1.

HORTICUTURE
* India is the Largest producer of Fruits II- BR !IL * "E#ET BLE$% II India I China * India & Largest 'roducer of 1. (ango ). Banana *. $apota +. cid Li,e -. Cau.i f.o/er 1. Onion ). 'otato (angifera Indica Indo-Bur,a 2rupe (esocarp "it. . 4+5556 I U7

II Largest 'roducer of * (ango B. 0. Origin Fruits t1pe Edi3.e part % 0utrient % % % % %

1. (a..i8a. ). inrapa.i 4H2'7 2/arfing I RI *. La. $undari % co.oured 9ariet1 +. 0iran:an -. (andhu.ic8a Off season 3earer 5. (2CH-) ;. r8a runa <. r8a 'uneet Free fro, spong1 tissue =. r8a n,o. 16. r8a 0ee.8iran 11. $indhu% $eed.ess 1). 2ashehari & 3est 0orth Indian cu.ti9ar 1*. Chausa & $/eeten "er1 .ate 1+. 0eehun- 3est co,3iner "arieties 1-. >a.epadi 15. Totapuri red s,a.. 2/ar.ing * 'ropagation % "enneer #rafting * Inter crops % 'apa1a? 'ha.sa? Onion? To,ato * $e@ for,s % (a.e A Fe,a.e 4 ndro,onoceious7 * 'o..inator % Housef.1 * (aturit1 indice % 1. $pecific gra9it1 41.61-1. 6)7 * F.o/ering to Har9est % =6-1)6 da1s * (a:or pest % Hoppers * 'h1sio.ogica. 2isorders%

1. (a.for,ation% 2ue to .o/ te,perature Contro. 31 B 1. 2e3.osso,ing Cith 0 D )66 pp, Resistant c9- 1. Bahaduran. .iff. Haichi (an:eera ). Bac8tip% #ases fro, 3ric8 8i.ns 4$o)? 0o) cet1.ene7 C9s. Cith ,ore .entrice.sE unit are suscepti3.e Contro. % Bora@ spra1 *. .ternate 3earing % 'ac.o3utraFo. 4pp ***7 4or7 8utar D - g,E tree $oi. as /e.. as fo.iar spra1 +. $pong1 tissue% con9ection heats -. Interna. Fruit necrosis% GBH. def1. To,ato % Lycorpersicon esculentunn, I /o.f pp.e $o.anace? Origin % 'eru Fruit t1pe % Ber1 4rich in 9it 7 "arieties % 1. 'usa ru31 ). 'usa Ear.1 2/ar3 *. $iou@ +. (arg.o3e -. $upre,e 4$e.n-1)67 Reco,,ended FruitsE da1E person 9ai.a3i.it1 'er capita "egeta3.esE da1 9ai.a3i.it1 Fruit t1pes% T1pe 1. Berries ). 2rupe *. Hesperidu, +. ,phisarca -. Ba.usta 5. 'o,e 4fa.se fruit7 ;. 'epo <. $ing.e seeded 3err1 =. $ing.e seedee.nuts 16. $orosis 11. $1coniu, 1). Efaerio of 3etter 1*. E8aerro of 2rupe .ets E@a,p.e Crapes? #ua9a? 'ha.sa? To,ato? Brin:a.? Chiti.es? Banana (ango? 'each? '.u,? Cherr1? pricot Citrus Cood app.e? Bae. 'o,egranate pp.e? 'ear Cuar3its 2ates Litchii Iac8? (u.3err1? 'ineapp.e Fig nnona sp $tra/3err1 5. 'usa #aura9 'rocessing ;. r8a "i8as <. r8a $aura3 =. r8a huti 16. r8a shish % 1)6 g,Eda1.1 % ;6-<6 g,Eda1.1 % );- g,Eda1.1 % 1)6 g,Eda1.1

Co,,ercia. (ethod of 'ropagation Fruits 1. ). *. +. -. 5. ;. <. =. 16. 11. 1). (ango Banana Citrus #rapes #uar Litchi. 'rogra,,e to cid .i,e? 'ha.sa? (angosrein pp.e? 'ear? 'each? '.u, $apota no.a 2atepa., $tra/3err1 (ethod "enner #rafiting $/ord suc8ers GTHE shie.d 3udding Hard /ood cutting $too.ingE (ound .a1ering ir La1ering $eed GTH 3udding Inarching 'atch 3udding off-shoot Runner

*'ineapp.es% suc8er? s.ips H H13rids % 1. r8a 9isha. ). r8a "ardan 4R. 0e,atode7 *. "aisha.i +. Rupai. Indo- ,erican H13rids -. 0a9een % *66-*-6 g,s 4H1. ;6-=6 g,E ha7 % 56@56 c, =6 @ =6 c, % Co.our de9e.op,ent % Fruit 3orer 4He.ico9erpa7 % To,ato $potted /i.t 9irus 4T$C"7? 2a,ping off "ector % Thrips % B.osoo,-end-rot 4Ca.ciu, def1.7 % eg% 'usa sheeta.. 'usa H13rid-) % eg% 'usa H13rid-1

$eed rate $pacing (aturit1 (a:or pest (a:or 2isease BER Co.d set Hot set 0utrients T1pe 1. "ita,in-a 4Retina.7

2eficienc1 $ource 0ight 3.indness Fruits% (ango? 'apa1a? Iapanese 4@erophtha.,ia7 'ersi,,on "egeta3.es% ). "it B-1 4Thia,in7 Beri-3eri F. .,ond? pricot? Cashe/ *. "it B-) 4Ri3of.a9in7 2r1 $8in F. Bae.? 'assion Fruit? Iac8 +. "it C 4 scor3ic acid7 $ur9e1 F. Bar3ados Cherr1? Orange? #9a9a "% Chit.ies? Bittergourd ,.a -. "it & 2 4Ca.cifero.7 Ric8ets "% #reens 5. Iron 2ates? Currants? Caronda? #reen ;. Ca.ciu, Litchi? Banana? Caro.s? To,ato <. 'otassiu, Banana? #reens =. 'hosphorus Carrot? To,ato? $pinac8 16. Iodine #oatee Onion O8ra

*. Rose 4Rosa hybrida) Rosaceae Rootstoc8% R, indica 9ar. Odorata *T1pe H13rid Tea% H13rid perpetua. J tea Rose- Large so.itar1 f.o/ers F.ori3unda% H13rid tea J o.1anthes & (ediu, f.o/er on c.usters. ). 'ropagation T- 3udding *. E@port "arieties% First Red #o.den ti,es. (ercedes. Be.inda? $onia? (i.an? Red success? B.'. 'a.e (other Teresa? Chitra. +. Cau.if.o/er * Edi3.e part- curd 4'ref.ora. apica. ,eriste,7 * Operation% B.anching in cau.if.o/er. . 2isorders% Chiptai.- (o deficienc1 Bro/ning & Boron deficienc1? "ariet1% 'usa sno/3a..? 'usa 8at8i? 'usa deepa.i? Ear.1 >un/ari.

). BIOCHE(I$TRK
(a:or group of co,pounds found in a ce.. are car3oh1drates and their deri9ati9es. Fats and their deri9ati9es proteins and their deri9ati9es? 0uc.eic acids. 1. C RBOHK2R TE$ Organic co,pounds /ith a genera. for,u.a 4CH)67n Car3oh1drates can 3e c.assified into * categories? 4a7 (onosaccharides 437 O.igosaccharides 4c7 'o.1saccharides 4a7 (onosaccharides Trioses Trioses are si,p.e sugars deri9ed fro, h1dro.1sis of o.igopo.1saccharides ha9e GCH ato, ranging fro, *-= 4eg.7 The1 are of t/o t1pes 4a7 .doses 437 >etoses .doses $ugars /ith ter,ina. CHO a.deh1de group a.dotriose- #.1cera.deh1de 4si,p.est sugar7 .doterose- Er1throse? thresose .dopentose & ra3iose ri3ose deo@1ri3ose .dohe@ose & #.ucose? ga.actose? ,annose >etoses Ha9ing LCMO group >etotriose & 2ih1dro@1 acetone & si,p.est 8eto sugar >etohe@ose & Fructose & It is the s/eetest a,ong a.. the sugars. 437 O.igosaccharides .. deri9ed fro, co,3ination of t/o or ,ore ,onosaccharides units 2epending upon the nu,3er of ,onosaccharides presence the1 can 3e c.assified as 4I7 2isaccharides eg. $ucrose? (a.tose? Lactose? ce..o3iose 4II7 Trisaccharides eg. Raffinose 4III7 Teirasaccharides eg. $tach1ose $ucrose 'roduced fro, a.pha g.ucose 3eta fructose 31 a.pha. &1.). g.1cosidic .in8age. It is a 0on reducing sugar. (a.tose Consists of ) units of g.ucose .in8ed together 31 a.pha 1.+ .in8age reducing sugar found in ger,inating seeds .arge.1. Ce..o3iose Consists of ) units of g.ucose 3ut the 3ond in9o.9ed is 3eta? 1.+ .in8age. It is a reducing sugar.

Lactose Consists of one ,o.ecu.e of 3eta 2 g.ucose and one ,o.ecu.e of 3eta 2 ga.actose .in8ed together 31 3eta 1.+ .in8age. $tach1ose It is a tetra saccharide consisting of one g.ucose and one fructose and ) ga.actose III 'o.1saccharides (o.ecu.ar /eight in 8i.o da.tons 48d7 4a7 $torage po.1saccharides% In p.ant consists of a,1.ase? a,1.opectin. 4it is po.1,er of g.ucose7. * ,1.ase is un3ranched chains of g.ucose units :oined 31 a.pha & 1.+ .in8age. The chain is non.inear? 3ut it is he.ica. one. * ,1.opectin% High.1 3ranched Bond t1pes% .pha 1.+ .in8age 3ut at the 3ranching points a.pha 1.5 .in8age is present. 4III7 #.1cogen It is present on.1 in ani,a. ce..s It is :ust .i8e starc.r? 3ut hea9i.1 3ranched and co,pact and it contaius 3oth a.pha 1.+ and a.pha 1.5 .in8ages. 437 $tructura. 'o.1saccharides 4I7 Ce..u.ose% 'o.1,er of g.ucose :oined together 31 3eta 1.+ .in8age 4II7 He,ice..u.ose 'o.1,er consisting of L-ara3inose. 2-g.ucose? 2-ga.actose? 2-J1.ose? a.ong /ith uranic acid 4ga.acturonic acids7 4III7 'ectin% 'o.1,er of ga.acturonic acid 0or,a..1 present in ce.. /a..s as ca.ciu, 'ectate 'roteins * The na,e /as suggested 31 BerFe.ius * This na,e is deri9ed fro, #ree8 'roteins ,eans Gfirst ran8H * 'roteins are po.1,er of a,inoacids. Each a,inoacid is .in8ed /ith another one 31 peptide -CMO-0H) 3ond. * different structura. .e9e.s%-L * 'ri,ar1 structure- it is the .inear arrange,ent of a,ino acids. * $econdar1 structure- It is the structure found 31 .inear 'o.1peptide chain /hich fo.ds in a regu.ar fashion. * This ,a1 3e of t/o 8inds 417 a.pha he.ei@ 4)7 3eta p.eated sheet. * These secondar1 structure are produced 31 interaction 3et/een neigh3oring a,inoacids of sa,e chain. * Nuaternar1 structure The structure produced 31 association of ,ore than one po.1peptide

E@a,p.es for so,e co,,on.1 occurring proteins $tructura. proteins%-L Co..agen & (usc.e protein >eratin & In hair and /oo. and nai. Fi3roin & In si.8 E.astin & Found in insect /ings Regu.ator1 proteins%-L EnF1,es Transport proteins%-L (1og.o3in? Hae,og.o3ins * nother c.assification of proteins% si,p.e proteins & Contains on.1 ordinar1 a,inoacids Con:ugated proteins & 'roteins that contain non a,inoacid Co,ponents in addition to a,inoacids these additiona. factors are ca..ed prosthetic groups. E@a,p.es 0uc.eic proteins & 0uc.eic acid and protein & chro,oso,es #.1coprotein & 'rotein and sugar units Lipoproteins &'rotein and .ipids (eta..oproteins - ,eta.s and proteins hae,og.o3in EnF1,es These are specia. c.asses of proteins. EnF1,atic acti9it1 /as first disco9ered 31 BUCH0ER 4!1,ase /as the first found initia..1 fro, Keast7 The ter, enF1,e /as coined 31 C. >UH0$ Ter,ino.og1Hs Ho.oenF1,es & poenF1,e O 'rosthetic group poenF1,e MCithout prosthetic group Ligand M n1 su3strata that 3inds /ith an enF1,e cti9e site M The site responsi3.e for ana.1tic ,o.ecu.e Regu.ator1 site M The site other than cata.1tic use /here the regu.ator1. Characteristics of an enF1,e% * $pecific? 'rotinacious? co..oida. nature? sensiti9e to te,perature. * enF1,es do not change the ePui.i3riu, .e9e.. But Puic8ens it. (echanis, of action of enF1,es% The .oc8 and 8e1 ,ode. /as proposed 31 Fisher It .o/ers do/n the acti9ation energ1. $o,e specia. c.asses of enF1,es. ..osteric enF1,es% are regu.ator1 enF1,es /hich ha9e ,ore than one po.1peptide This t1pe of enF1,es ha9e a /e.. de9e.oped regu.ator1 ,echanis, The1 produce a sig,oida. cur9e 4instead of c.assica. para3o.ic cur9e7 IsoF1,es% The1 are different enF1,es /hich cata.1Fe the sa,e reaction in different tissues. The1 are different in ,o.ecu.ar /eight and e@ercised fro, different genes. Ri3oF1,es% The1 are cata.1tic R0 /ith enF1,atic propert1 4non protein7 Factors affecting acti9it1 of enF1,es are Te,perature. 'H. Ionic strength. Cater content.

"ita,ins The ter, 9ita,ins /as introduced 31 FU0>

C.assification% Cater so.u3.e & "it. B co,p.e@ 4B1? B)? B1)7 C 0iacin 4nicotinic acid7 Fat so.u3.e "it% . 2. E. >. "ita,ins 4Retina.7 ce..s B1 4thia,ine7 B) 4Ri3of.a9in7 B1) 4C1anoco3a.a,in7 B5 0I CI0 40icotinic cid 4'erido@in7 C 4 scor3ic acid7 2 4Ca.cifero.7 E 4 .pha Tocophero.7 BERI-BERI 4E@tre,e /ea8ness? pain in :oints7 ri3of.a9inosis 4B.urred 9ision? crac8s on s8in at ang.e of ,outh7 'e,iocin ane,ia 4Reduction in RBCs7 'e..agra 4B.ac8 Tongue7 $cur91 Ric8ets 4'igeon chest in chi.dren7 Osteo,a.acia 4adu.ts7 $teri.it1 2eficienc1 s1,pto,s Jerophtha.,ia or dr1 2eonatosis =dr1 sca.1 s8in7 0ight% 3.indness 3ecause of reduction in red cone

"ita,ins ,ain.1 act as QcofactorsR for enF1,atic acti9it1. 0UCLEIC CI2$ CL $$E$ 20 & 2eo@1ri3ose R0 & Ri3ose 0uc.eoside M $ugar 4Ri3oseE 2eo@1ri3ose7 O 0itrogenous 3ase 0uc.eotide M 0uc.eoside O phosphate group T1pes of Bases denine Th1,ineE uraci. 4R0 7 #uanine C1tosine 0uc.eic acid% Frederic8 (ischer% Caston A cric8 & B 20 =right handed he.i@7 Bacteriophages & sing.e stranded 20 0on-genetic R0 $ t-R0 - Transfers a,inoacids fro, c1top.as, to Ri3oso,e ,-R0 - -S Carries the ,essage fro, genes 420 7 r- R0 & Ri3oso,a. R0 - 'art of Ri3oso,es 4/or8 3enches of protein s1nthesis.

*. (ICRO BIOLO#K
ROBERT HOO> & used the /ord CELL ROBERT BROC0 & used the /ord 0UCLEU$ (. $CHLEI2E0 A $CHC 00 & CELL THEORK H EC>EL proposed 'ROTI$T CHITT >ER - >I0#2O( CL $$IFIC TIO0 1. (onera & 'ro8ar1otes ). 'rotista & Unice..u.ar Eu8ar1otes *. '.antae 4'hoto s1n.7 & (u.tice..u.ar p.ants and higher a.gae. +. Fungi 4adsorption7 & (u.tinuc.eate higher fungi. -. ni,a.ia 4ingestion7 BER#KHs ,anua. of s1ste,atic 3acterio.og1 & is the standard for ta@ono,1 'rotoFoa? fungi% Eu8ar1otic Bacteria? actino,1cetes? B# % 'ro8ar1otic $I!E 4appro@.7 Bacteria & 6.--*.6 ,icro , Fungi & 1.--16 ,icro , 'rotoFoa & )-)66 ,icro , "iruses & 166-566 nano in (LO &6.1-6.* ,icro , .gae & 6.1 ,icro , 4B# 7 to G@H feet 4higher a.gae7 First .i9ing ce.. & e<66 ,i..ion 1ear ago. First pro8a1otic ce.. & 1+66 ,i..ion 1ears ago 4achaean cra7 $TERILI! TIO0% 'h1sica. agents % H. T. & dr1 heatT 1<66 CT 1.- HOUR$ & ) HOUR (oist heatT 1--)6 ,in 41)1.5c7 1- pounds E inch pressure 'asteuriFation 4/ith ,i.87 Lo/ te,p High ti,e 5).<c 4*6 ,in7 High te,p Lo/ ti,e ;1?;c 41- second7 L. T. & (icro3istatic 4-+ to &;c7 H. T. 2esiccation *. Os,otic 'ressure +. Radiation U. ". 4)5-6 - La,3da7 ga,,a ra1s. 4Co 567 J-ra1s 4-666-1?*6?666 rads7 B. Che,ica. agents 17 'heno. co,pound & ce.. /a..T c1to. (e,3rane% protein denaturation )7 .coho.Hs & 'rotein? c1top.as,ic ,e,3rane *7 Iodine? ch.orine? - EnF1,e destruction. ,ino acids +7 .deh1de- a,ino acids O enF1,es -7 Eth1.ene o@ide 4#as7 & EnF1,e O ,ino acids

C. Che,otheraputic agents% 17 rsenic- for $1phi.is 431 Ehr.ich7 )7 $u.fona,ide & for 3acteria infection 431 2o,ag87 nti3iotics%'enici..in & Penicillium sp & # O 9eT ce../a.. s1nthesis Tetrac1c.ine - S. aureofacines # O 9e? #-9eT 'rotein s1nthesis Bacitracin & Baci..us su3ti.is & # O 9e? ce.. /a.. s1nthesis Ch.ora,phenico. & $. venezuelae # O 9eT #-9e? 'rotein s1nthesis C1c.ohe@i,ide & $. venezuelae, protein s1nthesis? Eu8ar1ote 01stain & $. nouresii Eu8ar1ote ,e,3rane Er1thro,1cin & $. nouresii fungi & 'ro8ar1ote Er1thro,1ci & $. erythreus # O 9e? #-9e? 'rotein s1nthesis 0eo,1cin & $. fradiae # O 9e? #-9e? protein s1nthesis 0on .egu,es & Alnus, casurna, yrica !ran"ia ssociati9e $1,3iosis & Azpospirillum $1,3iosis & Rhizobium $te, and root nodu.es & $es3ania? Azorbizobium caulonodans, Azospirillum and Azotobacter# Cerea.s? oi. seeds? 9egeta3.es? horticu.ture $eed treat,ent % $eed.ing treat,ent % $etts treat,ent $oi. treat,ent )66gE 16-1) 8g seeds 1-) 8gE ha % )-* 8gEP % +-- 8gEha

+. CRO' 'HK$IOLO#K
Respiration
* Respiration in p.ants consists of #.1co.1sis A >re3s C1c.e and ETC 4E.ectron Transport Chain7 * #.1co.1sis occurs in the c1top.as, A >re3s c1c.e and ETC in the ,itochondria * #.1co.1sis is anaero3ic * Tota. T' s1nthesis fro, on ,o.ecu.e of g.ucose in respiration is *5 T' 40et gain7 #ross production is *< T' * Tota. T' s1nthesis in g.1co.1sis is + E g.ucose 40et gain & ) T'7 * >re3s c1c.e is a.so ca..ed as citric acid c1c.e or TC 4tricar3o@1.ic acid c1c.e7 * Fina. product of g.1co.1sis is p1ru1ate * naero3ic respiration path/a1 products are ethano. and .actic acid * CO) ,o.ecu.es are re.eased fro, the ,itochondria during respiration. * >re3s c1c.e starts /ith acet1. co and o@a.oacetate * E.ection transport chain is present in the cristae of ,itochondria /here% T' is s1nthesiFed in respiration. * The high energ1 co,pound s1nthesiFed during respiration is 31 o@idati9e phosphor1.ation of 2' /ith ' 4inorganic phosphate7 * C1tochro,es are e.ectron carriers in9o.9ed in the respirator1 e.ection transport chain * Energ1 content of ,o.ecu.e of g.ucose is 5<5 >C L or )<;6 >I * 1 ,o.ecu.e of T' M ;.5 >C L * 1 ,o.ecu.e of 0 2H) M -) >C L * The energ1 currenc1 of the ce.. is T' 'hotos1nthesis * Tota. car3on fi@ed 31 .and per 1ear M 116 @161) * Tota. car3on fi@ed 31 ocean per 1ear M );* @ 1611 * 'hotos1nthesis acti9e radiation 4' R7 M +66to ;66 n, * (a:or photos1nthetic pig,ents of higher p.ants are Ch.oroph1.. a A ch.oroph1.. 3 * I,portant accessor1 pig,ents is p.ants are carotenoids & 417 caroteins? 4)7 @anthoph1..s * Co) concentration in the at,osphere is *-6 pp, * 'hotos1nthesis reaction % Co) O )H)o O .ight MC5 H1) O5 O H)O O O) * T/o parts of photos1nthesis% * Light it action or hi.. reaction ta8es p.ace , grena of ch.orop.ast dar8 reaction of Ca.9in c1c.e ta8es p.ace in stro,a of ch.orop.ast * The products of the .ight reaction are T' and 0 2'H) Three t1pes of 'hotos1nthesis (echanis,s * C* path/a1 or reducti9e pentose path/a1 or B.ac8,an reaction 4Ca.9in c1c.e7% Rice? Cheat? pea? $o1a3ean? Bar.e1 * C+ path/a1 4Hatch & sac8 path/a1 or 2icar3o@1.ic acid path/a17% $orghu,? (aiFe? $. Cane or B-car3o@1.ation c1c.e or cooperati9e 'hoto s1nthesis * C ( path/a1 4Crassu.acean acid ,eta3o.is,7 4'ineapp.e? opuntia? ga9e7 * The ,ost i,portant enF1,e in9o.9ed in photos1nthetic Co) fi@ation is Ru3isco 4Ri3u.ose-3i phosphate car3o@1.ase7. This is a.so the ,ost a3undant protein in the /or.d * C* p.ant first enF1,e in co) fi@ation % Ru3isco * C+ '.ants first enF1,e in Co) fi@ation% 'E' car3o@1.ase

* Cater use efficienc1% C (LC+LC* * In photos1nthesis .ight energ1 is con9erted into che,ica. energ1 * Light reaction ta8es p.ace in the Th1.a8o:ds and dar8 reaction ta8es p.ace in the stro,a of the ch.orop.ast *Higher producti9e p.ants% C+ 4(aiFe? $. Cane? sorghu,7 *High producti9e p.ants% C* 4Cheat? Rice 'u.ses7 *Lo/ 'roducti9e p.ants% C ( 4'ineapp.e7 *C+ p.ants t/o t1pes of photos1nthesis ce..sT (esoph1.. ce..s and 3und.e sheath ce..s 4>ranF t1pe .eaf anato,17 *'hotorespiration occurs in C* p.ants in .ight on.1. *0or,a. respirationE 2ar8 respiration occurs in a.. ce..s a.. the ti,e in a.. the p.ants. *Ca.9in c1c.e A Hatch & $.ac8. path/a1 occurs in ch.orop.ast *Ch.oroph1.. ,o.ecu.e contains (g*Oion in its structure *'hotos1nthetic rate is the highest in C+ p.ants *Har9est inde@ in cerea.s% 6.+-6.*Har9est inde@ in 'u.ses% 6.)-6.* *The processes of for,ation of T' in ch.orop.ast /ith the he.p of .ight is ca..ed as photophosr1.ation or photos1nthetic phospor1.ation. *First product of photos1nthesis & * '# in C* *One 0 2H) /i.. prpoduce * T' *One F 2H) /i.. produce ) T' (inera. nutrition * Essentia. e.e,ent & 4criteria proposed 31 rnon and stout7 417 In the a3sence of that e.e,ent? p.ants is not a3.e to co,p.ete its .ife c1c.e 4)7 The e.e,ent shou.d not 3e su3stituted 31 other e.e,ent 4*7 e.e,ent shou.d for, a part of an1 ,o.ecu.e or constituent of the p.ant. * Beneficia. e.e,ent &The1 do not for, the constituent of p.ant can gro/ /ithout it 3ut if present it is ad9antageous to the p.ant * (acronutrients% CH? O? 0? $? Ca? (g? >? ' 4L166 UgEg dr1 ,atter7 * (icronutrients % C.? Fe? B? (n? !n? Cu? (o 4166 UgE g dr1 ,ater7 * (o3i.e e.e,ents% 0?'?>? (g? (n? (o? C.? !n and 0a * I,,o3i.e e.e,ents% Bo? Fe? Ca? Cu? $ * Beneficia. e.e,ents% Co? $.? $e.eniu,? 0a? 0. * Co3a.t% Legu,es * $i.icon% Rice? (aiFe * 0ic8e.% Legu,es * Criteria of the essentia.it1 of ,inera. e.e,ents propose 31 rnon and stout * t.east 56 e.e,ents are present in p.ants out of /hich on.1 15 are essentia. Car3on% 4+5S dr1 /eight 3asis7 $ource% Co) fro, the air Function% (ost of the co,pounds in the .i9ing ce..s are C-containing. O@1gen% 4-6S7 $ource% O)? Co)? H)o Function% The ,ost a3undain e.e,ents 31 /eight in p.ants RePuired for a.. co,pounds in p.ants.

H1drogen% 45S7 $ource% H)o Function% (ost a3undant e.e,ents 31 nu,3er of ato,s 'resent in a.. the co,pounds in the .i9ing ce.. Co,ponent of H)o 0itrogen% 1.-S $ource% 0O*? 0H+ in the soi. so.ution? Legu,es through 0) fi@ation. Function% .. the crops prefer 0o*-40itrate7 e@cept Rice /hich prefers 0H+ O 4a,,oniu,7 Co,ponents of nuc.eic acid. Ch.oroph1.. ,o.ecu.e? 'roteins 2eficienc1% 'a.e 1e..o/ .ea9es A reduced gro/th red.ea9es in cerea.s Red co.our de9e.ops in pp.e due to the anthoc1anin production Root .engthening in /heat E@cess 0itrogen .eads to 9egetati9e gro/th? de.a1 in f.o/ering 'hosphorus% 46.)-6.<S7 $ource % H*'O+ A Hpo+ fro, the soi. so.ution Function% Co,ponent of nuc.eic acid? 'hospho.ipids 4(e,3ranes7? T' 2eficienc1% 9aria3.e co.our de9e.op,ent in .ea9es 42ar8 green7 reduced ti..ering A .eaf fa... nthoc1anin produced gi9e pin8 co.our. 'otassiu,% On.1 present in p.ants as >O not 3ound to an1 co,ponents Function% $to,ata. c.osing A opening 2isease resistance Os,otic ad:ust,ent? needed for ce.. e.ongation 2eficienc1% rosette? die 3ac8 in p.ants Ch.orosis% $tunted gro/th A Thin shoots Tip 3urns A .eaf scorch in o.der .ea9es * (agnesiu, Constitutent of ch.oroph1.. cti9ates ,an1 enF1,es 2eficienc1% O.der .ea9es affected Cho.orosis. $and dro/n disease in to3acco * $u.phur% 6.1S $ource% $o.u3.e su.phates Functions% ,inoacids 4C1stein and (ethonene7 CoenF1,e "o.ati.e Oi.s 2eficienc1% 2o/n/ard cupping of .ea9es e.g. to3acco? Torr? Tea? Tea 1e..o/ disease Ch.orosis * Ca.ciu,% Functions% Ca.ciu, pectate is present in the ,idd.e .a,e..a of the ce.. /a.. T'ase acti9ator Counteract ,eta. to@icit1 2eficienc1%

Koung .ea9es are ,ost.1 affected Hoo8ed tips A distort .ea9es * Iron Co,ponent of c1tochro,es? Cata.ase? pero@idase 2eficienc1% L Inter9iena. Ch.orosis 4iron Ch.orosis7 Leaf 3.eaching 4$. Cane7 2eficienc1 s1,pto,s * 0% genera. star9ation * Fe% Inter9iena. ch.orosis e.g. $. Cane * (n% #re1 spec8 2isease of oats? pah.a 3.ight of sugarcane? ,arsh spot of pea * Copper% 2ie 3ac8 disease of citrus or e@anthe,a? Rec.a,ation? /hite tip disease * !inc% (ott.ed .eaf of citrus? drenching of citrus * Litt.e .eafE Rosette as in pp.e? 'ine? 'each /a.nut? citrus etc? /hite tip of ,aiFe >haira disease of rice * (o.13denu,% Chip tai. of cau.if.o/er and 3rassicae? sca.d of .egu,es * Boron% Heart rot of sugar 3eet and ,arigo.d Can8er of ta3.e 3eet Bro/ning A Ha..o/ ste, of cau.if.o/er Crac8ed ste, of a.fa-a.fa Hard fruits of Citrus Top sic8ness of To3acco Cater core of turnip * 'hosphorus% $ic8.e .eaf disease * Ca.ciu,% 3.osso, End Rot 4BER7 in to,ato and Tip hoo8ing in cau.if.o/er

-. E0TO(OLO#K
'er ha. consu,ption of pesticides in India% +<6--66 g?Eha The pesticide consu,ption is ,a@i,u, in ndhra 'radesh 'er ha. Consu,ption is ,a@i,u, in Ta,i. 0adu Consu,ption of 'esticide- ,a@i,u, I,ported% Car3ar1. fo..o/ed 31 cho.orp1riphos Indigenous% BHC fo..o/ed 31 (onocrotophos A Endosu.fan -. E@port of gro che,ica.s (a@i,u, 4in ter,s of rupees7% c1per,ethrin fo..o/ed 31 Endosu.fan? a.u,iniu, 'hosphide A Lindane 5. The top gro3usiness co,pan1% 0o9artis 4Hindustan ci3a-#eig1 A $andoF7 ;. Tota. production of pesticides in India % <<?<=6 tones 41==+-=-7 <)?666 tones 41==--=57 4'ro9isiona.7 <. 0u,3er of pesticides registered in India% L---4as on *1E1)E==7 =. 0u,3er of technica. grade pesticides ,anufactured in India% 16. '.ant 'rotection ad9iser to #OL% 2r. R.L. R I >. 11. Insecticides ct% 1=5< 4Tha8ur co,,ittee reco,,endation7 Insecticides ru.es % 1=;1 Bro/n re9o.ution 'ro,otion of gro Industries 29t. 'in8 re9o.ution 'ro,otion of onion production Ke..o/ re9o.ution 'ro,ision of oi.seeds production The /ord green re9o.ution /as coined 31 QCi..ia, #addR Father of #reen re9o.ution 0or,an E. Bor.aoug. Father of #reen re9o.ution in India 2r. (.$. $/a,inathan Father of h13rid rice production% 1u9an .ong ping First .aureate of the Q/or.d foodH priFe% 2r. $/a,inathan Cor.d Food priFe & 1==5 Rice 3reeders% 2r. H. (. Beache.. 2r. #urde9 singh 8hush 'esticide ca.cu.ation 17 pp.1 6.;- 8g a.i.E ha of *S car3ofuran granu.es For,u.a% Rec. 2ose of ai.Eha @ 166 S a.. of for,u.ation 6.;-@166M)-8g granu.esEha * )7 Nuantit1 of ,a.athion -6 EC rePuired to spra1 1 ha of fie.d? o.-S strength 'esticide "1 @ 01 "1 M ") @ 0) 0) M ") @ 0) 4$pra1 f.uid7 4-66 .it of spra1 f.uid in rePuiredEha7 1. ). *. +.

-66@6.M -6 'ests of $ugarcane 17 $hoot 3orer% $hilo infuscatellus 4cra,3idae7 or ear.1 shoot 3orer 0u,3er of feeding punctures near the 3ase of shoot. Rotten portion of stra/ co.ored dead heart e,its offensi9e odour. It can 3e pu..ed out east.1. Contro.% Earthing up during ear.1 stage. - Trash ,u.ching - Trichogra,,a Chi.onis $oi. app.ication of #a,,as HCH e,u.sion D 1 8g a.i.Eha o9er the cane sets in fa,ous at the ti,e of p.anting - #ranu.osis "irus can a.so 3e used )7 Top 3orer% $cirphophaga e@cerpta.is 4'r1a.idae7 (idri3 tunne..ing. $hot & ho.es on a@ia. 3ud gro/th .ea9es? dead heart and can 3e pu..ed out easi.1 and gi9en 3unch1 top appearance? cria. root for,ation. Contro.% - 9oiding of frePuent irrigation - Car3ofuran D 1 8g a.i.Eha s1nchroniFing /ith 3rood e,ergence - Trichogra,,a :aponicu, - 're-pupa. parasitoid Isoti,a Ia9ensis - Resistant 9ar% COI5;? CO 166; *7 Internode 3orer% $hilo sacchavipha%us indicus &crambidac) ttac8 starts fro, +th ,onths on/ards. Internodes constricted and shortened /ith ,an1 3ore ho.es% fresh 3ore ho.es /ith /et frass? stunted gro/th. (a:or pests in peninsu.ar India. Hardening of internodes. Contro.% 2etrashing at -.; A =th ,onths -T- chi.onis D *.- ccEhaEfortnight fro, +th ,onth unti. a ,onth 3efore har9est. +7 #urdaspur 3orer% 4Cra,3idae7 Aci%one steniellea T/o phases% #egarious phase & feed on first internode fro, to A ,a1 .ar9ae enter into the core through sing.e ho.e. $o.itar1 phase & dispersed to other ca,e 31 si.hen treads. -7 Chite gru3% 'olotrichia consan%uinea( '. Serrata. & eloionthidae Anomula be%%lensis 4Rute.inae7 2r1ing of crops % Ke..o/ing A ni33.ing of .ea9es% roots eaten a/a1. Contro.% )etarhizium onisopliae -'udding A crop rotation B. Popillae ,i.81 disease 57 Ter,ites% Odentotermes spp( icrotermes obesi O.der .ea9es dr1 up first A cane fa..s do/n if distur3ed. Fi..ed /ith ,oist soi. inside the paper1 rind. ;7 $ugarcane sca.e% elanaspis %lomerate( 4diaspridiadae7 #ra1ish 3.oc8 appearance of ste,. Reduced 1ie.d? :uice Pua.it1 of Iagger1 production Contro.% 2etrashing A Trash 3urning. <7 Leaf hopper% Pyrilla perpusilla 4Lophopidae7 Ke..o/ish /hite spots on .ea9esT soot1 ,ou.d on .ater stages. Contro.% E@terne. parasitoid% *piricarlia melanoleuca 4Ephp1ropidae7 #reen ,uscardine fungus% Aceria sacchari &Erioph1idae7 For,ing a circu.ar Ereneu, ga.. in the inner side of the .eaf sheath M - .iters

Cheats 17 The ra3i crops /hich are serious.1 da,aged 31 /hite gru3 3eet.e are /heat and potato. )7 Cheat shootf.1% Atheri%ona na+uii *7 #hu:ia /ee9i.% ,aenymecus indicus is a pest of /heat? 3ar.e1 gra, and ,ustard. The adu.t /ee9i.s cut to ger,inating seed.ings gru3 feed on soi. hu,us. +7 Cheat aphid% acrosiphum miscanthi -7 Cheat ga.. ne,atode or ear coc8.e ne,atode An%uina triticl Bacteriu, associated% $orynebacterium tritici $eed ga..sE Thundu diseaseE 1e..o/ ear rot 4Bacteriu,O0e,atode7 (gt. Hot /ater treat,ent of seeds at -66C for ) hrs. 57 Cheat ste, 3orer Sesamia inferens 40octuidae7. Rice 17 Ke..o/ ste, 3orer% Scirpopha%a incertulas 4'1raustidae7 2eed heat in 1oung seed.ings Chite earhead in panic.e stage. 0o grain for,ation. (onophagous pest Contro.% 17 'arasitiods% ,etrastichus Schoenobii- egg parasitiod ,richo%ramma .aponicum * 2estruction of stu33.es * Host p.ant resistance% T>( 5 resistant 9ariet1 contains Penta deconal A si.ica. * 'hero,one O9iposition deterants in rice for ste, 3orer )7 #a.. f.1 or ga.. ,idge% Orseoeoa oryzae 4Cecido,1iidae7 si.9er shoot or onion .eaf /hich is a ,odified .eaf sheathcaused 31 ,aggot. Bio contro. agent% '.a1igaster or1Fae *7 Leaf fo.der% cnapholocrocis medinalis 4'1raustidae7 Longitadia. fo.ding of .ea9es A dr1ing of .ea9es 31 .ar9a. Contro.% 9oid use of e@cess nitrogen 'arasitoids% ,richo%ramma .apomcum +7 #reen .eaf hopper% )ephotetti/ virescens 4Cicade..idae7 1e..o/ing of .ea9es "ector of rice Tungro? Ke..o/ d/arf? Transitor1 1e..o/ing -7 Bro/n p.anthopper% 0i.apar9ata .ugens 42e.phacidae7 Hopper 3urn dr1ing 3urning s1,pto, in 1oung p.ants. Circu.ar patches of dr1ing. "ector of grass1 stunt. Ragged stunt and /i.ted stunt. 9oid use of e@cess nitrogen Resistant 9arieties% '1*? CO+)? (udgo 4.o/ aspargine content7 Resurgence causing pesticides% cephate? Fenthion? 'hospha,idon? s1nthetic '1rethriods? (eth1. de,eton. 'redators% $yrtorhimus lividipennis Lycosa sp. icrovetia sp. 57 Ear head 3ug% Leptocorisa acuta( L. oratorius 4#undhi 3ug7 4 .1didae7% chaff1 grains /ith 3.ac8 spot. Feeds on tender ste,. 'edunc.e and ,i.81 grains .eads to chaff1 earhead.

Contro.% Fenthion 166 EC )66 ,. (a.athion -S dust D 16 8gEha. C.ean cu.ti9ation- re,o9a. of /eeds A grasses. ;7 Rice root ne,atode% 'irschmaiviella oryzae 4(entc8 disease7 <7 Chite up re,atode or spring d/arf ne,atode% Aphele/hcopdes besseyi hot /ater treat,ent of seeds at -)6C for to ,in. =7 Rice ste, ne,atode% ditylenchus an%ustus Lar9a disease in rice. 167 Rice case /or,% )ymphula depunctalis Lar9a /ith in tu3u.ar cases. F.oating on /ater. Cotton% consu,ing -+S of tota. inscticide in India though the area under cotton is on.1 -S 17 Cotton :assid or .eafhopper% Amrasca devastans &A.bi%uttula bi%uttula cicadellidae) Hopper 3urn 1e..o/ing? cur.ing? 3ronFing A dr1ing. )7 Chitef.1% 0emisia tabaci 4 .e1rodidae7 $hedding of .ea9es? stunting of p.ants? 3ud 3o.. opening and poor Pua.it1 .int.? conta,ination of .int /ith hone1 de/ and soot1 ,ou.d appearance. "ector of cotton .eaf cur. 9irus disease in 'un:a3. Chitef.1 out3rea8 on cotton in ' during 1=<--<5. Out3rea8 /as due to indiscri,inate use of insecticides particu.ar.1 s1nthetic p1rethroids against He.iothis. *7 $potted 3o../or,% *arias vitella $pin1 3o../or,% *arias insulana 40octuidae7 $1,pto,% Boring of ter,ina. shoots of 1oung? p.ants QF.aring of sPuaresR and 3oring of 1oung 3o..s frass at the entrance ho.e. (oths are green in co.our. +7 'in8 3o../or,% Pectinophora %ossypiella 4#e.ichidae7 $1,pto,% Rosetting of f.o/ers Eating of seeds 2ou3.e seed for,ation? Locu.ar 3urro/ing 2iapause during /inter -7 ,erican 3o../or,% 'elicoverpa armi%era 40octuidae7 .arge? circu.ar 3ore ho.es /ith faeca. pe..ets. Lar9ae feed 31 thrusting their heads a.one inside. 57 Red cotton 3ug% 1ysdercus cin%ulatus 4'1rrhocoridae7 Roting of 3o..s% /ater soa8ed spots La1 eggs in soi. Bacteri, associated% )ematospora %ossypii & staining of hint. Contro. ,easures% .. pests

i7 Crop rotation /ith cerea.% Bhendi shou.d not 3e gro/n in rotation ii7 Ke..o/ stic81 trap for ,onitoring /hitef.1 iii7 Chitef.1 to.erant 9ar. L'$ 1+1 and $upri1a i97 'hero,one trap for 'BC 4#oss1p.ure7 'hero,one trap for He.icopi9eria 4He.i.ure7 Bio.ogica. contro.% ,richo%ramma chilonis against 3o../or,s $podoptera 0'" )-6--66 LEEha 41 LEM5@16= 'OBM * .ar9ae7 He.ico9erpa 0'" B.t. For,u.ation against ear.1 instars of 3o../or,s $1nthetic p1rethriods shou.d 3e used on.1 during pea8 f.o/ering and 3o.. for,ation stages. $te, /ee9i.% Pempherulus affinis $te, ga.. near the 3ase of the p.ant (CU * & resistant 9ariet1 Contro. & soi. app.ication of granu.ar insecticideE0ee, ca8e Chic8 pea 4Benga. gra,7 17 'elicoverpa armi%era & #ra, pod 3orer or gra, caterpi..ar consu,e fo.iage and de9e.oping pods. )7 2reasy cut3orm, A%rotis ypsilon 40octuidae7 Cut the ste,s at ground .e9e. Regu.ar pest% Occur ,ost frePuent.1 on cu.ti9ated crops Eg.% cotton 3o../or,s? Brin:a. fruit 3orer Occasiona. pest% Occurring .ess frePuent.1 Eg.% case /or, on rice $easona. pests% Occurs in a particu.ar season of 1ear Eg.% red hair1 caterpi..ar on groundnut 'ersistent pest% Occurs throughout the 1ear on crops Eg.% chi..i thrips. Rose thrips $poradic pests% Occurs in a fe/ iso.ated .oca.ities Eg.% #a.. ,idge on rice in (adurai area Ende,ic pests% Occurs in sa,e gri.. rea 1ear after 1ear Eg.% ne,atode on potato in 0i.gris

(igrator1 pests% (o9es fro, one area to others and causes da,age Eg.% Locust Epide,ic pests% Occur in particu.ar areaEseason in se9ere for, 'ande,ic pests% Occur in a .arge geographica. areaEentire countr1 or continent Eg.% .ocust out3rea8 0CI'( & 0ationa. Centre for Integrated 'est (anage,ent & I RI? 0e/ 2e.hi C'''TI & Centra. '.ant 'rotection Training Institute & H1dera3ad * The .argest per hectare pesticide consu,ing countr1 & Tai/an * Tota. nu,3er of pesticides 3anned in India M )= * Recent.1 3anned - 'hospha,idon * Highest consu,ption & cotton -+S fo..o/ed 31 padd1 ))S

5. #RO0O(K
'RI0CI'LE$ OF CRO' 'RO2UCTIO0% 1. CLI( TE 02 IT$ I0FULE0CE O0 CRO'$ Ceather is a condition of at,osphere at a gi9en p.ace at a gi9en ti,e C.i,ate is a /eather condition o9er a gi9en region during a .ongest period. $tructure of at,osphere Troposphere- statosphere- (esosphere & .onosphere par .. /eather pheno,ous .i8e rain? fag? a3o9e ,ist occur in ,roposphere Fone found in stratosphere. $o.ar constant% Energ1 fa..ing in one ,inute is a surface area of one sPuare c, at the outer 3oundar1 of at,osphere. It is ePui9a.ent to 1.=+ ca.Ec,) E,in. 'hotos1nthetica.1 cti9e Radiation 'hotoperiodic effect & inf.uence of crop gro/th 31 the re.ati9e .ength of da1 and night especia..1 for f.ora. inition Long da1 p.ant & p.ants rePuire .ong da1 4L1+ hrs.7 for f.ora. inifiation 4eg. Cheat? Bar.e1? Oat7 $hort da1 p.ant & '.ants rePuire shor8erda1 4.ess than 16 hrs7 4 eg. Rice? $orghu, (aiFe7 0eutra. p.ants & cotton? sunf.o/er? 3uc8 /heat 9erage rainfa.. in India & 41)6 c,7 Rain 3earing c.ouds & cu,u.oni,3us? cu,u.us. Rain1 da1 & if the rainfa.. recei9ed is ,ore than ).- ,, on a particu.ar da1 it is ca..ed as rain1 da1. Instru,ents Radiation% '1rano,eter% 'ressure % Barograph 'hotos1nthetica..1 acti9e radition% Puantu, sensor Te,perature% Ther,ograph% Hu,idit1-'s1chro,eter 4or7 h1gro,eter 2e/% 2aroso,eter% /ater ta3.e% 'iFo,eter rain &Raingauge $oi. ,oisture % Tensio,eter Che,ica. used for c.oud seeding & $i.9er iodide for co.d c.ouds sodiu, ch.oride for /ar, c.oud Indian (eteoro.ogica. organiFation situated in 'U0E Isother, & Lines of ePua. te,perature Iso3ar & Lines of ePua. pressure Isoh1ets- Lineo of ePua. rainfa.. Isotach & Lines of ePua. /ind speed >harif season crop- Iune to $epte,3er crops 4sorghu,? ,aiFe? rice? cotton? pegion pea? other pu.ses? ground nut7 Ra3i season crops & crop gro/n during /inter 4Octo3er (arch7 eg. /heat? chic8pea? oat? 3ar.e1? sun f.o/er.

II. #ROCTH 02 2E"ELO'(E0T C* p.ant & eg. Rice? /heat ? cotton? so13ean EnF1,e- ri3u.ose 1.--3isphosphate car3o@1.ate photorespiration is high in C* p.ants 4Ru3isco7 C+ '.ants- sugarcane? ,aiFe? sorgha, pear. ,i..et enF1,e 'E' Car3o@1.ase C (- 'ine app.eT sisa.? oga9e '.ant gro/th regu.ators 4co,,ercia. use7 in gricu.ture. 3scisic acid- Cotton defo.iatantT ).+? -2- her3icide #.1phosate & $ugarcane ripener% ga33roic acid & seed .ess grape 0 - fruits thinner? f.o/er initiation (H & $uccur contro. in to3acco? Ethe.ene & ripening of fruits III. $OIL A FERTILI!ER $oi. ferti.it1 & Inherent capacit1 of soi. to supp.1 adePuated nutrients $oi. 'roducti9it1 & Capacit1 of soi. to produce in ter,s of 1ie.ds. $oi. te@ture & re.ati9e proportion of soi. partic.es i.e. c.a1 si.t. nd sand $oi. structure & arrange,ent of soi. partic.es 'artic.e di,ension% $and 6.) to 6.6)? si.t 6.6) to 6.66) C.a1 V 6.66)? gra9e.L ),, Cru,31 structure is 3etter for crop cu.ti9ation 'ore space space occup.ied 31 /ater and rain Tota. pore space is ,ore in c.a1 soi. Bu.. densit1 & /eight of soi. per unit 9o.u,e- 1.-gEc,* 'artic.e densit1 & /eight of so.id portion of soi. per unit 9o.u,e & ).5gEc,* S pore space & 'artic.e densit1 & 3u.8densit1 ------------------------------------ @ 166 partic.e densit1 $oi. air- Co) concentration o9er 6.*S Ce.. deco,posed organic ,atter is ca..ed as hu,us Car3on% 0itrogen 4C%07 ration for organic ,atter & 1)%1 Legu,e & )*%1 cerea.s &=6S FK( % 166 $oi. /ater Fie.d capacit1 & the soi. ,oisture he.d 31 the soi. against gra9itation Force% energ1 status - -6.1 to 6.** 3ar 9ai.a3.e soi. ,oisture% -6.** 3ar to &1- 3ar M1-5= g nnua. ferti.iFer consu,ption% 15%1< (T 'er ha ferti.iFer consu,ption M ;5%< 8gEha Ferti.iFer Organic ferti.iFer & ureaT 0eutra. ferti.iFer & C 0 =ca.ciu, a,,oniu, nitrate7 Reco,,ended ratio of 0'> for crops +%)%1 0'> t present India to consu,ption ratio% =%*%1 0'> 'er area ferti.iFer consu,ption ,ore in 'un:a3 union feretor1 'ondicher1. Tota. pesticide consu,ption

2eficienc1 disorders (n. #ra1 spec8 in oat? (arsh spot in pea? paha.a 3.ight in sugarcane Cu. Rec.a,ation disease in cerea.s !n. >harif in rice? /hite 43ud7 in ,aiFe? Frenching on citrus (o. Chiptai. is cau.if.o/er (g. Is a constituent of ch.oroph1.. Bo. Bro/ning of cau.if.o/er $1,3iotic nitrogen fi@ing 3acteria% RhiFo3iu, #ene responsi3.e for 0 fi@ation & 0if genes (icro e.e,ent needed for 0 fi@ation (o.13denu, Free .i9ing 0 fi@ing 3acteria Azotobactor, c.ostridiu, (icro organis, associated /ith casua9ina fran8ia Con9ersion of a,,onia to nitrite & 0itroso,onas? Con9ersion of nitrite of 0itrate- 0itro3acter I". TILL #E Ti.th ph1sica. condition of soi. resu.ting fro, Ti..age I,p.e,ents used for pri,ar1 ti..age% countr1 p.ough ? (ou.d3oard? '.ough? Bose p.ough I,p.e,ents used for secondar1 ti..age &4 3.ade harro/? disc harro/s tractor dra/an u.ti9ator7 Breeding su3 soi. & chise. p.ough 'udding & Cet .and pudd.er? tractor dra/n cage /hee. $o/ing & (echanica. seed dri.. Ceeding & Iapanese rotar1 /eeder 0et so/n M 1+* ,ha 41==<7 and 1+).)) ,ha 1=== Rainfed M =) ,ha 41==<7 Irrigated M -6 ,ha? )- ,ha 4*;.5S7 ". IRRI# TIO0 'otentia. area under irrigation <=.++ ,ha (a:or irrigation pro:ect & 'ro:ect co9ering ,ore than 16?666 ha of co,,and area (ediu, & )666- 16?666ha (inor irrigation pro:ect & .ess than )666 ha 1 ha c, M 1 .a8h .iter of /ater 1 cu3ic ,etre & 1666 .itre of /ater 1 cu feet & )<.*) .iters 2ut1 of /ater & 0u,3er of hectare irrigated 31 constant f.o/ of one current of /ater 2e.ta & Tota. depth of /ater irrigated 31 one ha. Transpiration & gaseous .oss of /ater fro, the surface .eaf E9apotranspiration & E9aporation O Transpiration Cater use efficienc1 & Ratio 3et/een 1ie.d and E9apotranspiration or CUE M KE ET Consu,pti9e use Irrigation efficienc1 ,ore in c.a1 soi.. .ess the sand1 soi. T1pe of irrigation F.ooding & rice? chec8 3asins /heat finger ,i..o 4ground pit7

Basin ,ethod & Fruit? crops% furro/ irrigation? cotton? sugarcane to3acco? 9egeta3.esT sprin8.er undu.ated areas I,portant ri9er pro:ect Ri9e 1. 2a,odar ). $ut.et *. >osi +. (ahanadi -. >rishna 5. Tunga3hadra ;. Cha,3a. 0a,e of the pro:ect 2a,odar 9a..e1 pro:ect Bha8raT nanga. 4Indira #andhi7 >osi 2a, Hira8und 4.argest da, in the /or.d7 0agaar:una sagar Tunga 3hadra pro:ect #andhi sagar? >ota Borrage 4Ranna pratap sagar7 states 3enefited Cest Benga. 'un:a3? H. ' Ra:asthan BiharE0epa. Orrisa ndra? >arnata8a >0? ' ('. Ra:asthan

Cater rePuire,ent of crops Rice & 1)-6 ,, /heat *66-+66 ,, groundnut --6-566. sugar cane ))-6-)-66,, 2RK F R(I0# The practice of crop production entire.1 /ith rain/ater recei9ed during the crop season in .o/ rainfa.. 4V<66,,7 areas is ca..ed as dr1 or dr1.and far,ing. rid c.i,ate% E@tre,e.1 dr1 c.i,ate /ith an annua. a9erage precipitation usua..1 .ess than )-6 ,,. $eed hardening% 'rocess of su3:ecting seeds 3efore so/ing to a.ternate c1c.e of /etting and dr1ing to induce to.erance to drought. 'ro.ine% Che,ica.s? >)H)$O+? >CL 6.- is an a,ino acid /hich is increased in p.ants during drought. Cater har9esting & Co..ecting and storage /ater on the surface of soi. for su3sePuent use. ntitrans pirants & n1 ,ateria. app.ied to transpiring p.ant surfaces for reducing /ater .oss. T1pes $to,ata. c.osing t1pe- 'hen1. ,ercuric acetate 4'( 7 Fi., for,ing t1pe & (o3i.eaf? $i.icone oi. Ref.ectant- >ao.ine spra1 #ro/th retartent & c1coce. HERBICI2E$ $e.ecti9e her3icide & >i..s on.1 targeted p.ants on /eeds /hi.e crops are ont affected Eg. $io,aFine? atraFine? )?+-2 3utach.or? a.ach.or? f.uch.ora.in 'endi,etha.u, (C' ? #.1phosate? 'ropani. 0on $e.ecti9e her3icide & >i.. a.. 9egetation that the1 co,e in confact. Eg. 'araPuat? 2iPuat. $1ste,ic her3icide% $1ste,ic her3icide ,o9e /ithin the p.ant Eg% tra1ine? si,a1i3ne? propani.? ).+-2 (C' ? #.1pthocte Butach.or? F.uch.ora.in. etc.

Contact her3icide & >i..s p.ants /hen the1 co,e in contact /ith p.ants Eg. 2iPuat? 'araPuat. 're-e,ergence app.ication & app.ication of her3icide 3efore the e,ergence of /eeds. 4c+7 'araPuat? 2iguat? ).+-2? 'ropani.? Isoproturon? #.1phosate . 're '.anting incorporation & app.ication of her3icide 3efore so/ing of crops eg. F.uch.ora.in. $oi. steri.enths & 4eg.7 2iuron? traFine? (eth1. 3ro,ide Effecti9e her3icides on (onocot1.idous /eeds & eg. de.apon? f.uch.oa.in. Her3icides /hich ha9e .o/ residua. to@icit1- 2iPuat paraPuat Her3icides /hich ha9e high residua. to@icit1 & 2iuron traFine. 'arasitic /eeds - Ceds /hich deri9es foods direct.1 fro, the host p.ant Tota. ste, parasite - Cuscuta associated /ith .ucorn crop 'artia. ste, parasite - Loranthus associated /ith tree crops Tota. root parasite - Ora3anche associated /ith To3acco 'artia. root parasite - $triga associated /ith sorghu, Puati9e /eeds - Ceeds gro/ing in /ater 3odies eg. Cater h1acinth? h1dri..a? $a.9ania? cattai. /eeds. ..e.opath1 & One p.ant ha9ing detri,enta. effect on other p.ants 31 re.easing root che,ica. through roots. "I . CRO''I0# $K$TE( (ono Cropping & #ro/ing of on.1 one crop on a piece of .and 1ear after 1ear (u.ti9e cropping & #ro/ing t/o or ,ore crops on the sa,e piece of .and in one ca.ender 1ear. Inter cropping & #ro/ing ) or ,ore crops si,u.taneous.1 /ith definite ro/ arrange,ent. $ePuentia. cropping- #ro/ing at .o/ or ,ore crops in sePuate on the sa,e piece of .and in a far,ing 1ear. Cropping Intensit1 & Ratio 3et/een grass so/n area and 0et so/n area is #ross $o/n rea J 166 0et so/n ares M1*1.)S !aid cropping & #ro/ing of crops in 3et/een >harif and ra33i season Iha,E shifting cu.ti9ation & The s.ash and 3urn t1pe of cu.ti9ation in the hi.. treats of 0orth Eastern Region. Catch crop & Nuic8 gro/ing crop incidenta..1 p.anted and har9ested in 3et/een t/o ,a:or crops? ,ain.1 to uti.iFe residua. ferti.iFer Co9er crop & Crops /hich are gro/n pri,ari.1 to co9er the soi. and to reduce the .oss of ,oisture and eroion (u.t1 store1 cropping- s1ste, of gro/ing together crops of different heights at the sa,e ti,e on the sa,e piece of .and 4eg.7 coconut O 'epper O cocoa O 'ineapp.e 0urse area & *)< ,ha. #ross so/n are & ,ha - 0et so/n area & 1+* ,ha forest co9er. "II. CEE2 ( 0 #E(E0T Ceed % is an un/anted p.ants? a p.ant out of p.ace

C.assification of /eeds 1. Based on duration% 4a7 nnua.s & Co,p.ete their .ife e1c.ein one 1ear eg. 'ha.oris ,onr? Echinoc.oa co.onu,? ,aranthus 4'ig /eed fa,i.17 437 Binnea. /eeds & co,p.ete their .ife c1c.e in fi9e 1ears 4eg.7 .ternanithra echinataT Eichorruti, int13us W 'erennia. /eeds & (ore than ) 1ears 4eg.7 c1noda, dact1.on? c1perus rotundus )7 Based on (orpho.ogica. Characters% 4a7 #rasses & /eeds 3e.ong to the fa,i.1 of gra,inance $U# RC 0E The sugarcane f.o/ering in ca..ed as rro/ing? $acharu, $pontoneu, & /i.d t1pe cane $. officinariu, - Ca..ed as 0o3.e can used for che/ing purpose dsa.i sugarcane - $ugarcane /hich ta8es 1< ,onths for har9esting usua..1 p.anted in IuneEIu.1 48harif7 E8sa.i sugarcane - It ta8es 1) ,onths for ,aturit1. Usua..1 p.anted in 2ece,3erE Ianuar1 is south India Fe3E pri in 0orth India 42ue to .ate har9est of Rice7 Bri@ (eter - is the instru,ent used to the ,aturit1 of sugarcane Bri@ ,eter ,adding of 1<-))S is idea. ti,e 3efore har9est sugar or sucrose content of cane 16 S Largest area and - U.' =-;S area? +;S products 7 'roduction Highest producti9it1 - Ta,i. 0adu $eed rate - * 3udged set )--*6666 sets ) 3ud & +---6666 sets and sing.e 3udded % 1.)-666 $pacing - =6 c, 3et/een the ro/s Ferti.iFer - & );6%1-6%1)6 8g 8g a.i.Eha $ugarcane ripener - #.1phosine - 8g E ha Ceeds - $orghu, ha.apense? C1nodan dect1.on c1pones Her3icides traFine D 1 8g a.i.Eha 'ost e,ergence - )?+-2 "arieties - Red rot resistant 9ar & Co 11+<? co 1=?B1; $,ut resistant 9ar - co -)-;? ++= Conder cane - COC 5;1 4highest sugar S7 Kie.d - 0orth India &56-166 tEha $outh India 4Tn7 - 1)6-1+6 tEha Crop production Cheat & Triticu, aesti9u, & re ; ,ha. 'roduction ;6.< ,t. Highest production- U'T Highest producti9it1 & 'un:a3? protein & 11S? 'rotein of /heat is ca..ed as g.ute.in. Three groups of /heat are 417 Triticu, aesti9u, 4Bread /heat7 <;S of area 4)7 T. duru, 4(acroni /heat7 1)S of area 4*7 T. dicoccu, 4E,,er /heat7 1S area. "arieties & 0or,a. so/n- >a.1ansona? $onora 5+T Ler,aro:a $a3ar,athi sonora 4(utant 9ar7? r:un? Heera Late $o/n & $ona.i8a $eason & 0or,a. so/n & 1 fortnight of 0o9e,3er Late so/n & II fortnight of 0o9e,3er $eed rate- 166 >g. $pacing )).- c, 3et/een ro/s? 0o spacing 3et/een p.ants? depth of so/ing? depth & - c, d/arf 9arieties? Critica. period for irrigation & Cro/s not initiation stage 4)6-)- 2 $7 Ceeds & pha.aris ,inor? /i.d oat? Her3icides- Isoproturon? ).+ 2 4post e,ergence7

Ferti.iFer & <6% +6% +6 8g 0'>Eha Kie.d - 9erage )-66 8gE ha #ene responsi3.e for d/arf in /heat & 0orin &16 Rice Or1Fa sati9a & rea +6 ,ha? production <5 ,t. Highest production and producti9it1 /est 3enga. protein content &;S #ene responsi3.e for d/arf 9arieties & 2EE-gee-/oo-gen Three t1pes- 17 Indica 4.ong ste, /hich had .odging tendenc17 )7 Iapanica 4short ste, /hich has no Lodging Tendenc17 *7 Iapanica 4 /i.d t1pe7 Three t1pes of rice cu.ture & Up.and? Lo/ and 2eep /ater rice Up.and & $eeds are so/n direct.1 of the ,ain fie.d. 56S of area is under up.and. $eed rate 166 8g. Cet or transp.anting s1ste,- 0urser1 area 1E16 area of ,ain fie.d 2apog ,ethod of 0urser1 & Originated fro, phi.ippines? *6-+6 ,) is enough for p.anting one hectare $eed rate & +6--6 8gEha? spacing short duration 9ar & )6@16. ,ediu, duration 9ar & )6@1Ferti.iFer & 166%-6%-6 8g 0'>Eha. !n & )- 8gEha $eason hu,an rice & (a1 -Iune har9ested in Oct.E2ec. U$ rice- so/n in (archE pri. har9ested in Iu.1E ugust Boro rice- 2ece,3erE Ianuar1 har9ested in pri.E (a1 Ceeds & Echinoc.oa co.onu,? E.gresga.i Her3icides & 're e,ergence & Butach.or 4,achete7 "arieties & Taichung 0ati9e 4T0I7 is first de9e.oped d/arf 9ariet1 in rice 2rought to.erant 9ariet1- Ba.a? Bha9ani B.ast resistant 9ar. &Ia1a. Rasi? CO-1+ BLB resistant & T>(-5 $a.t resistant & Ia1a? Ratna $uper rice- Lunisree is a 9ariet1 de9e.oped 31 C'RI 2eep /ater rice- 'an8a:? Iaganath Kie.d 0ationa. a9erage 1;-6 8gEha Benga. gra, 4Chic8pea7 & $icer arietinum rea ;.<; ,ha. 'roduction +.- ,t. It occupies an are **S of area under pu.ses and +6S of pu.se production Leaf contains (a.ic acid /hich is used for during sto,ach disorder $eason-II fortnight of Octo3erE $pacing *6@16. seed rate 1668g ferti.iFer &)6 8g 0? 56 >g 'Eha% depth of so/ing ;-16 c, 0ipping & '.uc8ing of apica. 3uds on *6 2 $ to encourage .atera. 3ranching Har9est- duration 1-6 da1s? a9erage 1ie.d irrigated & 1-66 8gs? rainfed +66--66 8g Redgra,E rharE'igeonpea- $a4anus ca4an $eason-IuneEIu.1? $eed rate-1- 8gEha? spacing- E@tra ear.1 9ar & -6 @*6? Ear.1 9ar & ;-@*6? Long duraation-=6@*6 "arieties- 'usa geti? pra3hat? (u8hta 4Ci.t resistant7 #round nut? Arachis hypo%ea Origin & BraFi. Largest producer- #u:aratT Oi. & +6--6S? $oi. & $and1 .oa, $eason &IuneEIu.1 =8harif7? $eed rate & 1)6 8g for spreading t1pe? 116 for 3unch t1pe? $pacing- +-@1- 4$preading7? *6@16 4Bunch7 Ferti.iFer &)6-+6T +6-=6T )6-+6 8g 0'>Eha? #1psu,- +668gEha spreading t1pe has 2or,anc1? to 3eat dor,anc1 # * is used Bunch t1pe tends to ger,inate in the fie.d itse.f 3efore har9est to arrest this (4,a.ic h1draouide7 is used. 0 D +6 pp, on +6 2 $ for f.ora. initiation spergi..us f.a9us is the fungi /hich affect 8erna. during shortage? fa.oto@in is produced 31 this fungi so the 8erna. 3e co,es 3itter in taste.

;. ECO0O(IC$
R TIO (ETHO2$ . Capita. Ratios% 1. 0et capita. Ratio M Tota. assets Tota. .ia3i.ities Cor8ing assets O Current assets ). Cor8ing capita. RatioM inter,ediar1 .ia3i.ities O current .ia3i.ities Current assets *. Current ratio M Current .ia3i.ities 2eferred .ia3i.ities +. 2e3t ePuit1 ratio M 0et Corth B. Inco,e Ration% #ross inco,e 1. Rate of turn o9er M Tota. assets Tota. returns to fi@ed far, resources ). 0et inco,e per acreM Tota. acres C. Cost Ratios% Tota. e@penses 1. #ross ratioM #ross inco,e Fi@ed e@penses ). Fi@ed ratioM #ross inco,e Operating e@penses *. operating ratioM #ross inco,e 2. 1. d:usted crop 1ie.d M Crop 1ie.d inde@ J Cropping intensit1 on the far, Cropping intensit1 in the area 'otentia. net inco,e per hectare on the far, ). s1ste, inde@ M 9erage net inco,e per hectare in the area J 166

Cost concepts in far, (anage,ent 1. Cost 1 M "a.ue of casua. .a3our O attached .a3our O hired 3u..oc8 .a3our O i,puted 9a.ue of o/ned 3u..oc8 .a3our O hired ,achine .a3our O i,puted 9a.ue of o/ned ,achine .a3our O seed O ,anure and ferti.iFers O p.ant protection che,ica.s O irrigation charges O interest on /or8ing capita. O depreciation O .and re9enue. ). Cost ) M Cost 1 O rent paid for .eased in .and? if an1 *. Cost B M Cost 1 O i,puted renta. 9a.ue of o/ned .and O interest on o/ned .and capita. +. Cost C M cost B O i,puted 9a.ue of fa,i.1 .a3our Cost c is a.so ca..ed gross ocost or tota. cost of cu.ti9ation. .. cost that paid out for the factors of production. ##RE# TE (E $URE$ . 1. 0et operation inco,e M #ross inco,e & 4Operating e@penses O depreciation on /or8ing assets7 ). 0et far, inco,e M 0et operating inco,e & 4fi@ed e@penses O depreciation on .i@ed assets7. B. Inco,e ,easures in re.ation to different cost concepts 1. Far, 3usiness inco,e M #ross inco,e & cost 1 ). o/ned far, 3usiness inco,e M #ross inco,e & cost ) *. Fa,i.1 .a3our inco,e M #ross inco,e & Cost B +. 0et inco,e M #ross inco,e & cost C -. Far, in9est,ent inco,e M 0et inco,e O renta. 9a.ue of o/ned .and O interest on o/ned fi@ed capita.. FI0 0CI L TE$T R TIO$ . Test Ratios % Tota. current assets 1. Current ratio M Tota. current .ia3i.ities Tota. current assets O inter,ediate assets ). Inter,ediate ration M Tota. current .ia3i.ities O inter,ediate .ia3i.ities Tota. assets *. 0et capita. ratio M Tota. .ia3i.ities Cash receipt accounts recei9a3.e O $ecurities in ,ore than one 1ear +. cid ratio M Tota. current .ia3i.ities Current .ia3i.it1 -. Current .ia3i.it1 ratio M

O/nerHs ePuit1

Tota. de3ts. 5. 2e3t ePuit1 ratio M or Le9erage ratio O/nerHs ePuit1 O/nerHs ePuit1 ;. EPuit1 to asset 9a.ue ratio M Tota. asses 9a.ue

FI0 0CI L TE$T R TIO$ . Input-Output ratios% Operating e@penses 1. Operating ratio M #ross inco,e Fi@ed e@penses ). fi@ed ratio M #ross inco,e Tota. e@penses *. #ross ratio M #ross inco,e B. In9est,ent to inco,e ratio% #ross inco,e 1. Capita. turn-o9er ratio M 9erage capita. in9est,ent 0et return to capita. ). Rate of return on in9est,ent M 9erage capita. in9est,ent C. nnua. fi@ed cost 1. Brea8-e9en point 4BE'7 M $e..ing cost per unit & 9aria3.e cost per unit ). (argin of safet1 M Tota. output & output at 3rea8 e9en point M Tota. re9enue & re9enue at 3rea8 e9en point Brea8 e9en point out put *. 'ercentage of ,argin of safet1 M "o.u,e of output J 166

I0"E$T(E0T 0 LK$I$ 4C 'IT L BU2#ETI0#7 . Ti,e 9a.ue of ,one1% 1. Future 9a.ue of present ,one1? M '41 OI71 Chere. M future 9a.ue of present su, in9ested in the pro:ect ' M 'rincipa. a,ount in9ested in the pro:ect i M rate on interest t M no. of 1ears of .ife of the pro:ect ). 'resent 9a.ue of future ,one1 . 'C M 41 O I71 41 OI71 - 1 *. Future 9a.ue of annuit1? M F i Chere? ' M annua. in9est,ent 1 O 41OI71 +. 'resent 9a.ue of annuit1. 'C M ' I 'ROIECT ''R I$ L . Undiscounted ,easures% 1. Ran8ing 31 inspection ). 'a1 3ac8 period? ' M 1EF Chere? 1 M in9est,ent a,ount E M annua. net cash re9enue *. 'roceeds per rupee of out.a1 +. a9erage annua. proceeds per rupee of out.a1 B. 2iscounted ,easures% 0 B1 X tM1 41-i7n 1. BenefitECost ratio M 4BCR7 n C1 X tM1 41-i7n Chere1 B1M 3enefit in 1ear C1M cost in 1ear 0M tota. no. of 1ears of pro:ectHs .ife IM discount rate

0 4B1 & C1 ). 0et present 9a.ueE/orth? 0'"E0'C M X tM1 41 O I71 *. Interna. rate of return? IRR M 0'" +. 'rofita3i.it1 inde@? 'I M co 1 M co 1 M co Chere? n X tM6 cr 41OI7t

cr M tota. capita. rePuired Co M initia. capita. e@penditure

<.

#RICULTURE 02 RUR L 2E"ELO'(E0T I0 I02I

* Fa,i.1 is the 3asic unit of societ1. * Fa,i.1 is the 3asic unit of ci9i.iFation. * "i..age is the 3asic unit of rura. societ1. * 'resident of IC R & (inister for agricu.ture. * "ice president of IC R & (inister of $tate - gricu.ture Histor1 of gricu.tura. Research in India% 1<;1 (a1o. 1<;;.;< 1<<1 1<=) after 1<==.1=66 1=61 appointed 1=6* 1=61-60agpur? 1=6CurFon. 1=1= 1=)< research and teaching. % Fa,ine % Inspector genera. of gricu.ture and an i,peria. ,1co.ogist /ere to ad9ice to i,peria. and pro9incia. go9ts. On agricu.tura. ,atters. % n Ento,o.ogist /as e,p.o1ed. % gricu.tura. co..eges /ere esta3.ished at 'une? >anpur? $a3our? L1a..apur and Coi,3atore. % gricu.tura. Research institute /as esta3.ished at pusa? Bihar 31 Lord The .and /as donated 31 (r. 'hipps of U$ after /ho, the p.ace /as 0a,ed as 'U$ . % Constitutiona. refor,s ,ade agricu.ture as state su3:ect. % Ro1a. co,,ission on gricu.ture? headed 31 .ord Lin.ithgo/ reco,,ended setting up of i,peria. counci. of gricu.tura. research to pro,ote? guide and coordinate agricu.tura. research throughout India. % India faced se9ere fa,ine and #OI reso.9ed to set up a Centra. 2ept. of gricu.ture contro..ed 31 i,peria. $ecretariat. % 2ept. of gricu.ture /ere set up in pro9inces % gricu.ture che,ist and an ssistant Che,ist /ere appointed to .oo8 % 2ept. of re9enue? agricu.ture and co,,erce 4chief function co..ection of statistics 4re9enue7 and no agri.. Research7 during the tenure of Lord

The Co,,odit1 co,,ittees% (inistr1 of Food and gricu.ture started se9era. co,,ittees concerned /ith research and de9e.op,ent acti9ities re.ated to specific crops. $o,e had their o/n research stations and so,e are se.f financed.

Kear 1=)1 1=*1 1=*5

Co,,ittee Cotton co,,ittee Lac cess co,,ittee Iute Co,,ittee

Research stationE Institute Techno.ogica. .a3orator1 no/ CTRL (atunga7 Indian .ac Research institute? 0a,8u, 41=*57? Bihar Iute gricu.tura.T Research institute? Barra8pore Iute Techno.ogica. Research La3orator1? Ca.cutta? Cest 3enga. 4Continues at 'age +17

gricu.tura. Uni9ersities C.B. 'ant Uni9ersit1 of gricu.ture and Techno.og1? 'antnagar? is the first gricu.tura. Uni9ersit1 esta3.ished in the 1ear 1=56. Centra. agricu.tura. Uni9ersit1? $hi..ong? is the .atest esta3.ished gricu.tura. Uni9ersit1 There are *6 $tate gricu.tura. Uni9ersities. (a@i,u, + Uni9ersities in (aharastra 'ro:ect 2irectorates% 0a,e Rice Oi.seeds 'ou.tr1 'u.ses Cheat Bio.ogica. Contro. Cater ,anage,ent Cropping $1ste,s Research Catt.e "egeta3.e Research 0ationa. Research Centers 40RCs7 % Integrated 'est (anage,ent #roundnut $orghu, $o13ean Cashe/ Citrus (ushroo, Research and Training $pices gro-forestr1 Ceed $cience Ca,e. EPuines 0e/ 2e.hi 4I RI7 Iunagadh H1dera3ad Indore 'uttur 0agpur $o.an Ca.icut Ihansi Iapa.pur Bi8aner Hisar '.ace H1dera3ad H1dera3ad H1dera3ad >annpur >arna. Banga.ore Rahuri (odhipura, (eerut "aranasi

(eat (ethuen Ka8 Co.d Cater Fisheries Orchids (ustard '.ant Biotechno.og1

IFatnagar Iharnapani 2irang Ha.d/ani #angto8 Bharatpur 0e/ 2e.hi 4I RI7

0ationa. Bureaus% 0B'#R % 0ationa. 3ureau of '.ant #enetic Resources? 0e/ 2e.hi? I RI 0B #R % 0ationa. Bureau of ni,a. #enetics Resources? >arnai 0B #R % 0ationa. Bureau of fish #enetic Resources? ..aha3ad. 0B$$LU' % 0ationa. Bureau of $oi. $ur9e1 and Land Use '.anning 0agpur. Other Institutes% Under (inistr1 of Rura. 2e9e.op,ent% 0IR2% 0ationa. Institute for Rura. 2e9e.op,ent. H1dera3ad. #auhati. Under (inistr1 of Foods and gricu.ture and Cooperation % ( 0 #E% 0ationa. institute for gricu.ture E@tension (anage,ent. H1dera3ad. 0 R(% 0ationa. cade,1 for gricu.tura. Research (anage,ent. OrganiFation% $trea,s of E@tension in India% 1. The IC R e@tension s1ste,? co,prising ,ain.1 Research Institutes and gricu.tura. Uni9ersities. ). E@tension $1ste, of (inistr1 of gricu.ture and the $tate 2epart,ents of gricu.tura.. *. E@tension $1ste, of the (inistr1 of Rura. 2e9e.op,ent and $tate 2e9e.op,ent 2epart,ents? and +. 2e9e.op,ent /or8 31 the 0on-#o9ern,enta. OrganiFations 40#Os7. Business houses etc. Front-.ine Transfer of Techno.og1 'rogra,,es of IC R% 1=5+ 1=;+ 1=;+ 1=;= 1=++ 0ationa. 2e,onstrations Operationa. Research 'ro:ect >rishi "ig1an >endra La3 to Land 'rogra, $ugarcane co,,ittee

$ugarcane Breeding institute Coi,3atore Indian Institute of sugarcane Research? Luc8no/ Centra. Coconut research $tations. >an1agu.a, and >asargod Centra. to3acco Research institute? Ra:ah,undr1 Financed research $che,es? head Puarters at H1dera3ad.

1=+1=+1=+;

Coconut Co,,ittee To3acco Co,,ittee Oi. $eeds co,,ittee

1=+= 1=-<

recanut Co,,ittee $pices and Cashe/nut Co,,ittee

recanut Research $tation? "itta. Financed Research sche,es

The centra. co,,odit1 co,,ittees /ere .ater a3o.ished 43eginning in 1=5-7 and the research institutes under their contro. /ere transferred to IC R. 1=5- % 'ro:ect for intensification of regiona. Research on cotton? Oi.seeds and ,i..ets 4'IR'CO(7 First coordinated research /or8 on regiona. 3asis /as initiated in 1=-5 as a :oint effort 31 IC R and Indian Centra. Co,,ittees on oi.seeds and Cotton. $e9enteen centres /ere esta3.ished throughout the countr1

'.ace Coi,3atore Be..ar1? 2hadesagur? 2har/ad? $i.a8ere Ra:endranagar ,ara9ati? ,oho. Ianagarh? surat #/a.ior? Hosanga3ad :,er >anpur 'atia.a $irsa I RI

$tate Ta,i. 0adu >arnata8a ndhra 'radesh (aharashtra #u:arat (adh1a 'radesh Ra:asthan Uttar 'radesh 'un:a3 Har1ana 0e/ 2e.hi

Research /or8 on Cotton? Io/ar? #roundnut Cotton? Io/ar? >harif Io/ar? Ragi? #roundnut Castir? #roundnut? Cotton? Io/ar Ra3i Io/ar Io/ar? #roundnut cotton? Io/ar >harif Io/ar? Linseed Io/ar? Ba:ra Indian (ustard? Ba:ra Toria? tara,aria Cotton Cotton? Io/ar? Ba:ra? .inseed

II India coordinated Research 'ro:ect% 1=-; % .. India coordinated research pro:ect on ,aiFe /as esta3.ished /ith aid fro, Roc8fe..ar foundation. 1=5-% CRI's /ere started on other crops as /e.. as in other areas of Research. Crops (aiFe Io/ar Bar.e1 (i..ets Forage crops 0ationa. seeds pro:ect $ugarcane $ugar 3eet Cotton Iute and a..ied fi3res '.ace 0e/ 2e.hi H1dera3ad >arna. 'une Ihansi 0e/ 2e.hi Luc8no/ 'antnagar Coi,3atore Barrac8pore

$o13ean To3acco Cotton 'ro:ect 4CB assisted7 Fruits Citrus Tu3er crops 'otato "egeta3.es (edicina. and ro,atic p.ants $pices and Cashe/nut Coconut and recanut Under uti.iFed and under e@p.oited p.ants

Indore nand 0agpur Banga.ore Banga.ore 2ho.i 4Bihar7 $i,.a 0e/ 2e.hi 0e/ 2e.hi >asargod >asargod 0e/ 2e.hi

Indian counci. of gricu.tura. Research% 1=)<% Ro1a. co,,ission on gricu.ture? headed 31 .ord .in.ithgo/ reco,,ended setting up of i,peria. counci. of gricu.tura. research to pro,ote? guide and coordinate agricu.tura. research throughout India. )*rd (a1? 1=)= % I,peria. Counci. for gricu.tura. Research /as esta3.ished 'resident % >ahan Bahadur $ir (oha,,ed Ha3i3u..ah "ice-'resident % 2i/an Bahadur $ir "i:a1a Ragha9achar1a $ecretar1 % (r. $. . H1dari #o9erning 3od1 has 15 ,e,3ers. (arch? 1=+5% The na,e I,peria. counci. of gricu.tura. Research Institute /as changed to Indian counci. of agricu.tura. research 31 then president $ir Iogendra $ingh. ReorganiFation or IC R% In 1=5*? the gricu.tura. re9ie/ Tea, headed 31 2r. (arion C. 'ar8er of U$2 /as appointed. Based on its reco,,endations IC R /as ,ade a fu..1 auto,onous organiFation in 1=55. I RI? 0e/ 2e.hi? 02RI? >arna. and I"RI? IFathnagar /ere ,ade nationa. Institutes. po.ic1 /as ,ad to appoint an agricu.tura. scientist as the Chief E@ecuti9e of IC R? /ith the designation of 2irector #enera.? 2r. B. '. 'a. 3eca,e first 2# of IC R in 1=5-. 2epart,ent of gricu.tura. Research and Education 42 RE7% In Iune 1=;) #a:endragad8ar co,,ittee /as esta3.ished to re9ie/ the recruit,ent and persona. po.icies of IC R and its institutes? /hich su3,itted its report in 1=;*. 2epart,ent of gricu.tura. research and Education /as created in 1=;* in the (inistr1 of Food and gricu.ture. n gricu.tura. research ser9ice /as initiated in 1=;* for the recruit,ent of $cientific personne. under gricu.tura. $cientists recruit,ent Board. Entire countr1 /as di9ided into < agroeco.ogica. Fones and 1- agro eco.ogica. Fones and 1- agroc.i,atic Fones. Research $tations%

C RI

Centra. gricu.tura. research institute

'ort B.air

C RI C RI 0#I C !RI CL E? II$$ CIB CICFRI CIF CICR CIFT CIH0' CI'ET

% % % % % % % % % % %

Centra. 9ian Research Institute Centra. gricu.tura. research Institute for nda,an and 0ico3ar #roups of Is.ands Centra. ri. !one research Institute Centra. Institute of gricu.tura. Engineering Centra. Institute for Bar8ish/ater Puacu.ture Centra. In.and capture Fisheries Centra. Institute for Fresh/ater Puacu.ture Centra. Institute of Cotton Research Centra. Institute of Fisheries Techno.og1 Centra. Institute of Horticu.ture of 0orthern '.ains Centra. Institute of 'ost-har9est Engineering and Techno.og1 Centra. Research Institute for research on Cotton Techno.og1 Centra. Research Institute for Research on Buffa.oes Centra. Institute for Research on #oats Centra. (arine Fisheries Research Institute Centra. '.antation Crops Research Institute Centra. 'otato Research Institute Centra. Research Institute for rid Fruits Centra. Research Institute for 2r1 .and gricu.ture Centra. Research Institute for :ute and ..ied Fi3res Centra. Research Institute for Tropica. Fruits Centra. Research Institute for Tropica. Fruits Centra. Rice Research Institute Centra. $oi. $a.init1 Research Institute Centra. $oi. and /ater Conser9ation Research and Training Institute Centra. $heep and Coo. Research Institute Centra. Tu3er Crops Research Institute Centra. To3acco Research Institute Centra. Techno.ogica. Research La3orator1 Indian gricu.tura. $tatistics Research Institute

IFatnagar 'ort Bihar Iodhpur Bhopa. Chennai Barrac8pore Bhu3anesh/ar 0agpur Cochin Luc8no/ Ludhiana

CIRCOT CIRB CIR# C(FRI C'CRI C'RI CRI F CRI2 CRII F CRITF CRITF CRRI C$$RI C$CCRTI C$CRI CTCRI CTRI CTRL I $RI

% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %

Bo,3a1 Hisar (a8hdoo, Cochin >asargod >ufri? $i,.a? Bi8aner H1dera3ad Barrac8pore $rinagar Luc8no/ Cuttac8 >arna. 2ehradun 9i8anagar Tri9andru, Ra:ah,undr1 (atunga 0e/ 2e.hi

IC RRC# IC RRC0EH R IC RRC0ER I#FRI IIHR II'R II$R II$$ ILRI ITRL 0 R( 0C E'R 0I # $BI "'> $ CTCER

% % % % % % % % % % % % % % % %

IC R Research Co,p.e@ for #oa IC R Research co,p.e@ for 0orth Eastern Hi.. Region IC R Research co,p.e@ for 0orth Eastern Region Indian #rass.and and fodder Research Institute Indian Institute of Horticu.tura. Research Indian Institute of 'u.se Research Indian Institute of $ugarcane Research Indian Institute of $oi. $cience Indian Lac Research Institute Iute Techno.ogica. Research La3orator1 0ationa. cade,1 of gricu.tura. Research and (anage,ent 0ationa. Centre for gricu.tura. Econo,ics and 'o.ic1 Research 0ationa. Institute of ni,a. #enetics $ugarcane Breeding Institute "i9e8ananda 'ar9ati1a >rishi nusandan $ha.a Cater Techno.og1 Centre for Eastern Region

#oa Barapani $hi..ong Ihansi Hassergatta? Banga.ore >anpur Luc8no/ Bhopa. 0a,8u,? Ranchi Ca.cutta H1dera3ad 0e/ 2e.hi >arna. Coi,3atore .,ora Bhu3anes/ar

2ee,ed Uni9ersities
CIFE I RI I"RI 02RI % % % % Centra. Institute of Fisheries Education Indian gricu.tura. Research Institute Indian "eterinar1 Research Institute 0ationa. 2air1 Research Institute Bo,3a1 0e/ 2e.hi IFatnagar >arna.

Indian gricu.tura. Research Institute%

1=6- % gricu.tura. Research Institute /as esta3.ished at 'usa? Bihar 31 Lord CurFon. The .and /as donated 31 (r. 'hipps of U$ after /ho, the p.ace /as na,ed as 'U$ . The 'hipps .a3orator1 in di9ision of $oi. $cience and gricu.tura. Che,istr1? I RI is na,ed after hi,. Rena,ed as I,peria. gricu.tura. Research Institute. Institute started offering 2ip.o,a of ssociateship. (a:or Earth Pua8e da,aged the 3ui.dings at pusa. $hifted to 0e/ 2e.hi. B. "ish/anath 3eca,e the first Indian 2irector of the Institute. The 2ip.o,a of ssociate ship /as Recognised ePui9a.ent to (. $c. 0a,e has 3een changed fro, I,peria. gricu.tura. Research Institute to Indian gricu.tura. Research Institute. RecogniFed as Q2ee,ed Uni9ersit1R under U#C ct at 1=-5? '# $choo. /as esta3.ished.

1=11 1=)* 1=*+ 1=*5 1=*5 1=+5 1=+;

% % % % % % %

1=-< %

0on Education institutes EEI? nand? #u:arat EEI? Iorhat? ssa, EEI? H1dera3ad? '

EEI? 0i.o8hen? Har1ana Internationa. Institutes of crop I,pro9e,ent% C#I R CI T CI((KT CI' IB'#R IC R2 IC#E$ ICRI$ T IFRI II $ IIT I0$FFER ILR 2 % % % % % % % % % % % % % Consu.tati9e #roup for Internationa. gricu.tura. Research. Cas esta3.ished in 1=;1 31 the :oint efforts of Food and gricu.tura. Organisation /or.d 3au.8 and United 0ations 2e9e.op,ent 'rogra,,e. Centro Internationa. de gricu.ture Tropica. 4Internationa. Centre for Tropica. gricu.ture7? 'a.,ira? co.u,3ia. Centro Internationa. de (a:ora,iento de (aiF1 Trigo 4Internationa. Centre for (aiFe and Cheat I,pro9e,ent7 e. Baton? (e@ico. Centro Internationa. de 'apa 4Internationa. Centre for 'otato7? Li,a? 'eru? Internationa. Board for '.ant #enetics Resources Ro,e? Ita.1. Internationa. centre for gricu.tura. Research in 2r1 reas? ..eppo? $1ria. Internationa. Centre for #enetic Engineering and Biotechno.og1 Triesta? Ita.1 and 0e/ 2e.hi? India. Internationa. Centre for Research in $e,i- rid Tropies? 'atancherru? H1dera3ad? India. Internationa. Food 'o.ic1 Research Institute? Cashington? U$ . Internationa. Institute for pp.ied $1ste, na.1sis? Lu@e,3urg? "ienna. Internationa. Institute of Tropica. gricu.ture? I3adan 0igeria. Internationa. 0et/or8 on $oi. Ferti.it1 and Ferti.iFer E9a.uation on Rice? 0e/ 2e.hi? India. Internationa. Li9estoc8 Research Institute? 0airo3i? >en1a.

ILC IRRI I$0 R C R2

% % % %

Internationa. Li9estoc8 Centre for frica? ddis 3a3a. Internationa. Rice Research Institute? Los Bonas? 'hi.ippines. Internationa. $er9ice for nationa. gricu.tura. Research. The Hague? 0ether.ands. Cest frican Rice 2e9e.op,ent ssociation? (onro9ia? Li3eria.

gricu.tura. and Rura. 2e9e.op,ent 'rogra,,es% The e9a.uation of gricu.tura. and Rura. 2e9e.op,ent can 3e grouped into fi9e stages.

$tage I
1=6* 1=6< 1=)1 1=)1 1=)1 1=)1 1=*) 1=+1=+5 1=+; $tage II 1=+< 1=+< 1=-)

%
% % % % % % % % % % % % % %

're Independence era

(ode. 9i..ages 31 2anie. Ha,i.ton. Tagore $tarted Kouth organisation in the 9i..ages in the >a.igra, 'argana. Rura. Reconstruction Institute? shantini8etan. (arathanda, 'ro:ect 31 $pencer Hatch. #urgaon E@peri,ent 31 F. L. Bra1ne. $e9agra, 'ro:ect 31 (ahat,a #andhi. darsh $e9a $angh? 'ohri 4#/a.ior7 31 Co.. $hito.e Rura. reconstruction (o9e,ent 31 ". T. >rishna,achari in Baroda. Indian "i..age ser9ice 31 . T. (osher and B. 0. #upta? 2. Tharugad. Fir8a de9e.op,ent $che,e 31 T. 'ra8asha? 2. Tharugad. (aFdoor (anFi. at 0i.o8heri 31 $. >. 2e1. 'ost Independence era #ro/ ,ore food ca,paign Eta/ah 'i.ot 'ro:ect 31 .3ert ,a1er. #ro/ ,ore food ca,paign enPuir1 co,,ittee. Co,,unit1 2e9e.op,ent era Co,,unit1 2e9e.op,ent 'ro:ect /as started in -- 3.oc8s? under the d1na,ic .eadership of $. >. 2a1. 0ationa. E@tension ser9ice. 0E$ 'rogra,,e Ba./antra: (ehta co,,ittee on co,,unit1. 2e9e.op,ent 'ro:ect reco,,ended 2e,ocratic decentra.iFation 4'ancha1atira:7. Ra:asthan 3eca,e first state to adopt 'ancha1ati Ra: fo..o/ed 31 ndhra 'radesh. Intensi9e gricu.ture de9e.op,ent era I 2' I ' IC2' HK"' (C' (>' Intensi9e gricu.ture district 'rogra,,e a.so ca..ed as 'ac8age 'rogra, in se9en districts? .ater e@tended to nine ,ore districts. Intensi9e gricu.tura. rea 'rogra,,e. Intensi9e Catt.e 2e9e.op,ent 'ro:ect High Kie.ding "arieties 'rogra,,e. (u.tip.e Cropping 'rogra,,e. (ini8it 'rogra,,e for Rice /as started and .ater e@tended to

$tage III % 1=-) 1=-* 1=-+ 1=-; 1=-< $tage I" % 1=56 1=5+ 1=5+ 1=55 1=55 1=;1 % % % % % % % % % % %

/heat? ,aiFe and other ,i..ets etc. $tage " % 2e9e.op,enta. 'rogra,,es /ith socia. Iustice 1=;6 1=;6 1=;6 1=;+ 1=;+ 1=;+ 1=;+ 1=;+ 1=;= 1=;= 1=<6 1=<6 1=<) 1=<) 1=<* 1=<* 1=<5 1=<= 1==* 1==+ 1==+ 1==+ 1==1=== 1=== 1=== % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % % $F2 (F L 2' ' FC' (0' TA" >"> C 2 IR2' TRK$E ( 0RE' 0 R' 2CCR C ' R T 0 E' RLE#' T(O IRK E $ I"L' ($K '(RK 0$ $ 0 T' I#$K $#$K $,a.. far,erHs 2e9e.op,ent genc1 (argina. Far,ers and gricu.tura. Ia3orers 'rogra,,e. 2rought 'rone rea 'rogra,,e. Food for Cor8 'rogra,,e. (ini,u, 0eeds 'rogra,,e. Training and "isit s1ste, for,u.ated 31 2anie. 3onor and Ba@tor of Israe.. Tur8e1 /as the first started in Ra:asthan Cana. area in Ra:asthan and Cha,3a. area in (adh1a 'radesh. >rishi "ig1an >endra? (ohan singh (ehta co,,ittee reco,,ended >">s. First >"> /as esta3.ished 31 T0 U at 'ondicher1. Co,,and rea 2e9e.op,ent 'rogra,,e. Integrated rura. 2e9e.op,ent 'rogra,,e. Training Rura. 1outh for $e.f-E,p.o1,ent. 0ationa. Rura. E,p.o1,ent progra,,e 0ationa. gricu.tura. research 'ro:ect. 2e9e.op,ent of Co,en and Chi.dren-in Rura. reas. Counci. for d9ance,ent of 'eop.es ction and rura. Techno.og1. 0ationa. gricu.tura. E@tension 'ro:ect. Rura. Land.ess E,p.o1,ent #uarantee 'rogra,,e. Techno.og1 (ission on Oi.seeds. Ia/ahar RoFgar Ko:ana? for,ed after ,erger of 40RE' and RLE#'7. E,p.o1,ent ssurance sche,e Institute 9i..age Lin8age progra,,e. (ahi.a $a,rudhi Ko:ana. 'ri,e (inister RoFgar Ko:ana. 0ationa. socia. assistance sche,e. 0ationa. gricu.tura. Techno.og1 'ro:ect Ia/ahar #ra, $a,uridhi Ko:ana 4IRK7. $/aran Ia1anti #ra, $/aroFgar Ko:ana 4IR2'? TRK$E(? 2CCR ? $ITR & ,erged into $#$K7.

"arieties of I,portant Crops% Rice T0-1 % 4First introduced dra/f 9ariet1 into India7? IR-<? Ia1a 4B.ast Resistant7? 'ad,a? (ashuri? >a8ati1a? 'usa Basu,ati? 'usa Ia.didan? Lunisree? Ratna? T>(-5 4$te, 3orer resistant7? >atari3ogh 4Tungro resistant7? 2T-); 4indica @ :aponica7? $antchousong 4High protein content7? 2ee-#ee-Coo-#en? Ba.a 42rought resistant7? IR)6 4Resistant to B.ast? BLB? ste,3orer? .eafhopper7. Cheat .er,a. 2ou3.e gene d/arf 9arieties% $hera? r:un? Iana8. Trip.e gene d/arf 9arieties% Heera? (oti. H2 series? >undan? C-*65 4drought resistant7. % Introduction fro, (e@ico% Ler,a Ro:o and sonara-5+. $ing.e gene d/arf 9arieties% $afed .er,a? $har3ati sonara? pusa Ler,a? Chotu

Chic8pen

'usa )-5 'B#-1 )6*? 'usa )6=% #aura9 ICCC-*)? :a1.

'igeonpea U' $-1)6 =short duration7? IC'H-< 4First H13rid7? 4 rhar7 'usa **. 'usa gati? IC'L *;. Hira? (u8ta? Bahar? 'ra3at. $BH-<. $ugarcane 0o3.e Canes% CO-+1=? Co-==; $o13ean Bragg? Lee C.ar8-5*? $hi.a:eet? 'usa 15? )6? )+? '>-*); To,ato 'usa $heeta.? 'usa-1)6? 'usa Ear.1 2/arf? 'usa Ru31? (argo.oge? $iou@? 'usa #aura1? Best of ... (ango (a.i8a 4nee.a, @ dasheri7 ,rapa.i 4dasheri @ nee.a,7 Ratna 4nee.a, @ a.phonso7

Bannana 'oo9an 4.arp.ur? Cha8ra8e.i7? Basrai? Cha,pa Hi.. Bananas% $iru,a.i? 9irupa8shi Cu.inar1 9arieties% (onthan? #ross (itche..? (indo.i Ro3usta Rastha.i Rose Chitra? 2r. B. '. 'a.? 'ri1adarshini? 0ehru Cere,on1? Ia/har? 3isari8a? Ban:ara? Randha/a. Ca.if.o/er 'usa 2eepa.i? 'usa s1nthetic? 'usa >at8i? Ear.1 $no/3a..? >an/ari ? Ear.1? 'atna? 'atna (ain crop? $no/3a..-15? $uttonHs $no/3a.. Iapanese i,pro9ed? 2ania? ghani? 'oosi. Oi. 'ercentage% $esa,u, #roundnut Castor $aff.o/er Rape seed and ,ustard $o13ean 0iger +5--)S ++--6S *---<S )+-*5S **S )6S *;-+*S

=. ' THOLO#K
RiceE CheatE CottonE $ugarcaneE C. pea 2iseases of Rice 17 )7 *7 B.ast Bro/n spot Bacteria. 3.ight - Pyricularia oryzae( air 3orne% edifenphosE Hisoses 6.6-S a%naparthe %risea) - 'elmininosporium oryzae- $eed 3orneT co,,on fungicide 0ipoloris oryzae &$ochlioboltus miyabeanus) - 5anthomonas campestris p9.- orzyae $eed and an1 anti3iotic infected de3ris strepto,1cin O tertac1c.in $1,pto, % >rese8 in seed.ing stage - 2ibberella fu4i"orai- seed .i,eT co,,on fungicide Foo.ish seed.ing disease 4or7 &!usarium oniliforme7 Ba8anae disease - Rhizoctonia solani- $oi. 3orneT Cu.tura. practice O fungicides - *nteloma oryzae Sarocladium oryzae &Leptosphaeria salrini) - *phelis oryzae 40alansia oryzal) Hot /ater 6stila%inoidea virens

+7 -7 57 ;7 <7

Foot rot 4or7 $heath 3.ight Leaf s,ut $te, rot Uda3atta disease Fa.se s,ut or #reen s,ut Bunt Rice tungro 9irus

=7 - ,illetia barcleyana 4)eovosia horrida) 16 - "ector )ephotetti cinticeps( ). virescens &2L') reduced 7 ti..ering and orange disco.oration 11 Rice 1e..o/ d/arf 'h1top.as,a starting? .ea9es re,ains green in co.our 7 1) Ufra disease - 1itcylanchus an%ustus 7 1*7 'an su8h 4dr1 ph1sio.ogica. .eaf disease7 1+ >aira disease - !inc deficienc1. 7 2iseases of Cheat 17 )7 *7 $te, rust Leaf rust 4Bro/n? rust7 Ke..o/ rust Contro. 17 )7 *7 +7 -7 $u.phur dust '.ant 9a@ 4o@1 cor3o@in7 Loose s,ut Hi.. 3unt T. caroues >orna. 3unt 6stila%o tritici # internally seed borne solar heat Treat,ent. Hot /ater treat,ent 49ita9a@? car3o@in7 ,illetia foetiaa # E@terna..1 seed 3rone - )eovossia indica $oi. A air 3rone - Puccinia %raminis tritici - P. %raminis recondita - P. %raminis striiformis 4stripe rust7 4air 3orne7

57

F.ag s,ut

- 6rouystis %ramininis#$eed A soi. 3orne

Contro. for s,ut A 3unts 17 $eed treat,ent /ith gresan )gE8g. )7 Beno,1. spra1 for 3unts 17 )7 *7 E@er.ite - An%iuna tritici Tundu 4Ke..o/ ear rot7 - $orynebacterium tritici An%una tritici (o.1a 4or7 cerea. 'eterodera avemae root-ee. /or,

2iseases of cotton %-17 )7 *7 +7 -7 57 ;7 Ci.t Ci.t Root rot B.ac8ar, - !usarium o/ysporum f. sp. vasinfectum - 7erticillium dahliae acrophomina phaseoline

- 5anthomonas compesttris - '9. aliacearum &/, a/nopodis ne3 name) - $pra1 -66 pp, strepto,1cin su.phate $tenosis or s,ai. .eaf (LO 4,1cop.as,a .i8e organis,s7 9ector-:assid nthrocanose - $olletotrichum capsici - Physalospora tucumanensis - $pread through setts 6.1S Car3enda1,- sett treat,ent #re1 or reo.ate ,i.de/ Ramularia areola Co,,on contro. cid de.inting

2iseases of $ugarcane% 17 )7 *7 +7 -7 57 ;7 <7 Red rot $olletotrichum falcatum Physalospora tucumanensis $pread through setts 6.1S car3enda1s sett treat,ent. $,ut - 6stila%o scitaminea re,o9e infected & c.u,p A dip in hot /ater a9oid ratooning $ett rot 4or7 'ineapp.e - $eratocystis parado/a #u,,osis or gu,,ing disease - 5anthomonas campestris pv. 7ascularum Red stripe - Pseudomonas rubrilineans (osaic "irus 9ector - Rhopalosiphum maidis #rass1 shoot - (LO 4(1op.as,a Li8e organis,s7 9ector & Proveista moesta Hot /ater treat,ent -)S c 1Ehr. erated stea, therap1 -+SC for <Ehr. Root 8not ne,atode eloido%yne sp.

Benga. gra, Ci.t Root rot B.ight !usarium O/ysperium 4. sp. ciceri acrophamina phasoline Asehochyta rabei seed 3orne

16. #E0ETIC$ 02 'L 0T BREE2I0# Topic % structure and function of ce.. organe..es Organe..es * Ce.. /a.. $tructure The chief function * Found 3et/een ,idd.e .a,e..a $hape% strength and and p.as,a.e,,as Rigidit1 * Ha9e pri,ar1 ce.. /a..? secondar1 ce.. /a.. 4* .a1ers7 * (ade up of ce..u.ose ,icrofi3ri..s * Lipid & 3i.a1er ,ode. of 2a9son 2anie.i? 41=*-7 /here protein ,o.ecu.e arranged outside * 2ou3.e ,e,3rane /ith pores To regu.ate the ,o9e,ent of 9arious ,o.ecu.es into A out of c1.op.as, * contains genetic ,ateria. * Co,,unteat /ith C1ptop.as, 4ER7 *20 -genetic ,ateria. * $ite of R0 * Cith ,ateria. for 3ui.ding 20 O (R0

* '.as,a,e,3rane

* 0euc.eus 41==*? Ro3ert Bro/n7 0uc.ear ,e,3rane * Chro,atin * 0ue.eo.us * 0uc.eop.as, C1top.as, * Ri3oso,e

*Thread .i8e 420 O 0uc.eoprotein7 * #.o3u.ar s1nthesis

- <6s siFe 4 ni,a. A '.ant7 - ;6s siFe 4cu8ar1otic organe..es7 A pros8tu1otes -0et/or8 .i8e in c1top.as, rough 4ER7 /ith Ri3oso,e $,ooth 4ER7-/ithout Ri3oso,e * C1.indrica. 3od1 dia% 6.)-1p .ength *-16p * Inner fo.ded ,e,3rane 4Cristae7 * (atri@ inside * Bicon9e@ .ens shaped 4-,*dia7 * Ha9e ,e,3ranes 4grana and stro,a .a,e..ae7

$ite of protein $1nthesis

* Endop.as,ic reticu.u, 4ER7 4'orter? 1=+<7 * (itochondria 4Benda.7 4'o/er house of ce..7

* 'rotein $1nT aid in protein ,odification * Lipid s1nthesis site * 'roduction of T' through the 8re3Hs c1c.e A e.ectron transport chain * Y-e@udation of .ong chain fatt1 acids * Ch.oroph1.. photos1nthesis * #rara A stor,a .a,e..ae /ith thousands of Puastaco,es 4E.ectron transport A photophosphor1.ation7 * $tor,a consists of enF1,es of dar8 reaction

* '.astid /hen 2ifferentiated Ch.orop.ast 4Cith ch.oroph1..7

4Co.our.ess p.astid .eucop.ast7

* #o.gi 3od1 apparatusE dict1oso,e in p.ants 4Ca,i..o go.gi? 1<))7 *L1soso,e 42u9e? 1=--7 *"acuo.e

* (e,3ranes

* $hip,ent in transport 9esic.es 4'ac8aging7 A transport * Ce.. destruction if captured * $torage deposit for /ater ,eta3o.ites and product * turgidit1 of ce.. For, po.es of spind.e apparatus Ha9e co,pounds for 3ui.ding ,acro ,o.ecu.es

* $ac of digesti9e enF1,e E 2igesti9e 9acuo.es * (e,3rane 4Tonop.ast7 3ound

* Centrio.e * C1toso.E h1a.op.as, II (itosis A (eiosis $tages 1. 'rophase%

Rare.1 present in '.ants The f.uid protein of c1top.as, e@c.usi9e of organe..es

(itosis 4*EPuationa. di9ision7 Chro,atin condensation Chro,oso,es 9isi3.e 0uc.eo.us A 0uc.ear en9e.op disappear Chro,oso,es are arranged in ePuationa. p.ate (o9e to opposite po.e Chro,oso,es for, into t/o groups

(eiosis 4*Reduction di9ision7 1. (eiosis I ). (eiosis II I. (eiosis I % . 'rophase 1

). (etaphase %

*. naphase% +. Te.ophase% -. c1top.as,ic di9ision

a. Leptotene % Chro,oso,e .oo8 thin thread 4of .oss 3a.. shape 3ecause of condensation 3. Ho,o.ogous chro,oso,e 3egin to pairs1napsisE s1naptone,a. co,p.e@ found c. 'ach1tene% co,p.ete 3i9a.ent tetrad. Crossing o9er Chias,ata can 3e seen as the resu.t of spearation of ho,o.ogous Chias,a ter,ini.iFation d. 2ia8inesis% Chro,oso,es reach ,a@i,u, condensation? nuc.eo.ar ,e,3rane disappear? spind.e 3egin to for, (etaphase I% Bi9a.ents orient at rando, on the ePuatoria. p.ane.

naphase I% The centro,eres do not di9ide continue to ho.d sister chro,atids together - Because of cross o9er? sister chro,atids no .onger 3e genetica..1 identica.. Ho,o.ogues ,ore to opposite po.e - This ,o9e,ent reduce the chro,oso,e nu,3er fro, the dip.oid condition 4)n7 condition to Hap.oid 4n7 state. Te.ephase I % This di9ide the dip.oid c1to8inesis ,other ce.. into ) hap.oid daughter ce... (eiosis II 4ePuationa. di9ision si,i.ar to (itosis ). Hap.oid ce..s ,itosis 4(eiosis..7 +. Hap.oid ce..s.

$ignificant difference 3et/een

(itosis * EPuationa. di9ision separation sister chr,atids (eiosis * Re.ationa. di9ision- separation of ho,o.ogues EPuationa. di9ision- $eparation of sister chro,atics * T/o c1top.as,ic di9ision * These do occur

* One c1to8inesis per 8ar1o8inesis * 0o s1nopsis% 0o chias,ata for, 0o genetic e@change 3et/een ho,o.ogues 4crossing o9er7 A gastric reco,3ination * ) daughter ce..sE c1c.e * #enetic content of product identica. to ,other ce... * Occar in so,atic ce.. * '.oid1 Le9e. in $eeds E,3r1o-)n Endosper, & *n

* + ga,etesE spores per c1c.e * 0ot identica. in ter,s of 17 Chro,oso,e 0o. 4Hap.oid7 )7 Consent 4crossing o9er-reco,3ination * $pecia.iFed ce..s of ger, .ine

Testa-)n

.euron &)n

* 'ost-,enda.ian era * de9ries? correns? Tsche,ar8- Redisco9er1 of ,endehan princip.es 41=667. * $utton A 3o9er1 & chro,oso,a. theor1 of inheritance 41=6*7. * Bateson &ter, & #E0ETIC$ 41=6-7 * - Epitasis intera..e.ic intraction 41=6=7 * Histones are & 9e..1 charged proteins on /hich &9e..1 charged 20 s are coi.ed. t1pes of Histones are a9ai.a3.e.

* Hetro chro,atin & 2ar8.1 stained -genetica..1 inacti9e

Euchro,atin & .ight.1 stained -genetica..1 acti9e

* Chro,oso,e & na,ed 31 /a.da1er &a neuc.eoprotein Chro,oso,e & disco9ered 31 stras3urger 41<;-7 'arts of chro,oso,e & 417 Centronere 4)7 Te.o,ere 4*7 0uc.eo.ar organising region 4+7 r,s. * $ources of ne/ 9ariation % 417 Independent assort,ent 4)7 (utation 4*7 Reco,3ination cause of C. o9er 4d7 'o.1 '.oid1 4-7 $o,oc.ona. 9ariation * 20 Rep.ication $e,iconser9ati9e ,ode. 'roposed 31 Catson and Cric8

* Base O $ugar & 0uc.eoside Base & sugar O 'O+ & 0uc.eotide M TT #MC O#MTOC Opposite strands are running in antipara..o. /a1 * Codon% Trip.et sePuence found in , R0 and codes for sing.e a,ino acid anticodon% Corresponding 4co,p.e,entar17 trip.et seP in t R0 start O codon% U# stopE 0on senseE ter,ination codon% U ? U #? U# . #ene,utiation * (utation Chro,oso,a. ,utation ddition of a 3ase 2e.etion of 3ases Fra,e shift ,utation $u3stitation of 3ases

* (u..er first used J-ra1s as ,utagen * 0atura. ,utation is of .o/ frePuenc1 16-5 * (uton & The unit in /hich ,utation occurs * In3red- 'rogen1 of a sing.e cross ferti.iFed heteroF1gous indi9idua. * Jenia & effect of po..en on endosper, e@pression (eta@enia & effect of po..en on seed coat co.our * 'ure .i,e are ho,oF1gous and he,ogenons in nature * C.one group of indi9idua.s descending fro, a sing.e p.ant through se9era. reproduction. * J M Basic chro,oso,e nu,3er M (onop.oid nu,3er M #eno,e nu,3er n M Hap.oid nu,3er M #a,etic nu,3er e@.% Triteu, aestinu,? )n M 5@ M +) n M )1 4+)E)7? J M ; 4+)E57 * #eno,e & .. the chro,oso,es of a dip.oid species that are distinct fro, each other /ith reference to gene content and ,orpho.og1. * $uperiorit1 of F1 h13rids o9er 3oth of its parents % 'eterosis

* Isogenic .ines% T/o .ines differing for a sing.e .ocus * 'arthenogenesis% E,3r1o originates fro, unferti.iFed egg. 'arthenocarp1 % 2e9e.op,ent of fruit /ithout ferti.iFation ? e@.% Banana * neu.oid1 % Changes in the geno,e /ith reference to indi9idua. chro,oso,es. E@. (onoso,e 4)n-17? Triso,1 4)nM17? Tetraso,1 4)nM)7 Eup.oid1 % Changes in the geno,e /ith reference to a set of chro,oso,es geno,e. E@.% Trip.oid-*@? Tetrap.oid- +@. * Test cross% F1 @ ho,oF1gous recessi9e parent. Bac8cross % Repeated crossing of h13rid progen1 3ac8 to one of its parents * '.eiotroph1 % $ing.e gene & go9erning ,u.tip.e traits. * po,i@is% t1pe of ase@ua. reproduction in /hich e,3r1o de9e.op,ent and seed for,ation ta8e p.ace /ithout ferti.iFation and /ith or /ithout ,eiosis.

1) $T TI$TIC$
17 "ER #E$ 0o 9erage 1 rith,eti c (ean ) Har,onic (ean #eo,etric (ean (edian (ode 2efinition $u, of a.. 9a.uesE0o. of 9a.ues Uses To ca.cu.ate a9erage 1ie.d? $2? and corre.ation and regression coefficients. Chen dea. /ith Rate? price and speed

I 41E@1O1E@)OBO1@n7 41En7 4J1*J)*B*Jn71n (idd.e ,ost ite, of a.. 9a.ues

* + -

Chen dea. /ith re.ati9e changes E@. Bacteria. gro/th? ce.. di9ision For open ended c.ass dataHs Inte..igence? 3i.it1 and Efficienc1.

(ost frePuent.1 occurred ite, T1pica. soi. t1pe? cropping pattern in a .oca.it1? and shoe and shirt siFe in 3usiness

$1,,etrica. distri3ution (ean M (edian M (ode (oderate.1 s8e/ed distri3ution (ean & (ode M * 4(ean & (edian7 )7 0E $KRE$ IF 2U$OER$UIB% Coefficient of 9ariation M 4$2E ,ean7 J 166 *7 $>EC0E$$% Lac8 of s1,,etr1 Y1 M ,)*E,*). 81M $1,,etrica. distri3ution 81M6 0egati9e.1 s8e/ed 81M -"e 0egati9e.1 s8e/ed 81M O"e 31

>URTO$I$ (easure of pea8edness or con9e@it1 Y)M U+EU*) 8)MY)-* 0or,a. distri3ution - 8) M 6 '.at18urtic - 89: -"e Lepto8urtic - 8)M O"e +7 RE#RE$$IO0 02 CORREL TIO0 a7 CORREL TIO0 To stud1 the association 3et/een t/o or ,ore 9aria3.es 'roperties of corre.ation coefficient 1. It .ies 3et/een &1 to O1 if it is 6T There is no re.ationship 3et/een 9aria3.es ). Independent of change of sca.e and origin of the 9aria3.es. *. It is geo,etric ,ean of t/o regression coefficients.

+. The degree of re.ationship 3et/een t/o 9aria3.es is s1,,etric i.e. r@1 M r1@ 37 RE#RE$$IO0 To ,easure the a9erage re.ationship 3et/een t/o of ,ore 9aria3.es. 'roperties% 1. It gi9es the nature of re.ationship 3et/een t/o 9aria3.es. ). It gi9es the cause and effect of re.ationship *. Regression coefficients are not s1,,etric? 3@1 Z 31@ +. It is independent of change of origin 3ut not of sca.e -7 'ROB BILITK 'ro3a3i.it1 ranges fro, 6 to 1 0o of fa9ora3.e cases 'ro3a3i.it1 M--------------------------------------Tota. no of ePua..1 .i8e.1 cases 'ro3a3i.it1 of an e9ent uncertain to occur is 6 Eg. 'ro3a3i.it1 of ; in thro/ing a die & 6 Additive theorem 4I7 (utua..1 e@c.usi9e e9ents ' 4 or B7 M' 4 7 O'4B7? /here '4 B7M6 4II70ot ,utua..1 e@c.usi9e e9ents ' 4 or B7M' 4 7 O' 4B7-' 4 B7 (u.tip.ication theore, 4I7 ' 4 and B7M' 4 7 J '4B7 a7 Bino,ia. distri3ution 4B27 Rando, 9aria3.e of B2 is a discrete one B2 has Bernou..i tria.s containing t/o outco,es 4i.e. success? fai.ure7 The B2 is ' 4J7Mn C@p@Pn-@ Chere n M no of tria.s p M pro3a3i.it1 of success P M pro3a3i.it1 of fai.ure @ M no of successes in GnH tria.s * (ean 4np7 Z 9ariance 4npP7 * If n is .arge and if neither p of P is too c.ose to 6? then B2 approaches nor,a. distri3ution. Chen nL )6T pV6.6-? B2 approaches 'oisson distri3ution. 37 'oisson distri3ution 4pd7 4the .a/ of i,pro3a3.e e9ents7 '2 & discrete pro3a3i.it1 distri3ution e-,,@ '4@7 M -------------J[

Chere @ M 6? 1? )? *? +? -BB e M ).; , M ,ean 4np7 * (ean 4np7 M 9ariance 4npP7 p 6T P 1 Uses of '2 'rinting errors in a 3oo8 0o of deaths in a district in a gi9en period rri9a.s of truc8s aerop.anes at ter,ina.s Te.ephone ca..s C7 0OR( L 2I$TRIBUTIO0 4027 02 & continuous pro3a3i.it1 distri3ution $tandard de9iation of a sa,p.e M \ T9 Chere? s M $2 of popu.ation n M sa,p.e siFe The nor,a. cur9e is 3e.. shaped and s1,,etrica. (ean M ,edian M ,ode rea under standard nor,a. cur9e M 1T ,ean M 6T $2 M 1 57 EJ'ERI(E0T L 2E$I#0$ E@peri,enta. eroor % the 9ariation due to uncontro..ed factors Treat,ent % the o3:ects of co,parison Rep.ication % a..ocation of treat,ents to the different e@peri,enta. units 31 a rando, process Loca. contro. % the princip.e of ,a8ing use of greater ho,ogeneit1 in groups of e@peri,enta. units for reducing e@peri,enta. error Critica. difference % 4standard error7 diff. J t 9a.ue for error df at -S or 1S .e9e. $.. 0o. 1 ) * T1pe of 2esign CR2 RB2 L$2 T1pe of e@peri,enta. ,ateria. Ho,ogeneous "ariation in one direction "ariation in t/o directions Error degrees of freedo, 0-n 4n-17 @ 4r-17 4n-17 @ 4n-)7

Chere? 0 M tota. no. of o3ser9ations n M no of treat,ents r M no. of rep.ications $p.it '.ot 2esign To stud1 effects of ) or ,ore factors rePuiring different p.ot siFes E. g. to stud1 agrono,ic practices /ith ferti.iFer treat,ents

Factoria. e@peri,ents To stud1 the effects of t/o or ,ore factors and their inter re.ationships ;7 TE$T OF HK'OTHE$I$ H1potheses assu,ption a3out a popu.ation para,eters 0u.. h1pothesis Ho 40o significant difference 3et/een t/o para,eters7 .te,ate h1pothesis 'a &significant difference 3et/een t/o para,etets7 ERROR$ T1pe I error T1pe II error

h1pothesis is true 3ut our test re:ects it h1pothesis is fa.se 3ut our test accepts it

<7 TE$T$ OF $I#0EFIC 0CE4$,a.. sa,p.e V *67 T1pe of Test 1. $tudents t test ). ! test *. F test +. CHI) Uses $,a.. sa,p.es Large sa,p.es To test the proportions and 9ariances Test of independence? test of goodness of fit? test ho,ogeneit1

CE THER 02 CRO'$ .$. $andou? II (. $c. g. 'h1sics

$U0 02 THE E RTH $K$TE( - The sun is a star and is a part of the (i.81 Ca1 #a.a@1. $un rotates in an antic.oc8/ise direction i. e. fro, /est to east. The te,perature at the surface of the sun is around 5666C. - The earth is at a ,ean distance of 1-6 ,i..ion 8, fro, the sun. The ,ean surface te,perature of the earth is 1- C. - the shortest distance 3et/een the sun and the earth is ca..ed perihe.ion 41+; ,i..ion 8,7 occurring on *rd Ianuar1 and the .ongest distance is ca..ed phe.ion 41-) ,i..ion 8,7 occurring on +th Iu.1. - Solar constant is defined as the tota. a,ount of so.ar radiation recei9ed per unit area per init ti,e in the a3sence of at,osphere? the radiation 3eing perpendicu.ar and the earth at its ,ean distance fro, the sun. its 9a.ue is 1.=+ ca.Ec,)E,in or 1.=+ Lang.e1E,in. - There are four seasons in a 1ear na,e.1 /inter so.istice 4)nd 2ec7? $pring ePuino@ 4)1 (arch7? su,,er so.istice 4Iun )1st7 and autu,n ePuino@ 4)*rd $epte,3er7. - 2uring ePuino@? the sun is at the ePuator during so.istices? the sun is at either tropic of cancer 4su,,er so.istice7 or Capricor, 4/inter so.istice7. T(O$'HERE 02 IT$ CO('O$ITIO0 -The 9ast e@panse of air ? /hich en9e.ops the earth a.. around? is ca..ed the atmosphere. - It can 3e 3road.1 di9ided into four .a1ers na,e.1 troposphere 4upto 1< 8, in the ePuator and < 8, in the po.es7? stratosphere 4< or 1< 8, & -6 8,7? ,esosphere 4-68,<68,7 and ther,osphere 4<68,- +668,7. - 'ure dr1 air constitutes ,ain.1 of nitrogen 4;<S7? o@1gen 4)1S7? rgon 46.=*S7. Co) 46.6*S7? h1drogen? he.iu,? /ater 9apor? oFone? dust partic.es? s,o8e? sa.ts and other i,purities. - Li8e a green house? it a..o/s short /a9e radiation to enter into it and reach the earthHs surface 3ut is near.1 opaPue to .ong /a9e terrestria. radiation fro, the sun &2reen 'ouse *ffect) $o,e of the i,portant #reen house gases are CO) CFC1s- Ch.orof.uorocar3ons? CH] 0itrous o@ide? etc.? The at,osphere protects the earth fro, the har,fu. radiation of the sun /ith the he.p of the OFone 4O*7 .a1er. (ETEOROLO#K 02 CLI( TOLO#K 4CE THER 02 CLI( TE7 -The stud1 of en9e.ope of air surrounding the p.anet and of the pheno,ena associated /ith the at,osphere is ca..ed eteorolo%y. - co,ponent of (eteoro.og1 is the stud1 of /eather. Ceather is the present condition of the at,osphere at a particu.ar. It is ,ain.1 concerned /ith its da1-to-da1 effects on .ife and hu,an acti9ities. - $limatolo%y is the stud1 of .ong-ter, ,anifestations of the /eather represented 31 a statistica. co..ection of /eather conditions o9er a specific .ength of period usua..1 at .east a fe/ decades. - The use of science of (eteoro.og1 for agricu.ture is ca..ed A%ricultural eteorolo%y. - The 9arious e.e,ents that co,3ined.1 e@press /eather are air pressure and /ind? te,perature. Re.ati9e Hu,idit1? precipitation 4rainfa..? sno/? fog? hai.s? etc7? 9isi3i.it1.

- The c.i,ate is contro..ed 31 four factors ca..ed $limatic controls strono,ica. factors? #eo,orpho.ogica. factors? so.ar factors and nthropogenic factors. The = C.i,atic contro.s are .atitude? a.titude? distance fro, the sea? .and and sea distri3ution? se,i-per,anent pressure s1ste,? stor, trac8s? occan currents? ,ountain 3arriers and air ,asses. CE THER ELE(E0T$ 'ressure% - t,ospheric pressure is the /eight of the co.u,n of air at an1 gi9en p.ace and ti,e. - It is ,easured 31 ,eans of an instru,ent ca..ed 4 neroid7 Baro,eter. It is ,easured as force per unit area. The units used 31 ,eteoro.ogists for this purpose are ca..ed ,i..i3ars 4,37. One ,i..i3ars force of one gra, on a sP. c,. pressure 1666,3 M /eight of 1.6-* 8g. $P. c,. 0or,a. pressure at sea .e9e. is ;5 c, 4161*.)- ,37. - n Iso3ar is an i,aginar1 .ine :oining p.aces of ePua. at,ospheric pressure reduced to sea .e9e.. - On the earthHs surface there are se9en pressure 3e.ts. The1 are ePuatoria. .o/ 4the do.dru,s7 the su3-tropica. high 4horse .atitudes7 the su3-po.ar .o/ and the po.ar high. E@cept the ePuatoria. .o/? a.. others ha9e ,atching pairs in the 0orthern and the $outhern He,isphere. Cind% - HoriFonta. ,o9e,ent of air is ca..ed /ind. The 9ertica. ,o9e,ent of air is ca..ed air current - Lines :oining p.aces of ePua. /ind speed are ca..ed Isotachs - Cinds of high speed are ca..ed $Pua..s. - 2ue to horiFonta. differences in air pressure. air f.o/s fro, areas of high pressure to areas of .o/ pressure. - Cing direction is deter,ined /ith the he.p of a /ind 9ane and the speed or 9e.ocit1 of the /ind 31 Ro3insonHs Cup ne,o,eter. In a /ind 9ane. The head denotes the direction fro, /hich the air is 3.o/ing and the tai. denotes the direction to /hich the air 3.o/ing. - The t/o ,ost /e.. understood and significant /inds for c.i,ate and hu,an acti9ities are the Gtrade /indsH and the G/ester.1 /indsH. - Cinds /hich 3.o/ throughout the 1ear fro, one .atitude to other in response to the .atitudina. differences in air pressure are ca..ed pre9ai.ing /inds or p.anetar1 /inds 4e.%. Trade Cinds7 - The /inds 3.o/ing fro, su3-tropica. high-pressure areas 4*6 0 and $ .atitude7 to/ards the ePuatoria. .o/-pressure 3e.ts are the e@tre,e.1 stead1 /inds 8no/n as the trade /inds. The1 3.o/ fro, /est to east. - 0ear the ePuator? the trade? /inds c.ash /ith each other and on the .ine of con9ergence? the1 rise and cause hea91 rainfa... - The Cester.ies are the /inds 3.o/ing fro, the su3-tropica. high-pressure 3e.ts to/ards the po.ar .o/-pressure 3e.ts. The1 3.o/ fro, south/est to northeast in the 0orthern He,isphere and fro, north/est to southeast in the southern He,isphere. - The /ester.ies are 3est de9e.oped 3et/een +6 and 56 .atitudes. These .atitudes are ca..ed Groaring fortiesH? Gfurious fiftiesH and Gshrie8ing si@tiesH. 'eriodic /inds% - The /inds that re9erse their direction periodica..1 /ith season are ca..ed periodic /inds. The ,onsoons are the 3est e@a,p.e of .arge-sca.e ,odifications of the p.anetar1 /ind s1ste,s. - The /ord ,onsoon is deri9ed for, the ra3ic /ord G(ausi,H /hich ,eans season.

- The ,onsoon /inds thus refer to /ind s1ste,s that ha9e a pronounced re9ersa. of direction. - In India? <6-=6S of the rainfa.. is o3tained fro, t/o ,onsoons na,e.1 south/est (onsoon and Q0orth EastH or QRetreating ,onsoonH. - 0or,a..1? the south/est ,onsoon reaches the >era.a Coast 31 the end of (a1? ad9ances a.ong the >on8an coast in ear.1 Iune and e@tends o9er the entire countr1 31 the end of Iu.1. The rains continue up to the end of $epte,3er? /hen the south/est ,onsoon recedes. - In 0o9e,3er and 2ece,3er? 0ortheast ,onsoon is the ,ain contri3utor of rain o9er the southeastern part of the peninsu.ar region especia..1 Ta,i. 0adu. - The ,onsoon depressions can 3e said to 3e the sing.e factor that contro.s the distri3ution of rainfa.. o9er the /ho.e of India. These .o/-pressure s1ste,s. Chich originate near the head Ba1 of Benga. and tra9e. across the countr1 in a /est and north/ester.1 direction. - Hea91 rainfa.. ,ain.1 occurs to the south of the trac8s of these depressions. * to + depressions are found in a ,onth during these ,onsoons. - Chen the1 ta8e a nor,a. 0orth/ester.1 trac8? there is f.ood in the 0orthern India and drought in the peninsu.a. Chen the1 fo..o/ an a3nor,a. trac8 across centra. India? there is f.ood in the 'eninsu.ar parts and drought in the 0orthern part of India. - These depressions ter,inate in #u:arat and Ra:asthan. Chen a depression reaches these states. The1 get a3undant rainsT other/ise the1 are su3:ect to a pro.onged drought. - Occasiona..1 there are one or t/o ,onsoon 3rea8s during the ,onsoon seasons. These t1pes of 3rea8s nor,a..1 3ring f.oods in the ri9ers of 0orthern Benga. and Bihar. Thunderstor,s and Hai.s% - 0i,3ostratus c.ouds indicate thunderstor,s. - $udden change in the /eather of particu.ar p.ace /ith hea91 do/npour is ca..ed thunderstor,s and hai. is rain in the for, of ice cr1sta.s. Thunderstor,s and hai. are predo,inant /eather pheno,enon 3efore and after ,onsoon seasons. I,portant ones are ;albaisa"is in Benga. and Andhis o9er 0orth /est India. C1c.onic stor,s% - Caused due to the creation of .o/-pressure Fones. The1 cause se9ere da,age to the coasta. Foos on an a9erage )-* stor,s ,a1 3e e@pected in a 1ear. - The1 are associated /ith the high /ind speeds and tida. /inds Cestern 2istur3ances - $eries of distur3ances in the for, of c.oud1 /eather and .ight rainfa.. in the p.ains and sno/ fa.. in the hi..s. - These distur3ances affect the Ra3i crops. Rainfa..% - Line :oining p.aces of ePua. rainfa.. are ca..ed Isoh1ets. - (ost of the rainfa.. of India is o3tained fro, the $outh/est and 0orth East (onsoon seasons. - The constanc1 31 /hich a p.ace recei9es rainfa.. is studied /ith the he.p of $o#efficient of variation &$7). High C" ,eans 9er1 .itt.e or scant1 rainfa... In parts of $aurashtra and >utch? the C" of rainfa.. is +6--6S /hereas in /estern Ra:asthan it is <6-=6S. - Rainfa.. ,easuring de9ice & ordinar1 and auto,aticEse.f-recording rain gauge. 2rought%

- Be.o/ ;-S of the nor,a. rainfa.. and se9ere drought /hen it is 3e.o/ -6S. - In Indian histor1 the 1ear 1=<; /as recorded as the /orst drought affected 1ear fo..o/ed 31 )666. - 'a.,erHs drought Inde@ is ca.cu.ated /ith data on rainfa..? ET and soi. ,oisture. E9apo-transpiration and Cater 3a.ance% - E9apo-transpiration M E9aporation fro, the soi. surface O transpiration fro, p.ants. - The e@tent to /hich the /ater needs of a crop are ,et in a .oca.it1 depends on the rainfa.. input the .osses due to run off and the e9apo-transpiration. - In India areas of high annua. 'ET are e@tre,e /est of Ra:asthan 4Iaisa.,er7 and e@tre,e south of Ta,i. 0adu 4Tuticorin7. - E9aporation is deter,ined using U$CB C.ass Open pan E9apori,eter. - ET is ,easured using L1si,eters. Te,perature% - Te,perature is the degree of hotness of a su3stance. - Lines :oining p.aces of ePua. te,perature are ca..ed Isother,s. - $unshine is not a .i,iting factor in crop production an1 /here in India. - High hu,idit1 and /ar, te,peratures are conduci9e to ,ost p.ant pest and diseases. Ceather ,odification % - C.oud seeding techniPue- $i.9er Iodide is used for co.d c.ouds and sodiu, ch.oride is used for /ar, c.ouds. #enera. 'oints % - Crop 1ie.d for,u.ation is done using Regression TechniPues. - India has 3een di9ided into 1- gro-c.i,atic !ones. Institutions In9o.9ed% - Indian Institute of Tropica. (eteoro.og1 - India (eteoro.ogica. 2epart,ent 4I(27? 'une? (aharashtra. - Centra. rid !one Research Institute 4C !RI7? Iodhpur? Ra:asthan. - Internationa. Crop Research Institute for se,i-arid tropics 4ICRI$ T7? H1dera3ad? '. - 0ationa. Centre for (ediu, Range /eather Forecasting 40C(RCF7? 0e/ 2e.hi.

$OIL $CIE0CE . $. $andou? II (. $c. g. 'h1sics

Roc8s - Earth crust consists of the e.e,ents O@1gen? si.icon? a.u,inu,? iron etc. in the decreasing order of their a,ounts. - Roc8s are 3asica..1 di9ided into * t1pes. - Igneous Roc8s% 2ranite, 0asalt &1eccan ,rap), 2abbro, Pumice, Rhyolite and ,racheolite cidic igneous roc8s contain 56-;-S PuartF e.%. granite. Basic igneous roc8s contain .ess than -6S of PuartF e.%. Basa.t. - $edi,entar1 roc8s% Limestone, sandstone, Shale, 1olomite and $on%lomerate. - (eta,orphic roc8s% are for,ed fro, Igneous and sedi,entar1 roc8s e.%. marble, %neiss, Schist, %raphite, slate. - I,portant con9ersions% #neiss is for,ed fro, #ranite. (ar3.e fro, Li,estone? #raphite fro, Coa.? $.ate fro, $ha.e NuartFite fro, PuartF or sandstone. $oi. Origin? Ceathering? (orpho.og1? Factors and 'rocesses of soi. for,ation - Roc8s are the chief sources of soi. parent ,ateria.s o9er /hich soi.s are for,ed. - $oi. is for,ed fro, /eathering of roc8s. Ceathering M 2isintegration O 2eco,position - 2isintegration 3rea8s conso.idated roc8s into unconso.idated parent ,ateria.s? /hich on further 3rea8ing and che,ica. deco,position for,s soi.. - 'h1sica. /eathering in9o.9es agents such as te,perature? <ater, 3ind, Plant and animals and processes such as e/foliation &surface peelin% off of roc"s), alternate 3ettin% and dryin%, freezin% and tha3in%, burro3in% of animals, root penetration, etc. - Cater? on freeFing? e@pands =S 31 9o.u,e. - Che,ica. /eathering reactions- $o.ution? h1dration? H1dro.1sis? car3onation? O@idation and reduction. - H1dro.1sis is the ,ost i,portant che,ica. /eathering process. - #eo-che,ica. /eathering is the /eathering ta8ing p.ace at the .a1ers do/n 3e.o/ /hereas pedo-che,ica. or pedogenic /eathering is the one ta8ing p.ace at the surface and su3surface .a1ers. - $oi. found at the site of for,ation- sedentar1 soi.s? /hereas soi.s found far a/a1 fro, the site of for,ation are ca..ed Cu,u.ous or transported soi.s - gent of transportation A na,e of the soi. for,ed% Ri9er /ater- ..u9iu,? La8e /ater- Lacustrine? $ea/ater-(arine? Cind- eo.ian if coarse and Loess if fine partic.es? #ra9it1-Co..u9iu,? Ice-(oraine. $tages of soi. for,ation- Infanc1? Kouth? ,aturit1 and o.d age. - $oi. /herein there is continuous deposition of ,ateria.s a./a1s re,ains 1oung e.%. 2esert soi.s and a..u9ia. deposits. - Pedolo%y is the stud1 of origin? for,ation and geographic distri3ution of soi.s in nature /hereas *dapholo%y is the stud1 of soi. in re.ation to crop gro/th. - Soil profile is the 9ertica. section of soi. through a.. its horiFons and it e@tends up to its parent ,ateria.s. pedon is the s,a..est 9o.u,e that can 3e recognised as a soi. indi9idua. and it is edi,ensiona.. - The horiFonta. .a1ers in a soi. profi.e are ca..ed horiFons. - T1pica..1 there are + horiFons &O? ? B and C. O horiFon is the organic horiFon found in the forest soi.s. horiFon is 3e.o/ O horiFon out of /hich ) .a1er is ca..ed i..u9ia. horiFon. B-horiFon is found 3e.o/ horiFon and is ,ost.1 ca..ed i..u9ia. horiFon.

E..u9ia. .a1er is the one /herein soi. ,ateria.s are re,o9ed /hereas i..u9ia. .a1er is one /herein soi. ,ateria.s re,o9ed fro, other .a1ers are deposited. C- horiFon consists of unconso.idated parent ,ateria.s. Be.o/ the C-horiFon is found the R .a1er? /hich is 8no/n as the Bed Roc8. Solum : OB horiFons Re%olith : OBOC horiFons The stud1 of the soi. in the fie.d condition /ith the he.p of 9arious ,orpho.ogica. characteristics is ca..ed $oi. (orpho.og1. 1o"uchaiev, the father of $oi. science? ga9e the factors of soi. for,ation? /hich /ere .ater? ,odified 31 .enny. The fi9e factors of soi. for,ation are $lorpi C.i,ate and organis, 4 cti9e factors7? Re.ief or topograph1? parent ,ateria. and ti,e 4passi9e factors7. There are 9arious processes of soi. for,ation out of /hich t/o are i,portantLaterisation and 'odFo.isation. Laterisation occurs in /ar, hu,id tropica. conditions /hereas 'odFo.isation occurs in the co.d hu,id te,perate conditions. In Laterisation? $i.ica 4$iO)7 is re,o9ed fro, the horiFon and sesPuio@ides are .eft out in the -horiFon /hereas in 'odFo.isation? sesPuio@ides are .eached fro, the horiFon and si.ica is .eft out in upper .a1ers. Laterite is used for preparing 3ric8s Laterites are 9er1 /e.. /eathered soi.s /hereas .aterite soi.s are sti.. undergoing so,e /eathering to 3eco,e .aterites.

0ature and co,position if soi. - $oi. is a =#phase, particulate, disperse, porous, open and hetero%eneous system - Idea. soi. contains -6S so.id ,atter 4+-S ,inera. ,atter and -S organic ,atter7 and -6S pore space 4)-S air and )-S /ater7. - Out of the * phases? $o.id phase is the constant phase in ter,s of co,position. - There are 3asica..1 * soi. separates viz., sand? si.t and c.a1. There are t/o s1ste,s of c.assif1ing the siFes of these separates. - Internationa. $1ste, gi9en 31 Atterber% Coarse sand ),, & 6.) ,,? Fine sand 6.),, to 6.6)? si.t & 6.6),, to 6.66),, and c.a1 & .ess than 6.66),, or .ess than ) ,icrons. - U$2 s1ste, & #ra9e. & ),, and ,ore? "er1 coarse sand )-1,, & 6.),,? coarse sand & 1.6 to o.-,,? ,ediu, sand & 6.- to 6.)-,,? fine sand 6.)- to 6.1,,? 9er1 fine sand 6.1 to 6.6-,,? si.t 6.6- -6 6.66),, and c.a1 & .ess that 6.66),,. - India fo..o/s Internationa. s1ste, of partic.e siFe c.assification. 'h1sica. properties of soi.% - The re.ati9e proportion of the 9arious soi. separates is ca..ed soi. te@ture. There are 1) te@tura. groups. - Light te@tured or coarse te@tured soi.s are eas1 to p.ough /hereas hea91 te@tured or fine te@tured soi.s are difficu.t to p.ough. - The 1) te@tura. groups fro, .ight or coarse te@tured to hea91 or fine te@tured soi.s is sand? .oa,1 sand? sand1 .oa,? .oa,? si.t .oa,? si.t? sand1 c.a1 .oa,? c.a1 .oa,? si.t1 c.a1 .oa,? sand1 c.a1? si.t1 c.a1 and c.a1. - #ra9e. is neither a soi. separate nor one of the soi. te@tures. - 'artic.es greated than ),, are not considered soi.. - Te@tured is deter,ined 31 Internationa. 'ipette and Bou1cous H1dro,eter ,ethod. - $to8eHs .a/ is app.ied in the deter,ination of soi. te@ture. - $i.t has inter,ediate characteristics 3et/een sand and c.a1. - C.a1 is ca..ed the acti9e fraction of the soi.. It is ,ade up of a.u,ino-si.icates. - $oi. te@ture is a static propert1 i.e. it cannot 3e changed. - $oi. structure is the arrange,ent of soi. aggregates or pri,ar1 and secondar1 partic.es.

- #rade denotes the dura3i.it1 or sta3i.it1 of the aggregates & structure.ess? /ea8? ,oderate? strong and 9er1 strong. - C.ass of soi. structure denotes siFe of the aggregates% 9er1 fine? fine? ,ediu,? coarse and 9er1 coarse. - There are >types soi. structures% p.at1? pris,atic or co.u,nar? angu.ar or su3-angu.ar 3.oc81 and spheroida. 4granu.ar and cru,3 structure7. - $tructure is denoted in the order of #R 2E-CL $$-TK'E. - $tructure of the soi. can 3e easi.1 changed 31 ,anage,ent practices. - Loa,1 te@ture and granu.ar or cru,3 structure is 3est suited for agricu.ture crops. - Bu.8 densit1 4 pparent densit1 of soi. is the ,ass of unit 9o.u,e of sou. inc.uding the pore space. - 'artic.e densit1 4True 2ensit17 is the ,ass of unit 9o.u,e of soi. /ithout pore space. - Bu.8 densit1 4 7 is appro@i,ate.1 ha.f that of partic.e densit1. $o 3u.8 densit1 is a./a1s .o/er than partic.e densit1 9a.ue of Bu.8 2ensit1 is 1.+ to 1.< (gE,*. Bu.8 densit1 increases on co,paction /hereas it decreases on addition of organic ,atter. - The partic.e densit1 4T7 of soi.s is around ).5- (gE,* due to do,inance of PuartF /hose densit1 is a.so of the sa,e 9a.ue. - 'orosit1 percentage pore space is gi9en 31 the for,u.a 166@4T- ET7. - "a.ues% $and1 soi. O*6S c.a1 soi.s M-6-56S and .oa,s M +6--6S - (acropores are greater in coarse te@tured soi. and are occupied 31 air /hi.e ,icropores are greater in fine te@tured soi.s and are occupied 31 /ater. $oi. co.our% - It is found out using (unse.. Co.our chart. Three 9aria3.es are used to denote soi. co.our The1 are Hue-do,inant Ca9e.ength? "a.ue-re.ati9e .ightness of the co.our and chro,a-purit1 of the co.our. '.asticit1 and cohesion% - '.asticit1 is the capacit1 of the soi. to change its shape under ,oist conditions. - Cohesion is the capacit1 to stic8 together. - '.astic soi.s are cohesi9e. $oi. Co..oids% - The t/o phases are the dispersed phase 4c.a1 and hu,us7 and dispersion ,ediu,E/ater7. - $oi. co..oid is ,ade up inorganic co..oid-c.a1 and organic co..oid-hu,us. - 'artic.es s,a..er than I ,icron are said to e@hi3it co..oida. acti9it1. - Co..oida. propert1 increases /ith decrease in dia,eter. - Co..oids e@hi3it the propert1 of sacrificia. acti9it1 such as the capacit1 to ho.d so.id? gases? sa.ts and ions. - $oi. co..oids ha9e high e@change capacit1? /hich increases /ith si.ica sesPuio@ides ratio. $oi. /ater% - Cater has ,a@i,u, densit1 at +6 C. One ,o.ecu.e of /ater is attached to four ,o.ecu.es in the neigh3orhood. The dia,eter of /ater ,o.ecu.e is *6 4*@16-16,7. Cater has high die.ectric constant of <6. Its surface tension is ;.)@16-)0E,. - $tructure of /ater ,o.ecu.e is he@agona. .attice and the ang.e is 16+6 -6. - $oi. ,oisture constants% H1groscopic /ater? capi..ar1 /ater and gra9itationa. /ater. - Cater he.d at tension of ,ore than *1-at, is ca..ed h1groscopic /ater. It is not a9ai.a3.e to the p.ants. - Cater he.d 3e.o/ 1E*rd &at, is ca..ed gra9itationa. /ater and it is drained fro, the soi. due to gra9it1.

- Cater he.d at tensions 3e1ond 1-- at, is not a9ai.a3.e to the p.ants. 1- at, represents the /i.ting point. - If /ater is a..o/ed to drain 31 gra9it1 after supp.1ing /ater? so,e /ater re,ains e9en after drainage due to gra9it1. It is ca..ed fie.d capacit1. Cater at fie.d capacit1 is he.d at 1E*red at,. - Cater he.d 3et/een 1E*rd and 1- at, is ca..ed a9ai.a3.e /ater - Cater in soi. ,o9es in response to difference to tension or pressure. - (ore /ater ,eans .ess tension and .ess /ater is he.d at ,ore tension. $o /ater ,o9es fro, .o/ tension to high tension. - 2arc1Hs .a/ in soi. dea.s to h1drau.ic gradient. $oi. air% - $oi. air contains 16 ti,es car3on dio@ide as that of air. - Idea..1 )E*rd of soi. pores are fi..ed /ith /ater and 1E*rd /ith air. - Fic8Hs .a/ dea.s a3out the diffusion of gases in soi.s. - $u3,erged soi.s contain .ess o@1gen. - $oi. air is characterised 31 O2R-O@1gen 2iffusion Rate. $oi. te,perature% In soi.s? heat is ,ain.1 transferred through conduction FourierHs .a/ dea.s /ith heat conduction in soi.s. Sandy soils absorb more heat than clayey soils because the specific heat of 3ater &heat re+uired to heat a substance) is >#? times that of soil particles. - $oi. te,perature is used at fa,i.1 .e9e. categoriFation in soi. ta@ono,1. Che,ica. properties% - pH is the negati9e .ogarith, of H ion concentration. $orenson ga9e pH sca.e. - There are t/o t1pes of acidit1 in soi.-acti9e acidit1 and potentia. acidit1. - pH ,easure on.1 acti9e acidit1. 'otentia. acidit1 for,s the 3u.8 of the soi. acidit1. It is greater than acti9e acidit1. - $oi. pH is a.so soi. reaction. - $oi. /ith pH .ess than 5.- are acidic? 5.- to ;.- are neutra. and a3o9e ;.- are a.8a.ine. - One unit chan%e in p' chan%es ' ion concentration by @A times, 9 units by @AA times and so on. - E.ectrica. conducti9it1% - (easure of so.u3.e sa.ts in ,,hosEc, or d$E, in so.u3ridge or conducto,eter. - Ion e@change% - (ost i,portant process occurring in soi. Ion e@change is a re9ersi3.e pros^cess. $oi. co..oids are the seat of ion e@change. - Cation and anion e@change respecti9e.1. CEC is ,easured at pH ; A e@pressed as ,ePE166 g of soi.. CEC 9aries great.1 /ith nature and a,ount of c.a1 and O(. - >no.inite has *-16? I..ite & 16-*6? (ont,ori..ionite & <6-1-6 and Organic ,atter & greater than )66. Base saturation% BS ={(Na+ +K++Ca+++Mg++)/CEC}x100 - Ferti.e soi.s are saturated /ith CaOO and (gOO ions. If soi. is saturated /ith ,ore than 1-S e@changea3.e sodiu,? than that soi. is ca..ed .8a.i soi.. If soi. is saturated /ith HO ions. then the soi. is said to 3e 3ase unsaturated or acidic. Organic ,atter%

- O( on deco,position 31 hu,ification process gi9es hu,us. Hu,us is a,orphous an nature. In India O( is 9er1 .ess 3ecause of tropica. and su3-tropica. c.i,ate. - In hi..1 and a.titudes? O( is a3o9e 1S in ,angro9es it is 16-*6S. - C0 ratio of O( is 16%1 /hereas that of Indian soi.s is -%1 to )-%1 /ith an a9erage of 1+%1 - Histoso.s are ca..ed Organic soi.s. - Organic ,atter deco,position stages% First sugars A starches fo..o/ed 31 proteins fo..o/ed he,ice..u.oses? ce..u.ose and fatt1 acids and fina..1 .ignin and /a@es. - Bio.ogica. properties% Bacteria > Actinom cete!> "#ngi > A$gae The s,e.. of soi.s after fresh sho/ers is due to ctino,1cetes. Bacteria occur in neutra. to a.8ahne pH. Fungi in acid pH and .gae in shade areas. $1,3iotic 0 fi@er & RhiFo3iu, in Legu,es? 0on-s1,3iotic or Free .i9ing is roto3acter. In padd1 a.gae or Fo..a fi@es 0. The a,ount of 0 fi@ed is -6-I-6 >g. In p.ant 0 is fi@ed as R-0H)? /hich is con9erted to a,,onia. The a,,onia is con9erted so nitrite first 31 0itroso,onas or 0itrosococcus? fo..o/ed 31 0itrite to nitrate 31 0itro3acter. This process is ca..ed 0itrification. $o,e of the nitrification Inhi3itors are 0-$er9e and (. Opti,u, condition for nitrification process is fie.d capacit1 and pH a3o9e -.

(inera.ogica. 'roperties% - There are pri,ar1? secondar1? accessor1 and a,orphous ,inera.s. - 'ri,ar1 ,inera.% Order of occurrence
-

"e$%!&ar!> '#art(> Mica> )ime!tone> *orn+$en%e an% a#gite> ,$i-ine an% !er&entine

- $erpentine is h1drated si.icate of (g. - $econdar1 ,inera.s% 1%1- one si.ica and one a.u,ina .a1er. >ao.inite? Ha..o1site and 2ic8ite )%1 & T/o si.ica and one a.u,ina .a1er% (ont,ori..ionite 4e@panding7? "er,icu.ite 4$.ight.1 e@panding7 and I..ite 40on-e@panding and 1-S of si.ica is rep.aced 31 .*-and >O ions7 I..ite is a.so ca..ed as h1drous ,ica. )%1%1 or )%) & Ch.orite. The cr1sta. unit is co,posed of one )%1 unit 4.i8e ,ica and (ont,ori..ionite7 and one octahedra. unit? Brucite _4(g* 4OH75`. - ccessor1 ,inera.s% B- Tour,a.ine? F-TopaF? '- patite? Ti-Ruti.e and natase. - ,orphous c.a1 ,inera.% ..ophane. Found in $oi. order ndoso.s. - 0egati9e charge is due to e@posed surface of c.a1 and iso,orphous su3stitution. $oi. sur9e1? c.assification and soi.s of India% - There are t/o t1pes of soi. sur9e1- Reconnaissance soi. sur9e1 and detai.ed soi. sur9e1 . - In R$$1 1= M 1 ,i.e. Toposheets of 1%-6?666 to 1%1?66?666 or aeria. photo of 1%)-?666 or 1%-6?666 is used. O3ser9ations are once at *-5 >,s. - 2$$% 1= M < ,i.e or 1= M 15 ,i.e. Cadastra. ,aps of 1%-666 to 1%<666 or eria% photo of 1%16?666 is used O3ser9ation are once at a - b >,. - Forest area is sur9e1ed 31 R$$. $oi. c.assification% - India? fro, 1=5=? fo..o/s U$2 Hs Co,prehensi9e s1ste, of soi. c.assification ca..ed soi. Ta@ono,1. It is t1pe of ,u.ti-categor1 c.assification /herein there 5 categories% soi. order? su3order? great group? su3-group? fa,i.1 and series.

- There 1) order and the .ast.1 added 11th and 1)th orders are ndoso.s and #e.iso.s respecti9e.1? ndoso.s are found in 9o.canic cruption areas and contains high content a..ophane. #e.iso.s are found in arctic regions. - The t/o .argest orders in India are Inceptiso.s fo..o/ed 31 Entiso.s. - $oi. of India% - Largest area is occupied 31 a..u9ia. soi.s ;- (ha. - B.ac8 soi.s ="ertiso.s ,ost.17? ;) (ha? are characterised 31 #i.gai 4shining surface7? (icro- re.ief 4ups and do/n7? se.f-churning? s,ectite 4e@panding c.a1s7 and the1 are the Russian ePui9a.ent of ChernoFe,s. - )E*rd of T0 is of red soi.. the parent ,ateria. for red soi.s is ,ost.1 granite. - Laterite is o.der than .ateritic soi.s. Laterites are the o.dest or ,ost /eather soi.s. - Laterite ,eans 3ric8. - 2esert soi.s co,e under ridiso.s. - 'ro3.e, soi.s occup1 16 (ha. $a.ine soi.s- ;.) (ha and a.8a.i soi.s- ).< (ha. - 'ro3.e, soi.s are highest in U'. - $a.ine soi.s are for,ed ,ain.1 in aird and se,i-arid regions due to rising of sa.t .e9e. in the /ater ta3.e. .so it is due to secondar1 sa.inisation due to poor Pua.it1 irrigation /ater. T1pe of soi. pH EC4d$E,7 E$' 4S7 $a.ine V <.L+ V 1.8a.i L <.V+ L 1$a.ine- .8a.i V <.L+ L 1- $a.ine are ca..ed /hite a.8a.i soi.s and are said to cause 3oron to@icit1. Treated 31 .eaching. - .8a.i soi.s are ca..ed 3.ac8 soi.s and are rec.ai,ed 31 app.1ing #1psu, - $a.ine to.erant 9arieties% rice, 3heat, barley, maize, sor%hum and millets. - $ensiti9e crops% Pulses and oilseeds. - cid su.phate soi.s% pH .ess than *.- due to Li1drogen $u.phide gas production? found in >era.a and $under3ans. Causes >iochi disease. Cat c.a1s are associated /ith these soi.s. - cid soi.s ha9e 9er1 .o/ pH. Rec.ai,ed 31 .i,ing /ith .i,estone or ca.cite 4CaCO*7? 2o.o,ite CaCO*. (gCo*. )H)O. s.a8ed .i,e Ca 4OH)7 and Burnt .i,e or Puic8 .i,e CaO. - $ RM 0aO 4CaOO O (gOO7 E)

$oi. (anage,ent% - The opti,u, ph1sica. condition of the soi. for crop gro/th is ca..ed soi. ti.th. - Other practices are choice of crops? fo..o/ing .and capa3i.it1 c.assification? conser9e soi. and /ater? a9oid sa.init1? a.8a.init1 and /ater-.ogging? adopt crop rotation especia..1 /ith .egu,es? app.1 soi. a,end,ents and fo..o/ 3a.anced ferti.iFation. $oi. Testing% - (ain.1 to test the ferti.it1 status of the soi. that is to find out the nutrient deficiencies and soi. a,end,ents. - Ha.f a >g soi. sa,p.e is ta8en and ana.1sed for pH? tota. so.u3.e sa.ts 31 EC? Organic Car3on 31 Ca.8.e1 and B.ac8 (ethod? 9ai.a3.e 0 31 a.8a.ine per,anganate ,ethod? a9ai ' 31 O.senHs or Bra1Hs (ethod? a9ai > 31 0eutra. 0or,a. ,,oniu, cetate ,ethod. - pH 3e.o/ 5 is ter,ed acidic? 5-<.- neutra. to sa.ine? <.5 to = tending to 3e sa.ine and pH a3o9e = is ter,ed as a.8a.ine.

- Tota. so.u3.e sa.ts% EC in d$E,% Be.o/ 1is nor,a.? 1-) critica. for ger,ination? )-+ critica. for gro/th of sensiti9e crops? a3o9e + in:urious to ,ost of the crops. - $oi. test report gi9es soi. te@ture? pH? EC? OC? 9ai 0'>? #1psu, and Li,e a,ount to 3e added? #reen (anureECo,post in the F.ooding and draining.

$T TU$ OF " IL BLE 0'> I0 $OIL$ 0utrient Organic car3on 9ai.a3.e 0 4>gEha7 9ai.a3.e ' 4>gEha7 9ai.a3.e > 4>gEha7 LOC Be.o/ 6.-S V)<6 16 V116 (E2IU( 6.- & 6.;-S )<6--56 16-)116-)<6 HI#H L;.L-56 L)L)<6

$oi. Ferti.it1? ,anures and ferti.iFers% - $oi. producti9it1 and ferti.it1 are s1non1,ous ter,s. $oi. producti9it1 is soi. ferti.it1 O so,ething. - There are 15 essentia. e.e,ents for p.ant gro/th. There are di9ided into (acro and ,icronutrients 3ased on the a,ount of p.ant upta8e. - (a:or nutrients consists of 'ri,ar1 e.e,ents. Beneficia. e.e,ents are I? $e? #a? I. - Ba..ast e.e,ents are I and $I. - rnon ga9e the criteria for essentia.it1 of the nutrients and 0icho.as ga9e the ter, functiona. or ,eta3o.ic nutrients. - La/ of ,ini,u, /as gi9en 31 Father of #. Che,istr1 Lei3ig and La/ of 2i,inishing Returns /as gi9en 31 (itscher.ich. - 0utrient such as nitrate? ch.oride and su.phate are not a3sor3ed 31 the soi. co..oids and re,ain ,ain.1 in the soi. so.ution. - 2iffusion ,echanis, ena3.es nutrient ,o9e,ent 3ithout the ,o9e,ent of /ater. - It is the ,echanis,s predo,inant is supp.1ing ,ost of the ' and > to p.ant roots. - 0itrogen ro.e% greenish co.our? efficient uti.iFation of ' and >. Its def s1,pto,s 41e..o/ing7 occur in the o.der .ea9es 3ecause of its high ,o3i.it1? 2ef hastens ,aturit1 /hereas to@icit1 de.a1s ,aturit1 3ecause of pro.onged 9egetati9e f.ush? succu.ent? .eather1 gro/th and a.so causes .odging. To@icit1 a.so i,pairs the Pua.it1 of 3ar.e1? to3acco? sugarcane and fruits. - 0itrogen is a9ai.a3.e 3oth in anionic and cationic for,. - 'hosphorus pro,otes root gro/th? ne/ ce.. for,ation? for,ation of grains and ,aturation of crops? inf.uences the 9igour of p.ants and i,pro9es the Pua.it1 of the crops? increases resistances to diseases? 0 fi@ing in .egu,e crops. Its deficienc1 causes reddish or purp.ish disco.ouration of ste, and fo.iage due to a3nor,a. increase in the sugar content and for,ation of anthoc1anin. - 'otassiu,% to resist pest and diseases? co.d and ad9erse conditions? starch production and production and trans.ocation of sugars? i,pro9es the Pua.it1 of to3acco and citrus. Lu/ury consumption is noticed. 2eficienc1 s1,pto,s ringing of a.fa.fa .ea9es /ith ro/s of s,a.. /hite spots% reddish 3ro/n disco.ouration of cotton .ea9es? dr1ing? scorching and cur.ing of .eaf ,argins in potato and Ginter9eina. ch.orosisH and GfiringH a.ong the edges of ,aiFe .ea9es. 0itrogenous ferti.iFers% - $odiu, 0itrate% 1st nitrogenous ferti.iFer. Chi.ean 0itrate 15S 0 in nitrate for,. 'articu.ar.1 usefu. in acid soi.s - ,,oniu, su.phate% )6.5S and )+S $. Chen c.ose to seeds affects seed ger,ination - nh1drous ,,onia contains highest 0 content of *)S. - Urea contains +5S 0 and non-proteined organic for, of 0? a,ide for, of 01. - ,,oniu, nitrate% **-*-S 0 4ha.f as nitrate for, and other ha.f as ,,onica. for,7? acidu.ating and e@p.osi9e. - 0itro-cha.8 is o3tained 31 ,i@ing ,,oniu, nitrate /ith a3out +6S .i,estone or do.o,ite. It has )6.-S 4-6S in ,,onica. for, and -6S in 0itrate for,7.

,,oniu, $u.phate 0itrate% ,,oniu, 0itrate O ,,oniu, su.phate. Contains )5S 0 4*E+th in ,,onica. for, and 1E+th in nitrate for,. ,,oniu, ch.oride% )5S 0? possesses good ph1sica. condition? si,i.ar in action to a,,oniu, su.phate? not reco,,ended for to,atoes? to3acco and other such crops. C 0% Ca.ciu, ,,oniu, 0itrate >isan8ad )--)<S 0 41E) a,,onica. and b nitrate7. $.o/ re.ease 0 ferti.iFers% 0ee, coated urea? Tar coated urea? urea for,a.deh1de 4urea for,7? Urea super granu.es? etc. 2ried 3one ,ea. & 16-1)S high.1 a9ai.a3.e 0.

'hosphatic ferti.iFers% - Roc8 phosphate% )--*-S /ater Inso.u3.e 'hosphoric acid. Bone ,ea. contains )6)-S ')O-. - $uper 'hosphate% (ost /ide.1 used /ater-so.u3.e ' ferti.iFer in India. $$'% 15-1<S ')O-?2$'-*)S ')O-? T$'-++-+=S ')O-. - Citrate so.u3.e '% 2ica.ciu, phosphate- *--*<S ')O- Basic s.age &5-)6S ')O31product of stee. industries. - #1psu,% )6S $ and )*S Ca. 'otassic Ferti.iFers% - India i,ports > ferti.iFers ,ain.1 fro, #er,an1 and France. - (O'% >CI -6-5*S >)O - $O'%>)$O+ +<--)S >)O. - Cood ash & --5S 'otassiu, car3onate. Co,p.e@ ferti.iFer% - 2ia,,oniu, 'hosphate% 42 '7 & 1<%+5%6 - $upha.a% 0itro phosphate & )6%)6%)? 1-%1-%1-? 1<%1<%=. (anures% - FK( has 6.*S? 6.1-S? 6.*S 0? ')O- and >)O. - 1 tone of catt.e dung can gi9e on.1 ).=- >g of 0? 1?-= >g of 'hosphoric acid and ).=>g of potash. - 0ight soi. is a.so ca..ed 'oudrette. - $oi. erosion and conser9ation% - $oi. degradation is defined as the .oss in soi. producti9it1 due to ph1sica.? che,ica. and 3io.ogica. deterioration. - Causes are e@cessi9e pressure on .and to ,eet the gro/ing de,ands of popu.ation . The1 are in the for, of o9er e@p.oitation of natura. resources .i8e o9ergraFing? e@cessi9e deforestation? fau.t1 ,ethods of agricu.tura. practices? shifting cu.ti9ation or Ihu,ing. - There are ) t1pes of soi. erosion 0or,a. crosion 4geo.ogica. crosion7 and cce.erated erosion. - In nor,a. erosion? rate of soi. .oss M rate at /hich soi. is for,ed. - cce.erated crosion is one /here rate of soi. of .oss is far greater than the rate at /hich it is for,ed. - rea affected 31 soi. degradation is 1<;.= (ha 4-;.1S7 of the tota. geographica. area. - 2eterioration in the for, of /ater erosion 41+<.= (ha7? Cind erosion 41*.- (ha7? che,ica. deterioration & 1*.< (ha? 'h1sica. deterioration .i8e /ater .ogging 411.5 (ha7 and Bio.ogica. deterioration.

- Cater erosion% Erosion 31 /ater & sp.ash erosion? sheet? ri..? gu..1? strea, 3an8 and .ands.ide erosion. - $p.ash crosion is the sp.ashing effect of raindrops on soi. partic.es. - $heet crosion is not c.ear.1 recognised 3ut can 3e seen as ,udd1 run-off. - Ri.. crosion .eads to for,ation of finger .i8e ri..s and gu..1 crosion is the se9ere for, of ri.. erosion /herein groo9es for, deep channe.s ca..ed pu..ies. Land 3eco,es unfit for cu.ti9ation. - $iFe of gu..ies% $1,3o. #1 #) #* #+ 2escription "er1 s,a.. $,a.. (ediu, 2eep and 0arro/ $pecifications Up to * , deep and 1<, 3ed /idth. $ide s.opes 9ar1 Up to *, deep and greater than 1<, 3ed /idth. $ide s.ope 9er1 2epth 3et/een * and =,. Bed /idth greater than 1<,. $ide s.opes unifor,.1 s.oping 3et/een < and 1-S 4a7 *,-=, deep. Bed /idth .ess than 1<,. $ide s.ope 9ar1. 437 2epth greater than =,. Bed /idth 9aries. $ide s.ope 9ar1? ,ost.1 steep or e9en 9ertica.? /ith intricate and acti9e 3ranch gu..ies.

- The ,echanis, of /ater crosion is detachin% effect of raindrops and surface f.o/ of /ater carries the detached soi. partic.es to far p.aces. Cind erosion% - Cind erosion nor,a..1 occurs in arid and se,i-arid regions. - * t1pes of soi. ,o9e,ent are seen in /ind crosion % sa.tation? suspension and surface creep. - $a.tation is the ,ost i,portant process in /ind erosion and contro. of /ind erosion is ,ain.1 3ased on e.i,ination of ,o9e,ent in sa.tation. 'artic.es of siFe 6.1 to 6.-,, are .ifted. - (a:or portion of soi. carried 31 /ind is ,o9ed in a series of 3ounces ca..ed sa.tation. - $uspension% "er1 fine partic.es .ess than 6.1,, in dia,eter are carried into suspension o9er .ong distances. The1 are 8ic8ed up into air 31 action of partic.es in sa.tation. - $urface creep% 'artic.es .arger than 6.-,, 3ut s,a..er than 1.6,, are pushed and spread a.ong the surface 31 i,pact of partic.es in sa.tation to for, a surface creep. - The ,echanis, of /ind erosion is Initiation? transportation and deposition. Factors affecting soi. .oss% - Uni9ersa. soi. .oss 4U$LE7 /as gi9en /eisch,eir and $,ith. - M R>L$C' /here denotes soi. .oss in the ? R-Rainfa.. erosi9it1? >-soi. erodi3i.it1? L-s.ope .ength? $-s.opeS? C-crop ,anage,ent factor? '-$oi. (anage,ent factor. - $oi. .oss is ca.cu.ated 31 co,paring soi. .oss /ith an idea. p.ot of )), .ong 4;) ft7 and =S s.ope.
-

.ain/a$$ cro!ion in%ex = Kinetic energ o/ t0e !torm x Max 10 min#te mten!it - Intensit1 of the rainfa.. is ,ore i,portant than duration and frePuenc1 of rainfa.. in causing soi. .oss. - $oi. te@ture? structure? infi.tration? per,ea3i.it1? organic ,atter content etc affects soi. erosion.

Lateritic soils are less erodible than blac" soils. $peed and e@tent of run-off is decided 31 s.opeS and .ength. "e.ocit1 of /ater f.o/ is proportion to sPuare root of s.opeS or 9ertica. drop. Hence if .and s.opeS is increased + ti,es then 9e.ocit1 is dou3.ed. If 9e.ocit1 is dou3.ed? erosi9e po/er of Ho/ is increased 31 + ti,es i.e. erosi9e po/er is proportiona. to sPuare of the 9e.ocit1. $iFe of the partic.es carried 31 the f.o/ is proportiona. to the 5th po/er of the 9e.ocit1 of f.o/. If 9e.ocit1 is dou3.ed? siFe of the partic.es carried is increased 31 5+ ti,es. Nuantit1 of soi. transported is proportiona. to the -th po/er of the 9e.ocit1 of f.o/. If 9e.ocit1 is dou3.ed? then Puantit1 of soi. transported is increased 31 *) ti,es. $o erosion is geo,etrica..1 increasing /ith s.opeS. Loss of p.ant nutrients increases /ith increase in degree of s.ope. $oi. .oss is .ess /hen .and is .eft undistur3ed under a natura. co9er and soi. .oss increases steep.1 /hen 9egetation is re,o9ed and .and is cu.ti9ated. Legu,es and grasses are stronger in pre9enting soi. .oss. (onocu.ture of cerea.s shou.d 3e a9oided. $o,e i,portant e.%. of order of soi. .oss. Cu.ti9ated 3are fa..o/ (aiFe & /heat under 0atura. grasses Fa..o/ .and up and do/n cu.ti9ation C#$ti-ate% /a$$o2 > 3o2ar > nat#ra$ co-er ,-ergra(e% /a$$o2 or Mai(e > Nat#ra$ /a$$o2

$OIL 02 C TER CO0$ER" TIO0 (E $URE$ - The 8e1 to soi. and /ater conser9ation is to fo..o/ .and capa3i.it1 c.assification - Land capa3i.it1 c.asses are 3ased on intensit1 of haFards and .i,itations. s c.ass increases? the intensit1 of .i,itations increases. - C.ass " has no crosion haFard 3ut it is p.aced in c.ass " on.1 due to the fact that it .i,itations are practica..1 difficu.t to re,o9e. - C.ass "III inc.udes Bad Lands roc8 outcrops? sand1 3eaches? ,arshes? deserts? ri9er /ashes? ,ine spoi.s and other near.1 3arren .ands. - The co.ours for the 9arious c.asses fro, I to "III are #reen? 1e..o/? Bro/n? 'in8? #re1? Orange? Red and 'urp.e. - $u3 c.ass indicates do,inant .i,itation and is denoted 31 e? /? s? c & e for erosion? / for /etness? s for soi. .i,itations and c for c.i,ate. - If t/o .i,itations are found? the do,inant .i,itations is /ritten first. - The order of priorit1 in case of ePua. e@tent of .i,itations is e? /? s? and c. - rid .ands start /ith c.ass I"? se,i-arid /ith c.ass III or I"? su3-hu,id /here crop 1ie.d is affected frePuent.1 31 drought /ith II or III? Hu,id c.i,ate /ith occasiona. dr1 spe..s /ith II and hu,id c.i,ate /ith /e.. distri3uted rainfa.. /ith CL $$ I. - $oi. and /ater conser9ation ,easure are di9ided into grono,ic and Engineering ,easures. grono,ic ,easure% The princip.es are to intercept raindrops and stop sp.ash effect? to increase inta8e rate and to stop o9er.and f.o/. @. $ontour farmin%( It is far,ing across the s.opes a.ong the contour 3unds /ithin 5S s.ope? I,portant e@a,p.es of soi. .oss% (aiFe O co/ pea 4Contour cu.ti9ation7 V ,aiFe 4up and do/n cu.ti9ation7. 'otato 4contour cu.ti9ation7 V 'otato 4up and do/n cu.ti9ation7 9. ulchin%( s1nthetic and natura..

- =. Selection of crops( crops se.ected shou.d pro9ide ,a@i,u, co9er of soi.. Legu,es are 9er1 effecti9e particu.ar.1 co/pea and ,ung. Crops can 3e di9ided into crosion resistant 4#. 0UT7 and crosion per,itting crops 4UR 27. - I,portant e.%. of soi. .oss% Urad L (aiFe L #ora padd1 L #. 0ut. Io/ar L B.ac8 gra, L #. 0ut. - Bidito3acco- fa..o/ L $un he,p- Bidito3acco-fa..o/L Ba:ra-fa..o/L Ba:ra-(ung. - >. Strip croppin%( .ternate strips of erosion resisting and erosion per,itting crops. - Cind strip cropping is gro/ing a.ternate ro/s of ta.. and short crops across the direction of /ind. - ?. i/ea croppin%( Better protection and 1ie.d than strip cropping. - Engineering ,easures% To increase the opportunit1 ti,e and to di9ide the .ong s.opes into short ones so that the 9e.ocit1 of f.o/ is reduced. - The ,ethods are 3asin .isting using 3asin .eister 4e@ca9ate so,e soi. to a..o/ rain /ater to enter7? su3-soi.ing 4to re,o9e the surface hard pans7?contour 3unds upto 5S s.ope? graded 3unds in rainfa.. areas /ith a 9ertica. inter9a. of 6.* 4sO*7 /here $ is s.ope S? Bench terracing 4series of 3enches or p.atfor,s? #rassed /ater/a1s using 'annicu, repans? Brachaeria ,utica. or c1anodon. - 2ully control measures( Chec8 da,s? sodding? #u..1 p.ugging /ith 3rush /oods? /ire ,eshes? sand 3ags? 3ou.ders? .i9e hedges 4"eti9er7? 3ric8s ,asonr1 ite,s? etc earthen p.ugging. - In case of s,a.. gu..ies? di9ersion chec8 3unds and in case of ,ediu, gu..ies? chee8 da,s at 9ertica. inter9a. of 1.), and terracing the side s.opes are done. L 02 U$E ' TTER0 I0 I02I L 02 U$E Forest rea to non-agricu.ture uses Barren uncu.ti9a3.e .and 'er,anent pastures A other graFing .ands Land under ,isce..aneous tree crops gro9es Cu.ti9a3.e /astes O.d fa..o/s .ads Current fa..o/s 0et $o/n rea #ross Cropped rea rea so/n ,ore than once $T TU$ OF L 02 2E#R 2 TIO0 - Cater crosion & +-.*S - Cind crosion & +.1S - Che,ica. deterioration & +.)S - 'h1sica. deterioration & *.-S - Tota. area affected &-; S - 0ot fit for agricu.ture- -.-S - Unaffected & *;.+S 0ET RE IRRI# TE2 BK 2IFFERE0T $OURCE$ 41==--=57 $OURCE Tan8 RE (ha *.1 (hu 5<.6; )1.< 1=.*< 11.*6 *.5; 1+.5+ =.51*.=1 1+).-1 1<-.+= +).=< S )).* ;.)6 5.*6 *.;6 1.)6 +.<6 *.)6 +.56 +5.; -5.-1;.16

Cana.s Tu3e /e..s Others Other sources Tota.

1;.1 1;.= 11.= *.-*.-

C TER RE$OURCE$ Catch,ent area of the ri9ers in India is & )-).< ( ha The (inistr1 of /ater Resources? #o9t. of India has di9ided the countr1 into )6 ri9er 3asine Tota. 9o.u,e of precipitation & +66 ( ha., 'erco.ation is )1- (ha.,? i,,ediate e9aporation ;6(ha, and surface run off is 1--(ha,. Usage of ground on fu.. de9 &+).*(ha , Usage of surface /ater on fu.. de9 & <6(ha, $torage reser9oirs and tan8s & ;*(ha , 2i9ersion /or8s A direct pu,ping & 1-(ha , Cater f.o/ing 3ac8 to sea-=)(ha , Out of +).*(ha , ground /ater recei9es & 11.-(ha , is used for irrigation The 1ear.1 a9erage strea, f.o/ in our countr1 is 1<5=>, cu3e tota. of 16-6 >, cu3e of unhFa3.e Puantu, of surface A ground /ater is a9ai.a3.e for irrigation. surface /ater storage of 1.+>, cu3e has 3een created and another ;)>, cu3e /i.. 3e a9ai.a3.e after co,p.etion of on going pro:ects an another 1*)>, cu3e /i.. 3e a9ai.a3.e fro, pro:ects under constructions? ,a8ing the tota. a9ai.a3.e /ater to *;<>, cu3e in the countr1.

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