4 > 1
series is divergent.
Example 3:
n
3
+a
2
n
+a
Solution:
lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
= lim
n
(n +1)
3
+a
2
n+1
+a

2
n
+a
n
3
+a
= lim
n
_
1 +
1
n
_
3
+
a
n
3
_
2 +
a
2
n
_
_
1 +
a
2
n
_
_
1 +
a
n
3
_
=
1
2
< 1
series is convergent.
Example 4: (4n
2
1)
1
Solution: Here the nth term u
n
= (4n
2
1)
1
=
1
(2n1)(2n+1)
Applying ratio test, we have
lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
=
1
(2n +1)(2n +3)

(2n 1)(2n +1)
1
= lim
n
2
1
n
2 +
3
n
= 1
so ratio test fails
Comparison test:
since n
2
4n
2
1 for any n > 0
1
n
2

1
4n
2
1
since

1
n
2
is a harmonic series (with p = 2) which
is convergent, so is the series

1
4n
2
1
.
Example 5:
_
x
2n
n/(n
2
+1)
_ 1
2
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
SEQUENCES AND SERIES 2.13
Solution: Applying ratio test,
lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
= lim
n
x
n+1

_
n+1
(n+1)
2
+1
_1
2
_
n
2
+1
n
_1
2

1
x
n
= lim
n
x
_
_
_
_
1+
1
n
_
_
1+
1
n
_
2
+
1
n

_
1+
1
n
2
_
_
_
_
1
2
=x.
For x < 1 series converges, while it diverges for
x > 1.
When x = 1, the nth term of the series
_
n
n
2
+1
choose the series v
n
=
1
n
which is divergent.
Since n
3
> n
2
+1 or
n
n
2
+1
>
1
n
2
or
_
n
n
2
+1
>
_
1
n
2
=
1
n
for every n > 1.
Thus the series with nth term
_
n
n
2
+1
is divergent.
Hence series converges for x < 1 and diverges for
x 1.
Example 6:
(1+)(1+2)(1+3)++(1+n)
(1+)(1+2)(1+3)++(1+n)
Solution: Applying ratio test,
lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
=
(1+)(1+2)(1+3)+ (1+n)(1+(n+1))
(1+)(1+2)(1+3)+ +(1+n)(1+(n+1))

(1 +) (1 +n)
(1 +) (1 +n)
= lim
n
1 +(n +1)
1 +(n +1)
=

For

< 1 series converges

> 1 series diverges

For

= 1 i.e., = , the nth term of the series is

u
n
= 1
lim
n
u
n
= lim
n
1 = 1 = 0
so the series diverges for = .
Thus the givenseries converges for > > 0and
diverges for > 0.
EXERCISE
Use DAlemberts ratio test to test for the conver-
gence of the following series whose nth term is:
1. 10
n
/(n!)
2
Ans. convergent
2.
123n
357(2n+1)
Ans. convergent
3. n
2
/3
n
Ans. convergent
4. n!/n
n
Ans. convergent
5. 2
n
/n
2
Ans. divergent
6. n/(n +1) Ans. divergent
7. 1/(1 2 3 n) Ans. convergent
8. n!/(2n)! Ans. convergent
9. n!/100
n
Ans. divergent
10. (n +1)/(n 4
n1
) Ans. convergent
11. 3
2n
/2
3n
Ans. divergent
12. (n!)
3
e
3n
/(3n)! Ans. convergent
13.

2n!/n! Ans. divergent
14. n!/(1 3 5 (2n 1)) Ans. convergent
15. n!/10
2n1
Ans. divergent
In case, ratio test fails use other methods (say com-
parison test)
16. 1/(n(n +1)) Hint: S
n
= 1
1
n+1
Ans. convergent
17. (n
2
+1)/(n
3
+1) Hint: Compare
1
n
Ans. divergent
18. 1/(1 +e
1
n
) Hint: lim
n
u
n
=
1
2
Ans. divergent
19.
1
(1+n
2
)
Hint: Compare
1
n
2
Ans. convergent
20. (n +6)

1
3
Hint: Compare n
1
3
Ans. divergent
21.

n/(n
2
+1) Hint: Compare n

3
2
Ans. convergent
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
2.14 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
22. x
2n2
/((n +1)

n) Hint: Compare n

3
2
Ans. converges for x
2
1 and diverges for x
2
> 1
23. (2
n+1
2)x
n
/(2
n+1
+1)
Ans. converges for x < 1 and diverges for x 1
24. 1 3 5 (2n 1) x
n1
/(2 4 6 2n)
with x > 0
Ans. converges for x < 1 and diverges for x 1
25. n
2
x
n1
with x > 0
Hint: For x = 1, the series

n
2
is divergent
Ans. convergent when x < 1 and divergent when
x 1
26. x
n
/(n(n +1))
Hint: For x = 1, compare with

n
2
which
is convergent
Ans. convergent when x 1 and divergent when
x > 1
27. x
n
/(n(n +1)(n +2)) with x > 0
Ans. convergent if x 1 and divergent if x > 1
28. (

n
2
+1 n)x
2n
Ans. convergent if x
2
< 1 and divergent if x
2
1
29. [(n +1)/(n +2)]
n
x
n
Ans. convergent if x < 1 and divergent if x 1
30. x
2n1
/(2n 1)
Ans. converges for |x| < 1.
2.11 CAUCHYS* nth ROOT TEST
Theorem: For a positive series

n=1
u
n
= u
1
+u
2
+u
3
+ +u
n
+ (1)
Let lim
n
n

u
n
= f init e value = m
Then
a. series converges when m < 1
b. series diverges when m > 1
c. test fails when m = 1, use a different test

Augustin-Louis Cauchy (17891857) French mathematician.

Note: Cauchys root test is applied when u
n
in-
volves the nth power of itself as a whole.
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
Use Cauchys nth root test to test for convergence of
the following series:
Example 1:
_
n+1
2n+5
_
n
Solution: Here u
n
=
_
n+1
2n+5
_
n
Applying Cauchys nth root test,
lim
n
u
1/n
n
= lim
n
__
n +1
2n +5
_
n
_
1
n
= lim
n
n +1
2n +5
= lim
n
_
1 +
1
n
2 +
5
n
_
=
1
2
< 1
series is convergent.
Example 2:

_
1+
1
n
_
2n
e
n
Solution: u
n
=
_
1+
1
n
_
2n
e
n
lim
n
u
1
n
n
= lim
n
_
_
_
_
1 +
1
n
_
2n
e
n
_

_
1
n
= lim
n
_
1 +
1
n
_
2
e
=
1
e
1 = 0.3678796 < 1
series convergent.
Example 3: 1 +
x
2
+
x
2
3
2
+
x
3
4
3
+ where x>0
Solution: Here the nth term u
n
=
x
n
(n+1)
n
lim
n
u
1
n
n
= lim
n
_
x
n
(n +1)
n
_1
n
= lim
n
x
(n +1)
= x 0 = 0 < 1
for any x. So series is convergent for any x.
Example 4:

x
2n
2
n
with x > 0
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
SEQUENCES AND SERIES 2.15
Solution: u
n
=
x
2n
2
n
lim
n
u
1
n
n
= lim
n
_
x
2n
2
n
_1
n
= lim
n
x
2
2
=
x
2
2
series is convergent if
x
2
2
< 1, i.e., x <

2 = 1.4142
and divergent if
x
2
2
> 1, i.e., x >

2.
If x =

2, u
n
= 1 for any n, so lim
n
u
n
= 1 = 0.
Series is divergent.
EXERCISE
Use Cauchys nth root test to test for convergence of
the following series whose nth term is:
1. 2
n
/n
3
Ans. limit: 2, divergent
2.
_
1 +
1
n
_
n
2
Ans. limit:
1
e
, convergent
3. (log n)
n
Ans. converges for n > e
2
4. n
n
Ans. limit 0; convergent
5.
_
n+1
n+2
x
_
n
Ans. convergent for x < 1 and divergent for x 1
6.
_
1 +
1

n
_

n
3
2
e
Ans. limit e
1
; convergent
7.
_
nx
1+n
_
n
with x > 0
Ans. limit: x, convergent for x < 1 and divergent
for x 1
8. [(n +1)x]
n
/n
n+1
with x > 0
Ans. limit: x, convergent for x < 1 and divergent
for x 1
9.
_
_
n+1
n
_
n+1

_
n+1
n
_
_
n
Ans. limit:
1
e1
, convergent
10. ne
n
2
Ans. limit:
1
e
2
, convergent
2.12 RAABES

TEST (Higher Ratio Test)

Theorem: Let

u
n
be a positive series and let
lim
n
_
u
n
u
n+1
1
_
n = m

Joseph Ludwig Raabe (18011859) Swiss mathematician.

Then the given series converges when m > 1 and
diverges when m < 1. Test fails for m = 1.
Note: When Raabes test fails, Logarithmic ratio
test or De Morgans and Bertrands tests may be used.
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
Example 1: Test for convergence of the series
1 +a +
a(a +1)
1 2
+
a(a +1)(a +2)
1 2 3
+
Solution: The nth term of this series is
u
n
=
a(a +1)(a +2)(a +3) (a +n)
1 2 3 (n +1)
Applying ratio test, we have
lim
n
u
n
u
n+1
= lim
n
a(a +1)(a +2) (a +n)
(n +1)!

(n +2)!
a(a +1)(a +2) (a +n)(a +n +1)
= lim
n
(n +2)
(a +n +1)
= lim
n
_
_
1 +
2
n
1 +
_
a+1
n
_
_
_
=1
so ratio test fails.
Apply Raabes test,
lim
n
n
_
n +2
(a +n +1)
1
_
= lim
n
n(1 a)
(n +a +1)
= lim
n
(1 a)
_
1 +
a+1
n
_ = 1 a
series converges if 1 a > 1 i.e., a < 0 and diverges
if 1 a < 1 i.e., a > 0.
When a = 0, limit = 1. So series converges. Thus
series converges for a 0 and diverges for a > 0.
Example 2:
2
5
x +
24
58
x
2
+
246
5811
x
3
+ with
x > 0
Solution: Here the nth term of the series is
u
n
=
2 4 6 (2n)
5 8 11 (3n +2)
x
n
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
2.16 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
Applying ratio test,
lim
n
u
n
u
n+1
= lim
n
2 4 6 (2n)
5 8 11 (3n +2)
x
n

5 8 11 (3n +2)(3n +5)

2 4 6 (2n)(2n +2)x
n+1
=
1
2x
lim
n
_
3n +5
n +1
_
=
3
2x
so series is convergent for
3
2x
> 1 and diverges for
3
2x
< 1. For x =
3
2
, ratio test fails.
Applying Raabes test,
lim
n
n
_
u
n
u
n+1
1
_
= lim
n
n
_
1
3
(3n +5)
(n +1)
1
_
= lim
n
2n
3(n +1)
=
2
3
< 1
series diverges.
Thus the given series converges for x <
3
2
and
diverges for x
3
2
.
Example 3: 1+
1
2
+
13
24
+
135
246
+
Solution: Here u
n
=
135(2n1)
246(2n)
Applying ratio test,
lim
n
u
n
u
n+1
= lim
n
1 3 5 (2n 1)
2 4 6 (2n)

2 4 6 (2n)(2n +2)
1 3 5 (2n 1)(2n +1)
= lim
n
2(n +1)
2n +1
= 1
Ratio test fails
Applying Raabes test,
lim
n
n
_
u
n
u
n+1
1
_
= lim
n
n
_
2n +2
2n +1
1
_
= lim
n
n
2n +1
=
1
2
< 1
series is divergent.
EXERCISE
Test for convergence of the following series with
x > 0 and whose nth term is:
1.
135(2n3)
246(2n2)

a(a+1)(a+2)(a+n2)
b(b+1)(b+2)(b+n2)
with
a > 0, b > 0
Hint: Ratio test fails
By Raabes test, limit = b a +
1
2
.
Ans. series is convergent for b > a +
1
2
2. [1
2
5
2
9
2
(4n 3)
2
]/[4
2
8
2
12
2
(4n)
2
]
Ans. convergent
3.
135(2n1)
246(2n)

1
(2n+1)
Hint: Raabes test, limit =
6
4
> 1.
Ans. convergent
4. [4 7 (3n +1) x
n
]/n!
Hint: For x =
1
3
, ratio test fails.
In Raabes test, limit =
1
3
.
Ans. convergent for x <
1
3
and divergent for x
1
3
.
5. [2
2
4
2
6
2
(2n)
2
x
2n+2
]/[3 4 5 6 7
8 (2n +1)(2n +2)]
Hint: For x
2
= 1 (ratio test fails).
By Raabes test, limit =
3
2
Ans. convergent for x
2
1 and divergent for
x
2
> 1
6. [1 3 5 (2n 3)x
2n1
]/[2 4 6
(2n 2) (2n 1)]
Ans. convergent for x
2
1 and divergent for
x
2
> 1
7.
a(a+1)(a+2)(a+n1)b(b+1)(b+2)(b+n1)x
n
123nc(c+1)(c+2)(c+n1)
Ans. convergent for x < 1 and divergent for x > 1
when x = 1, convergent for c > a +b and
divergent for c a +b
8. [1 3 5 (2n 1)(x
2n+1
)]/[2 4 6
(2n) (2n +1)]
Ans. convergent for |x| 1 and divergent for
|x| > 1
9. [3 6 9 (3n)]x
n
/[7 10 13 (3n +4)]
Hint: When x = 1, by Raabes test, lim
n
_
u
n
u
n+1
1
_
=
4
3
> 1 therefore series is con-
vergent.
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
SEQUENCES AND SERIES 2.17
Ans. convergent for x 1 and divergent for x > 1
10. [1 3 5 (2n 1) x
n
]/[2 4 6 2n]
Ans. convergent for x < 1 and divergent for x 1
11. x
n
log (nx)
Ans. convergent if x < 1 and divergent if x 1
12. (n! x
n
)/(3 5 7 (2n +1))
Hint: For x = 2 (ratio test fails), by Raabes
test, limit =
1
2
.
Ans. converges for x < 2 and diverges for x 2
13. (n!)
2
x
n
/(2n)!
Hint: For x = 4, (Ratio test fails), by Raabes
test, limit =
1
2
.
Ans. convergent for x < 4 and diverges for x 4
2.13 LOGARITHMIC TEST
Theorem: Let

u
n
be a positive series with
lim
n
_
n log
_
u
n
u
n+1
__
= m. Then the series

u
n
converges if m > 1 and diverges if m < 1 and test
fails when m = 1.
Proof: Let m>1 and p be such that m>p >1.
Consider the convergent p-series

v
n
=

1
n
p
with
p > 1. Then by comparison test the given series

u
n
converges if
u
n
u
n+1
>
v
n
v
n+1
=
_
n +1
n
_
p
=
_
1 +
1
n
_
p
Taking log and expanding R.H.S. by log series
log
u
n
u
n+1
>p log
_
1 +
1
n
_
=p
_
1
n

1
2n
2
+
1
3
1
n
3
+
_
or n
_
log
u
n
u
n+1
_
> p
_
1
1
2n
+
1
3n
2
+
_
.
Taking limit
lim
n
n
_
log
u
n
u
n+1
_
> p(1 0 0 ) = p > 1
A similar proof can be obtained when m < 1.
Note 1: Generally logarithmic test is used when
Raabes test fails. Logarithmic test is used when ei-
ther n occurs as an exponent in
u
n
u
n+1
or evaluation
of limit becomes easier by taking logarithm.
Note 2: If
u
n
u
n+1
does not involve n as an exponent
or a logarithm, the series

u
n
diverges.
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
Test for convergence of the following series:
Example: (a+1)
x
1!
+(a+2)
2 x
2
2!
+(a+3)
2 x
3
3!
+
Solution: The nth term of this series is
u
n
=
(a +n)
n
n!
x
n
so u
n+1
=
(a +n +1)
n+1
(n +1)!
x
n+1
Applying ratio test,
lim
n
u
n
u
n+1
= lim
n
(a +n)
n
n!
x
n

(n +1)!
(a +n +1)
n+1

1
x
n+1
=
1
x
lim
n
(n +1)
(a +n)
n
(a +n +1)
n+1
=
1
x
lim
n
(n +1)n
n
_
1 +
a
n
_
n
(n +1)
n+1
_
1 +
a
n+1
_
n+1
=
1
x
lim
n
1
_
1 +
1
n
_
n
_
_
1 +
a
n
_ n
a
_ 1
a
_
_
1 +
a
n+1
_n+1
a
_1
a
=
1
x

1
e

e
1
a
e
1
a
=
1
xe
series is convergent for
1
xe
> 1 and divergent for
1
xe
< 1.
Ratio test fails for xe = 1
Apply logarithmic test with x =
1
e
consider
ln
u
n
u
n+1
=ln
_
_
_e
1
_
1 +
1
n
_
n
_
1 +
a
n
_
n
_
1 +
a
n+1
_
n+1
_

_
ln
u
n
u
n+1
=ln e +n ln
_
1 +
a
n
_
n ln
_
1 +
1
n
_
(n +1)
ln
_
1 +
a
n +1
_
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
2.18 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
Expanding, ln (1 +b) = b
b
2
2
+
b
3
3
+
ln
u
n
u
n+1
= 1 +n
_
a
n

1
2
a
2
n
2
+
1
3
a
3
n
3
+
_
n
_
1
n

1
2
1
n
2
+
1
3
1
n
3
+
_
(n +1)
_
a
(n +1)

1
2
a
2
(n +1)
2
+
1
3
a
3
(n +1)
3
+
_
Multiplying by n,
n ln
u
n
u
n+1
=
_

a
2
2
+
a
3
3n
+
_
+
_
1
2

1
3
1
n
+
_
+
_
a
2
2
n
n +1

na
3
3(n +1)
2
+
_
where the terms after + contain
1
n
2
,
1
n
3
etc. i.e.,
are of the order
_
1
n
2
_
Applying logarithmic test,
lim
n
n ln
u
n
u
n+1
=
_

a
2
2
+0 +0 +
_
+
_
1
2
+0 +0 +
_
+
_
a
2
2
+0 +0 +
_
=
1
2
< 1
series diverges
Thus the given series converges for xe < 1 and
diverges for xe 1.
EXERCISE
Test for convergence of the following series:
1. x +
2
2
x
2
2!
+
3
3
x
3
3!
+
4
4
x
4
4!
+
5
5
x
5
5!
+
Hint: By ratio test, limit
u
n+1
u
n
= ex, converges
for ex < 1 and diverges for ex > 1
For ex > 1 by log test: limit =
1
2
< 1, therefore
diverges.
2. 1 +
x
2
+
2!
3
2
x
2
+
3!
4
3
x
3
+
4!
5
4
x
4
+
Hint: By ratio test, limit = x/e then for x < e
convergent and divergent for x > e.
For x = e, by log test, limit =
1
2
< 1, diverges.
3.
a+x
1
+
(a+2x)
2
2!
+
(a+3x)
3
3!
+
(a+4x)
4
4!
+
Hint: By ratio test, limit
u
n+1
u
n
= ex
converges for ex < 1 and diverges for ex > 1.
For ex = 1, by log test, limit =
1
2
< 1, divergent.
4. 1 +
2x
2!
+
3
2
x
2
3!
+
4
3
x
3
4!
+
5
4
x
4
5!
+
Hint: By ratio test, limit
u
n+1
u
n
= xe.
Series is convergent for xe < 1 and divergent for
xe > 1.
For xe = 1, limit =
3
2
> 1 series is convergent.
5.
1
2
2
+
2
2
3
3
+
3
3
4
4
+
4
4
5
5
+
5
5
6
6
+
Hint: By Logarithmic test, lim
n
n log
u
n
u
n+1
=
lim
n
n
__
1 +
1
n

2
2n
+
_
+log
_
1 +
1
n
_
n
+
_
1
n

1
2n
2
+
__
=
3
2
> 1 series is convergent.
2.14 DeMORGANS AND
BERTRANDS TEST
Theorem: The series of positive terms

u
n
con-
verges or diverges as
lim
n
__
n
_
u
n
u
n+1
1
_
1
_
log n
_
is > 1 or < 1.
Note: When Raabes test fails, DeMorgans test
may be tried.
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
Example 1: Test for convergence of
1
2
2
2
+
1
2
3
2
2
2
4
2
+
1
2
3
2
5
2
2
2
4
2
6
2
+
Solution: The nth term of this series is
u
n
=
1
2
3
2
5
2
(2n 1)
2
2
2
4
2
6
2
(2n)
2
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
SEQUENCES AND SERIES 2.19
Applying ratio test,
lim
n
u
n
u
n+1
= lim
n
1
2
3
2
5
2
(2n 1)
2
2
2
4
2
6
2
(2n)
2

2
2
4
2
6
2
(2n)
2
(2n +2)
2
1
2
3
2
5
2
(2n 1)
2
(2n +1)
2
= lim
n
_
2n +2
2n +1
_
2
= 1
the ratio test fails.
Apply Raabes test
lim
n
_
n
_
u
n
u
n+1
1
__
= lim
n
_
n
_
_
2n +2
2n +1
_
2
1
__
= lim
n
_
n
(4n +3)
(2n +1)
2
_
= 1
So the Raabes test also fails.
Apply DeMorgans and Bertrands test,
lim
n
__
n
_
u
n
u
n+1
1
_
1
_
log n
_
= lim
n
_
n(4n +3)
(2n +1)
2
1
_
log n
= lim
n
(n +1)
(2n +1)
2
log n
= lim
n
1
4
log n
n
= 0 < 1, (by L Hospitals rule)
So by DeMorgans and Bertrands test the given
series is divergent.
Example 2:
1
1
2
+
1+2
1
2
+2
2
+
1+2+3
1
2
+2
2
+3
3
+
Solution: The nth term of this series is
u
n
=
1 +2 +3 +4 + +n
1
2
+2
2
+3
2
+ +n
2
=
n(n +1)
2

6
n(n +1)(2n +1)
=
3
(2n +1)
Applying ratio test,
lim
n
u
n
u
n+1
= lim
n
3
(2n +1)

2n +3
3
= lim
n
_
2n +3
2n +1
_
= 1
the ratio test fails.
Applying Raabes test,
lim
n
n
_
u
n
u
n+1
1
_
= lim
n
n
_
2n +3
2n +1
1
_
= lim
n
2n
2n +1
= 1
the Raabes test also fails.
Apply DeMorgans test,
lim
n
_
n
_
u
n
u
n+1
1
_
1
_
log n
= lim
n
_
2n
2n +1
1
_
log n
= lim
n

log n
2n +1
=

(By L Hospitals rule)

= lim
n

1
n

1
2
= 0 < 1
So the series is divergent by DeMorgans test.
EXERCISE
Test for convergence of the following series:
1.
a
b
+
a(a+1)
b(b+1)
+
a(a+1)(a+2)
b(b+1)(b+2)
+
Hint: Ratio test fails. Apply Raabes test
Ans. Convergent if b a > 1 and divergent if
b a < 1. For b a = 1, the Raabes test
fails. By applying DeMorgans test, series is
divergent for b a = 1.
2. 1 +
2
2
3
2
+
2
2
4
2
3
2
5
2
+
2
2
4
2
6
2
3
2
5
2
7
2
+
Hint: Ratio test fails, Raabes test also fails.
By DeMorgans test, limit = 0 < 1 so series is
divergent.
Ans. divergent.
2.15 ALTERNATING SERIES
LEIBNITZS* THEOREM
All the series considered so far contained only
positive terms. However a series may contain some
positive and some negative terms.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (16461716), German mathe-

matician.
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
2.20 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
Alternating series is a series whose terms are
alternately positive and negative, i.e., series whose
terms have alternating (positive and negative) signs
in the form
u
1
u
2
+u
3
u
4
+ +(1)
n
u
n
+
where u
1
, u
2
, u
n
, are all positive (i.e., u
n
> 0,
for every n).
Asimple test for convergence of alternating series
is given by Leibnitzs theorem(rule) which states that
in the alternating series
u
1
u
2
+u
3
u
4
+ +(1)
n
u
n
+ (with u
n
> 0)
(1)
if (i) the terms are such that each term is numerically
greater than its succeeding term
i.e., u
1
> u
2
> u
3
> u
4
> > u
n
> u
n+1
>
(2)
and (ii)
lim
n
u
n
= 0 (3)
Then the alternating series (1) converges. Its sum
is positive, and does not exceed the rst term.
Proof: Consider
S
2m
= (u
1
u
2
) +(u
3
u
4
) + +(u
2m1
u
2m
)
(4)
which is the sum of the rst n = 2m even number of
terms of the series (1).
The expression in each of the parentheses in
(4) is positive (i.e., (u
1
u
2
) > 0, (u
3
u
4
) >
0 . . . , etc.) because of the condition (2). Hence
S
2m
> 0 and increases with increasing m as more
positive values are added. Rewriting (4) as
S
2m
=u
1
(u
2
u
3
) (u
4
u
5
)
(u
2m2
u
2m1
) u
2m
and again using the condition (2), note that
S
2m
< u
1
since positive quantities (in each bracket) are sub-
tracted from u
1
. Thus S
2m
increases with increasing
m and is bounded above, hence the sequence of even
partial sums has a limit say s,
i.e., lim
m
S
2m
= s (with 0 < s < u
1
)
Nowconsider the sumof the rst n = 2m+1, odd
number of terms of the series (1) as
S
2m+1
= S
2m
+u
2m+1
Taking the limit,
lim
m
S
2m+1
= lim
m
S
2m
+ lim
m
u
2m+1
=s +0 = s
since lim
m
u
2m+1
= 0 follows from condition (3).
Therefore the given alternating series (1) converges
because lim
n
= s both for even n and for odd n.
Note: Leibnitzs theorem holds good even if the
inequalities (2) are true from some N onwards.
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
Test for convergence of the following series:
Example 1: 1
1
2
+
1
4

1
8
+
1
16
+
Solution: The given series is an alternating series
since the terms of the series are alternately posi-
tive and negative n with u
n
=
1
2
n
, so that u
n+1
=
1
2
n+1
. Since u
n
u
n+1
=
1
2
n

1
2
n+1
=
1
2
n+1
> 0 i.e.,
u
n+1
< u
n
for every n, each term is numerically less
than its preceding term.
Also lim
n
u
n
= lim
n
1
2
n
= 0
By Leibnitzs rule, the given series is convergent.
Example 2: 1
x
1
2
+
x
2
2
2

x
3
3
2
+
x
4
4
2

Solution: Here u
n
u
n+1
=
x
n
n
2

x
n+1
(n+1)
2
=
x
n
[n
2
(1x)+2n+1]
n
2
(n+1)
2
For |x| 1, u
n
u
n+1
> 0 for every n 1
Also lim
n
u
n
= lim
n
x
n
n
2
= 0 whenever |x| 1
Given alternative series is convergent for |x| 1.
[For |x| > 1, lim
n
x
n
n
2
= lim
n
nx
n1
2n
= by
L Hospitals rule and therefore the series diverges
for |x| > 1].
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
SEQUENCES AND SERIES 2.21
Example 3:
1
6

2
11
+
3
16

4
21
+
5
26
+
Solution: Here u
n
=
n
5n+1
Since lim
n
u
n
= lim
n
n
5n +1
=
1
5
= 0
By Leibnitzs rule, series is divergent.
Example 4:
x
1+x

x
2
1+x
2
+
x
3
1+x
3

x
4
1+x
4
+
Solution: For this alternating series
u
n
u
n+1
=
x
n
1 +x
n

x
n+1
1 +x
n+1
=
x
n
(1 x)
(1 +x
n
)(1 +x
n+1
)
> 0 for 0 < x < 1
Also lim
n
u
n
= lim
n
x
n
1 +x
n
=
0
1 +0
= 0
(since for x < 1, lim
n
x
n
= 0)
By Leibnitzs rule the series is convergent whenever
0 < x < 1.
EXERCISE
Test for convergence of the following series:
1. 1
1
2
+
1
3

1
4
+ Ans. convergent
2. 1
1
2!
+
1
3!

1
4!
+ Ans. convergent
3.

n=2
(1)
n1
ln n
Ans. convergent
4.
5
2

7
4
+
9
6

11
8
+ Hint: limit = 1.
Ans. oscillatory
5.

n=1
cos n
n
2
+1
Ans. convergent
6.

(1)
n1 1
n
p
when 0 < p 1
Ans. convergent
7. 1
1
2!
+
1
4!

1
6!
+ Ans. convergent
8.

n=1
(1)
n+1
_
n +1

n
_
Ans. convergent
9.
1
1.2

1
3.4
+
1
5.6

1
7.8
+
Ans. convergent
10.

n=1
(1)
n1
n
(2n1)
Hint: limit =
1
2
.
Ans. oscillatory
11.

n=1
(1)
n+1

n
Ans. convergent
12.

n=1
(1)
n1

n
n
2
+1
Ans. convergent
13.
1

21

1

2+1
+
1

31

1

3+1
+
Ans. divergent
14.

n=1
(1)
n1

n
n+1
Ans. not convergent
15.

n=1
(1)
n1

n(n+1)(n+2)
Ans. convergent
16.

n=1
(2)
n
n
2
Ans. divergent
17.

n=1
(3)
n
n!
Ans. convergent
18.

n=1
(1)
n
n
5+n
Ans. divergent
19.

n=1
(1)
n

10n
n+2
Ans. convergent
20.

n=0
(1)
n
(n +1)x
n
with x <
1
2
Ans. convergent
21.

n=2
(1)
n1
x
n
n(n1)
, with 0 < x < 1
Ans. convergent
22.

n=1
(1)
n1 1
(x+n)
Ans. convergent
23.

n=0
(1)
n x
n
1+n
a
Ans. convergent for |x| < 1
24.

n=1
(1)
n1
x
n

n
Ans. convergent if |x| < 1
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
2.22 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
25.
3
2

5
4
+
9
8

17
16
+
Hint: limu
n
=
_
1 +
1
2
n
_
= 1 = 0,
limS
2n
=
1
3
_
1
_
1
2
_
2n
_
=
1
3
and lim S
2n+1
=
lim1 +
1
3
_
1 +
_
1
2
_
2n+1
_

4
3
.
Ans. oscillatory.
2.16 ABSOLUTE CONVERGENCE AND
CONDITIONAL CONVERGENCE
Plus- and -minus series (also known as series
of positive and negative terms) is a series containing
both positive and negative terms in any order. In such
a series, any term may be either positive or negative.
Thus the alternating series considered earlier is a spe-
cial case of plus- and -minus series with alternating
positive and negative terms.
Absolute and conditional convergence
Let u
1
+u
2
+u
3
+ +u
n
+ =

u
n
(1)
be a plus- and -minus series with the assumption
that here onwards the members u
1
, u
2
, . . . , u
n
, . . .
can be either positive or negative i.e., some terms
may be positive and others negative (not necessarily
alternative). Let us form a series made up of the
absolute values of the terms of the series (1) i.e.,
|u
1
| +|u
2
| +|u
3
| + +|u
n
| + =

|u
n
| (2)
Each termof the series (2) is positive and numerically
equal to the corresponding term of series (1).
Absolute Convergence
The plus- and -minus series

n=1
u
n
is said to be ab-
solutely convergent if the corresponding series with
absolute terms

|u
n
| is convergent.
Example: 1
1
2!
+
1
3!

1
4!
+ is absolutely
convergent because the series formed with absolute
values 1 +
1
2!
+
1
3!
+
1
4!
+ is convergent.
Conditional Convergence
If

u
n
is convergent while

|u
n
| is divergent then

u
n
is said to be conditionally convergent.
Example: 1
1
2
+
1
3

1
4
+ is conditionally
convergent because the given series is convergent
(by Leibnitzs rule) while 1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+
1
4
+ is a
divergent harmonic series (with p = 1).
Sufcient Condition for Convergence
Theorem: Every absolutely convergent series is
necessarily a convergent series.
Note 1: The converse is not true i.e., a series

u
n
of positive and negative terms may converge
while the corresponding series

|u
n
| of absolute
terms may diverge. See example under conditional
convergence.
Note 2: Any convergent series of positive terms is
also absolutely convergent.
Test for Absolute Convergence
A series

u
n
is absolutely convergent if
lim
n

u
n+1
u
n

< 1
and divergent if
lim
n

u
n+1
u
n

> 1
and test fails when the limit value is unity.
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
Examine the following series for absolute or condi-
tional convergence:
Example 1: 1
1
3!
+
1
5!

1
7!
+
(JNTU2001/S)
Solution: This is an alternating series with nth term
u
n
=
1
(2n+1)!
also u
n+1
=
1
(2n+3)!
so that
u
n
u
n+1
=
1
(2n+1)!

1
(2n+3)!
=
(2n+3)! (2n+1)!
(2n+1)!(2n+3)!
=
(2n +2)(2n +3) 1
(2n +3)!
> 0
Also lim
n
u
n
= lim
n
1
(2n+1)!
= 0
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
SEQUENCES AND SERIES 2.23
So by Leibnitzs rule the given alternating series
is absolutely convergent and hence is convergent be-
cause every absolutely convergent series is necessar-
ily convergent.
Example 2:
1
5

1
5

3
+
1
5

4
+ +(1)
n 1
5

n
+
Solution: The given series is an alternating series
with the nth term u
n
=
1
5

n
=
1
n
1/5
.
Here u
n
=
1
n
1/5
> u
n+1
=
1
(n+1)
1/5
for all n and
lim
n
u
n
= lim
n
1
n
1
5
= 0.
Thus byLeibnitzs rule the givenseries is convergent.
However the series with absolute values
i.e.,
1
5

2
+
1
5

3
+
1
5

4
+ +
1
5

n
+
is p series

1
n
p
with p =
1
5
< 1 and therefore is
divergent. Hence the given series is conditionally
convergent.
EXERCISE
Examine the following series for absolute conver-
gence (A.C.) or conditional convergence (C.C.)
1. 1
1
3
2
+
1
5
2

1
7
2
+
1
9
2
+ +(1)
n+1 1
(2n1)
2
+
Hint: Compare with

1
n
p
series with say
p = 10.
Ans. A.C.
2.
1
2

4
2
3
+1
+
9
3
3
+1

16
4
3
+1
+ +(1)
n+1 n
2
n
3
+1
+
Hint: Use integral test to prove divergency.
Ans. C.C.
3. 1
2
3
+
3
3
2

4
3
3
+
Ans. A.C.
4.
2
3

3
4

1
2
+
4
5

1
3

5
6

1
4
+
Ans. C.C.
5. 1
1
2
+
1
4

1
8
+
1
16
+(1)
n 1
2
n
+
Ans. A.C.
6. 1
1

2
+
1

3

1

4
+ +(1)
n+1 1

n
+
Ans. C.C.
7.
1
1
2
+1

2
2
2
+1
+
3
3
2
+1

4
4
2
+1
+ +
(1)
n1 n
n
2
+1
+
Ans. C.C.
8. 1 +
1
2
2

1
3
2

1
4
2
+
1
5
2
+
1
6
2

1
7
2

1
8
2
+
Ans. A.C. (JNTU 1998)
9.
1
2(log n)
2

1
3(log 3)
2
+
1
4(log 4)
2

1
5(log 5)
2
+
+
(1)
n
n(log n)
2
+
Ans. A.C.
10.

n=1
(1)
n
n
p
Ans. (i) A.C. for p < 1 (ii) C.C. for 1 p < 0
(iii) divergent, for p > 0
11.

n=2
(1)
n log log n

log n
Ans. C.C.
12.

n=3
(1)
n
log n
n log log n
Ans. C.C.
13.

n=0
(1)
n
(2n)!
Ans. C.C. (JNTU 1997)
14.

n=0
(1)
n1
n

n
Ans. A.C.
15.

n=1
(1)
n+1
(n+1)
n
2
Ans. C.C.
16.

n=1
(1)
n+1
2
2n1
(2n1)!
Ans. A.C.
Hint: Use ratio test for convergency.
17.

n=1
(1)
n+1 n
n
3
+1
Ans. A.C.
18.

n=1
(1)
n+1 1
n2
n
Ans. A.C.
Hint: Use geometric series with r =
1
2
to test
for convergency.
19.

n=1
(1)
n+1 1
n
Ans. C.C.
Hint: Compare with harmonic series with
p = 1.
20.

n=1
(1)
n+1 1
n!
Ans. A.C.
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
2.24 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
2.17 POWER SERIES
We have considered so far, series whose terms are
constants. Now we consider, series whose terms are
functions of x, more specically series in which
nth term is a constant times x
n
or constant times
(x b)
n
where b is a constant. A power series
is a series of the form

n=0
a
n
x
n
= a
0
+a
1
x +a
2
x
2
+ +a
n
x
n
+ where a
0
, a
1
, a
2
a
n
are
all constants known as coefcients of the series
or

n=0
a
n
(x b)
n
= a
0
+a
1
(x b) +a
2
(x b)
2
+
+a
n
(x b)
n
+
Interval of convergence of a power series is the
interval of x say L < x < L such that the series
converges for values of x in this interval (L, L)
and diverges for values of x outside this interval.
Test for Convergence of Power Series
lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
= lim
n
a
n+1
x
n+1
a
n
x
n
= x lim
n
a
n+1
a
n
= x L
series converges if |xL| < 1 i.e.,
1
L
< x <
1
L
or
L < x < L. Series diverges if |xL| > 1.
WORKED OUT EXAMPLES
Determine for what values of x, the following series
are convergent:
Example 1:

n=1
(1)
n+1
x
2n1
(2n1)!
Solution: Applying the ratio test
lim
n

u
n+1
u
n

= lim
n

(1)
n+2
x
2n+1
(2n +1)!

(2n 1)!
(1)
n+1
x
2n1

= lim
n

x
2
2n(2n +1)

= 0 < 1, for any x.

So the given series converges for all x i.e., <
x < .
Example 2:
1
1x
+
1
2(1x)
2
+
1
3(1x)
3
+
Solution: Here u
n
=
1
n(1x)
n
.
Applying ratio test,
lim
n

u
n+1
u
n

= lim
n

1
(n +1)(1 x)
n+1
n(1 x)
n

1
1 x

lim
n
n
n +1
=

1
1 x

series converges when

1
1x

< 1 i.e., |1 x| > 1

or x < 0 and x > 2
Test for convergence at the end points x=0 and x=2.
For x = 0, the given series reduces to
1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+
1
4
+
1
5
+ +
1
n
+
which is a divergent harmonic series with p = 1
For x = 2, the given series becomes
1 +
1
2

1
3
+
1
4

1
5
+ +
(1)
n
n
+
This alternating series is convergent by Leibnitzs
rule because
i. u
n
=
1
n
>u
n+1
=
1
n+1
i.e., n +1 >n true for all n
ii. lim
n
u
n
= lim
n
1
n
= 0
Thus the given series converges for x 2 and x < 0.
Example 3: Find the interval of convergence of
i. exponential series
ii. logarithmic series and
iii. binomial series.
Solution:
i. Exponential series

n=0
x
n
n!
= 1 +x +
x
2
2!
+ +
x
n
n!
+
converges for all values of x i.e., < x <
since by ratio test,
lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
= lim
n
_
x
n+1
(n +1)!
n!
x
n
_
= x lim
n
1
n +1
=0 for any x
Interval of convergence is (, )
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
SEQUENCES AND SERIES 2.25
ii. The logarithmic series is given by

n=1
(1)
n+1 x
n
n
.
By ratio test,
lim
n
u
n+1
u
n
= lim
n
(1)
n+2
x
n+1
n +1

n
(1)
n+1
x
n
=(x) lim
n
n
n +1
= x 1 = x.
Series is convergent for |x| < 1 and divergent
for |x| > 1. When x = 1, the series reduces to
1
1
2
+
1
3

1
4
+ , which is convergent.
When x = 1, the series reduces to

_
1 +
1
2
+
1
3
+
1
4
+
_
which is divergent.
Thus the interval of convergence of the loga-
rithmic series is (1, 1](i.e., (1 < x 1)).
iii. The binomial series is
1 +nx +
n(n 1)
2!
x
2
+
+
n(n 1) (n (r 1))
r!
x
r
+
By ratio test,
lim
r
u
r+1
u
r
= lim
r
n(n 1) (n (r 1))
r!
x
r

(r 1)!
n(n 1) (n r)

1
x
r1
=x lim
r
_
n r +1
r
_
=x lim
r
_
n +1
r
1
_
=x for r > n +1
Thus the interval of convergence of the binomial
series is (1, 1) (i.e., 1 < x < 1).
EXERCISE
Determine the interval of convergence i.e., for what
values of x, the following series are convergent. In-
vestigate convergence at the end points of the interval
also.
1.

n=1
x
n
(n!)
2
Ans. All x
2.

n=0
(1)
n
x
n
Ans. |x| < 1
3.

n=1
(1)
n
x
n
n(n+1)
Ans. |x| 1
4.

n=1
x
2n
2
n
n
2
Ans. |x|

2
5.

n=0
(x+2)
n

n+1
Ans. 3 x < 1
6.

n=1
x
n
n
Ans. 1 x < 1
7.

n=1
n x
n1
Ans. 1 < x < 1
8.

n=1
(1)
n
n
3
x
n
Ans. |x| < 1
9.

n=1
1
n
_
x
5
_
n
Ans. 5 x < 5
10.

n=1
(2)
n
(2x+1)
n
n
2
Ans.
3
4
x
1
4
11.

n=1
(x2)
n
3
n
Ans. 1 < x < 5
12.

n=1
(1)
n
x
2n
(2n)
3/2
Ans. 1 x 1
13.

n=1
(1)
n x
n
log(n+1)
Ans. |x| < 1
14.

n=0
(1)
n x
n
1+n
a
Ans. |x| < 1
15.

n=1
(1)
n1 x
n
n
Ans. |x| < 1
16.

n=0
(1)
n
x
n
Ans. 0 < x < 1
17.

n=1
(1)
n+1 (2x)
n
n
Ans.
1
2
< x
1
2
18.

n=0
(nx)
n
Ans. only for x = 0
19.

n=1
3
n
2
x
n
2
Ans. |x| <
1
3
20.

n=1
n!x
n
n
n
Ans. e < x < e
21.

n=1
(n!)
2
(2n)!
x
n
Ans. |x| < 4
chap-02 B.V.Ramana August 30, 2006 10:15
2.26 ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS
22.

n=1
n!(x 1)
n
Ans. only for x = 1
23.

n=1
(x+1)
n

n
Ans. 2 x < 0
24.

n=1
(x+3)
n1
n
Ans. 4 x < 2
25.

n=0
(3x+6)
n
n!
Ans. All x
26.

n=0
(2)
n
(n +1)(x 1)
n
Ans.
1
2
< x <
3
2
27. Hypergeometric series

n=0
a(a+1)(a+n1)b(b+1)(b+n1)
123nc(c+1)(c+n1)
x
n
Ans. i. Absolutely convergent if |x| < 1 and diver-
gent if |x| > 1
ii. For x = 1, converges if c > a +b
iii. For x = 1, converges if c +1 > a +b
28.

n=0
a(a+1)(a+n1)b(b+1)(b+n1)
c(c+1)(c+n1)d(d+1)(d+n1)
x
n
Ans. i. convergent if |x|<1 and divergent if |x|>1
ii. For x = 1 and convergent if c+dab>1
and divergent if c +d a b 1
iii. For x = 1 and convergent if c+d>a+b.
2.18 SUMMARY
1. An innite sequence {a
n
} is convergent, diver-
gent or oscillates nitely (or innitely) accord-
ing as the limit a
n
as n is nite, innite,
or not unique ().
2. If an innite series is convergent then neces-
sarily its nth term approaches zero as n ,
although the converse is not true i.e., when
lim
n
u
n
= 0, the series may converge or diverge,
so further investigation is required. However,
when lim
n
u
n
= 0, the series is divergent.
3. Given an innite series, classify it as (a) series
of positive terms (b) alternating series (c) plus
and minus series (d) power series.
4. For positive series, check whether lim
n
u
n
= 0.
If so, compare it with the standard geometric se-
ries

ar
n
or p-harmonic series

1
n
p
where
p = difference between the degree of the nu-
merator and denominators of u
n
.
5. Otherwise try ratio test. When ratio test fails,
apply Raabes or Logarithmic or DeMorgans
and Bertrands tests.
6. Prefer Cauchys nth root test when u
n
involves
nth powers of itself as a whole.
7. Integral test is used when the terms of the series
are positive and non-increasing and the evalua-
tion of the integral is easy.
8. Use Leibnitzs theorem to test for convergence
of an alternating series.
9. In a plus- and -minus series (includes alternating
series) if the series of absolute terms converges
then the series is absolutely convergent and is
therefore also (ordinarily) convergent. If not i.e.,
when the series of absolute terms diverges and
original series is convergent then series is con-
ditionally convergent.
10. Use ratio test, to nd the interval of convergence
of a power series. Examine the series at the end
points of the interval also.