Boiler Heat Transfer

Basic concepts of heat transfer

There are three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection and radiation. One or more of these modes controls the amount of heat transfer in all applications.

Conduction
Temperature is a property that indicates the kinetic energy possessed by the molecules of a substance; the higher the temperature the greater the kinetic energy or molecular activity of the substance. Molecular conduction of heat is simply the transfer of energy due to a temperature difference between adjacent molecules in a solid, li uid or gas. !onduction heat transfer is evaluated using "ourier#s law: q kA dT dx c $ % (1) The flow of heat, qc, is positive when the temperature gradient, dT&dx, is negative. This result, consistent with the second law of thermodynamics, indicates that heat flows in the direction of decreasing temperature. The heat flow, qc, is in a direction normal 'or perpendicular( to an area, A, and the gradient, dT&dx, is the change of temperature in the direction of heat flow. The thermal conductivity, k, a property of the material, uantifies its ability to conduct heat. ) range of thermal conductivities is listed in Table *. The discrete form of the conduction law is written: Q kA L T T $ % ' ( * + (2) "ig. * illustrates positive heat flow described by this e uation and shows the effect of variable thermal conductivity on the temperature distribution. The grouping kA/L is known as the thermal conductance, Kc; the inverse L/kA is known as the thermal resistance, Rc and Kc = *&Rc. ) special case of conduction is the thermal contact resistance across a joint between solid materials. )t the interface of two solid materials the surface to surface contact is imperfect from the gap that prevails due to surface roughness. ,n nuclear applications with fuel pellets and fuel cladding, surface contact resistance can have a major impact on heat transfer. ,f one dimensional steady heat flow is assumed, the heat transfer across a gap is defined by: q T T Rct $ % * + (3) where the uantity Rct is called the thermal contact resistance, *&hct), and hct is called the contact coefficient. T* and T+ are the average surface temperatures on each side of the gap. Tabulated values of the contact coefficient are presented in -eferences * and +.

./amples include 011 2tu&h ft+ " '*.3 k4&m+ 5( between two sections of ground 016 stainless steel in air and +7,111 2tu&h ft+ " '*6+ k4&m+ 5( between two sections of ground copper in air. The factors are usually unknown for specific applications and estimates need to be made. There are two principal contributions across the gap 8 solid to solid conduction at the points of contact and thermal conduction through the entrapped gases in the void spaces.

Convection
!onvection heat transfer within a fluid 'gas or li uid( occurs by a combination of molecular conduction and macroscopic fluid motion. !onvection occurs adjacent to heated surfaces as a result of fluid motion past the surface as shown in "ig. +. 9atural convection occurs when the fluid motion is due to buoyancy effects caused by local density differences. ,n the top portion of "ig. +, the fluid motion is due to heat flow from the surface to the fluid; the fluid density decreases causing the lighter fluid to rise and be replaced by cooler fluid. "orced convection results when mechanical forces from devices such as fans give motion to the fluids. The rate of heat transfer by convection, qcv, is defined: q hAT T cv s f $ % ' ( (4) where h is the local heat transfer coefficient, A is the surface area, Ts is the surface temperature and T: is the fluid temperature. . uation 6 is known as 9ewton#s ;aw of !ooling and the term hAs is the convection conductance, Kcv. The heat transfer coefficient, h, is also termed the unit conductance, because it is defined as the conductance per unit area. )verage heat transfer coefficients over a surface are used in most engineering applications. This convective heat transfer coefficient is a function of the thermal and fluid dynamic properties and the surface geometry. )ppro/imate ranges are shown in Table +.

Radiation

-adiation is the transfer of energy between bodies by electromagnetic waves. This transfer, unlike conduction or convection, re uires no intervening medium. The electromagnetic radiation, in the wavelength range of 1.* to *11 micrometers, is produced solely by the temperature of a body. .nergy at the body#s surface is converted into electromagnetic waves that emanate from the surface and strike another body. <ome of the thermal radiation is absorbed by the receiving body and reconverted into internal energy, while the remaining energy is reflected from or transmitted through the body. The fractions of radiation reflected, transmitted and absorbed by a surface are known respectively as the reflectivity, =, transmissivity, >, and absorptivity ?. The sum of these fractions e uals one:

Fig. 2 9atural and forced convection. )bove, boundary layer on a vertical flat plate. 2elow, velocity profiles for laminar and turbulent boundary layers in flow over a flat plate. '@ertical scale enlarged for clarity.(

= > ? A A $* (5)

)ll surfaces absorb radiation, and all surfaces whose temperatures are above absolute Bero emit thermal radiation. <urfaces in boilers are typically opa ue, which do not allow transmission of any radiation ' > $ 1(. Thermal radiation generally passes through gases such as dry air with no absorption taking place. These nonabsorbing, or nonparticipating, gases do not affect the radiative transfer. Other gases, like carbon dio/ide, water vapor and carbon mono/ide, to a lesser degree, affect radiative transfer and are known as participating gases. These gases, prevalent in the flue gases of a boiler, affect the heat transfer to surfaces and the distribution of energy absorbed in the boiler. )ll bodies continuously emit radiant energy in amounts which are determined by the temperature and the nature of the surface. ) perfect radiator, or blackbody, absorbs all of the incident thermal radiation, G, reaching its surface: q AG r A $ (6) and emits radiant energy at the ma/imum theoretical limit according to the <tefanC 2oltBmann law: q A T r s % $ D 6 (7) D is the <tefanC2oltBmann constant 1.*3*0 E *1CF 2tu& h ft+ -6 '7.GGH E *1CF 4&m+ 56(, and Ts is the absolute temperature of the surface, - '5(. The product D Ts 6 is also known as the blackbody emissive power, .b. The net radiative heat transfer of a blackbody is the difference between absorbed and emitted radiant energy: q q q AG T r r r s $ % $ % A % ' ( D 6 (8) The radiation from a blackbody e/tends over the whole range of wavelengths, although the bulk of it in boiler applications is concentrated in a band from 1.* to +1 micrometers. The wavelength at which the ma/imum radiation intensity occurs is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature of the body; this is known as 4ien#s law. ) real radiator absorbs less than *11I of the energy incident on it and emits less than the ma/imum theoretical limit. The net heat transfer by radiation from a real surface can be e/pressed by: q A G T r s $ % ' ( ? JD 6 (9) where J is the total emissivity and ? is the total absorptivity. ,f the emissivity and absorptivity are independent of wavelength, the surface is termed a nonselective radiator, or gray surface. )ccording to 5irchoff#s law, emissivity and absorptivity are always e ual for a gray surface: J ? $ (1 )

Therefore, a can be eliminated from . uation H, and emissivity is all that is needed to describe the radiation properties of the surface. Table 0 shows some representative values of emissivity. ,f all surfaces are assumed to be gray, a simpler treatment of radiation is possible.

"or two surface enclosures, this treatment involves introducing a total e/change factor, F*+, which depends on the configuration 'geometry(, the emissivities and the surface areas.0 ,f the emissivity depends on wavelength, the surface is termed a selective or nonC gray radiator. )ccording to 5irchhoff#s law, spectral emissivity and spectral absorptivity are always e uivalent, JK $ ?K, for nongray surfaces. Total emissivity is the integrated average of JK over the spectrum of emitted radiation, and total absorptivity is the integrated average of ?K over the spectrum of incident radiation. The terms e !ss!v!ty and e !tta"ce 'and corresponding terms absor#t!v!ty and absor#ta"ce( are commonly interchanged in the literature. "or convenience, the term e !tta"ce is used here for total e !ss!v!ty and absor#ta"ce is used for total absor#t!v!ty, of nonCgray surfaces. "or nonC gray surfaces, the emittance can be e/pressed as a function of the surface temperature J 'Ts(, and absorptance as a function of the incident radiation or flame temperature, ? 'Tf(. 2ased on 5irchhoff #s law, plots of J vs Ts may be interpreted as plots of ? vs Tf if the physical state of the surface is unchanged. )n analysis of nonCgray conditions re uires temperature dependent emittance and absorptance, or spectral property calculations which are more complicated. )n e/ample of nonCgray radiators in a boiler are the ash deposits on waterwall heating surfaces. The net radiation heat transfer between two blackbody surfaces which are separated by a vacuum or nonparticipating gas is written: q AF T T *+ * *+ * 6 + 6 $ % ' ( D (11) A* is the surface area; F*+ is the geometric shape factor and represents the fraction of radiant energy leaving surface * that directly strikes surface +. )s will be discussed later for radiation between two surfaces, F*+ is the e/change factor for two surfaces based on the geometric arrangement only, and F*+ is the e/change factor that includes the effects of emissivity for gray surfaces, and participating media between the surfaces. "or blackbody surfaces 'J* $ J+ $ *( and nonparticipating media, F*+ $ F*+. T* and T+ are the surface temperatures. <ince the net energy at surface * must balance the net energy at surface +, we can write: q q *+ +* $ % (12) Lsing . uations ** and *+, the following results:

A F A F * *+ + +* $ (13) This e uation, known as the principle of reciprocity, guarantees conservation of the radiant heat transfer between two surfaces. The following rule applies to the surfaces of an enclosure: F!$ $ $ M * (14) stating that the total fraction of energy leaving surface ! to all other ' $( surfaces must e ual *. Many te/ts include the calculation of geometric shape factors, commonly named shape factors or configuration factors.*,+ -adiation balances for participating and nonparticipating media are presented later in the chapter.

Heat transfer properties and correlations

Thermal conductivity, specific heat and density
Thermal conductivity, k, is a material property that is expressed in Btu/h ft F (W/m K) and is dependent on the chemical composition and physical characteristics of the su stance. The relative order of ma!nitude of values for various su stances is sho"n in Ta le #. Thermal conductivities are !enerally hi!hest for solids, lo"er for li$uids and lo"er yet for !ases. %nsulatin! materials have the lo"est conductivities of solid materials. Thermal conductivities of pure metals !enerally decrease "ith an increase in temperature, "hile alloy conductivities may either increase or decrease. (&ee Fi!. #.) 'onductivities of several steels and alloys are sho"n in Ta le #. Thermal conductivities of various refractory materials are sho"n in 'hapter (), Fi!. *+. For many heat transfer calculations it is sufficiently accurate to assume a constant thermal conductivity that corresponds to the avera!e temperature of the material. The effective thermal conductivity of ash deposits on "ater "all heatin! surfaces varies "idely dependin! on temperature, composition, heatin! cycle and physical characteristics of the deposits. The lo"er limit is close to the thermal conductivity of air or lo"er (+.+) Btu/h ft F or +.+, W/m K), and the upper limit does not exceed values for refractory materials (*.- Btu/h ft F or (.W/m K). The effective thermal conductivity of a fria le particulate layer is near the lo"er limit and is fairly independent of temperature elo" *.,+ to ((++F (/00 to *(+-') at "hich sinterin! usually occurs. 1 ove this temperature, particles fuse to!ether and thermal contact et"een particles increases, resultin! in a sharp increase in thermal conductivity. The hi!hest conductivity is achieved "ith complete meltin!. The physical chan!es caused y fusion and meltin! are irreversi le upon coolin!, and thermal conductivity of fused deposits decreases "ith decreasin! temperature. Thermal conductance of ash deposits (k/x) is less sensitive to chan!in! conditions than thermal conductivity. 1s the deposit !ro"s in thickness (x), thermal conductivity (k) also increases due to fusion and sla!!in!. The net effect is that unit thermal conductance may only vary

y a factor of four, (, to *++ Btu/h ft( F (*-( to ,./ W/m( '), "hile variations in thermal conductivity are an order of ma!nitude lar!er. The thermal effects of coalash deposits are further descri ed y Wall et al., The thermal conductivity of "ater ran!es from +.)) Btu/h ft F (+.,# W/m K) at room temperature to +.*. Btu/h ft F (+.(/ W/m K) near the critical point. Water properties are relatively insensitive to pressure, particularly at pressures far from the critical point. 2ost other nonmetallic li$uid thermal conductivities ran!e from +.+, to +.*, Btu/h ft F (+.+0 to +.(. W/m K). %n addition, thermal conductivities of most li$uids decrease "ith temperature. The thermal conductivities of !ases increase "ith temperature and are independent of pressure at normal oiler conditions. These conductivities !enerally decrease "ith increasin! molecular "ei!ht. The relatively hi!h conductivity of hydro!en (a lo" molecular "ei!ht !as) makes it a !ood coolin! medium for electric !enerators. The relatively lo" conductivity of ar!on (a hi!h molecular "ei!ht !as) makes a !ood insulatin! medium for thermal pane "indo"s. When calculatin! the conductivity of nonhomo!eneous materials, the desi!ner must use an apparent thermal conductivity to account for the porous or layered construction materials. %n oilers and furnaces "ith refractory "alls, thermal conductivity may vary from site to site due to variations in structure, composition, density, or porosity "hen the materials "ere installed. The thermal conductivities of these materials are stron!ly dependent on their apparent ulk density (mass per unit volume). For hi!her temperature insulations, the apparent thermal conductivity of fi rous insulations and insulatin! fire rick decreases as ulk density increases, ecause the denser material attenuates the radiation. 3o"ever, an inflection occurs at some point at "hich a further increase in density increases the thermal conductivity due to conduction in the solid material. Theory sho"s that specific heats of solids and li$uids are !enerally independent of pressure. Ta le # lists specific heats of various metals, alloys and nonhomo!eneous materials at ./F ((+'). These values may e used at other temperatures "ithout si!nificant error. The temperature dependence of the specific heat for !ases is more pronounced than for solids and li$uids. %n oiler applications, pressure dependence may !enerally e ne!lected. Ta les /a and / !ive specific heat data for air and other !ases. %n the case of steam and "ater, property variations (specific heat and thermal conductivity) can e si!nificant over the ran!es of temperature and pressure found in oilers. %t is therefore recommended that the properties as compiled in the 1merican &ociety of 2echanical 4n!ineers (1&24) &team Ta les . e used.

Radiation properties Bodies that are !ood radiation a sor ers are e$ually !ood emitters and Kirchhoff 5s la" states that, for !ray surfaces at thermal e$uili rium, their emissivities are e$ual to their a sorptivities. 1 blackbody is one "hich a sor s all incident radiant

ener!y "hile reflectin! or transmittin! none of it. The a sorptivity and emissivity of a lack ody are, y definition, each e$ual to one. This terminolo!y does not necessarily mean that the ody appears to e lack. &no", for instance, a sor s only a small portion of the incident visi le li!ht, ut to the lon!er "avelen!ths (the ulk of thermal radiation), sno" is almost a lack ody. 1t a temperature of (+++F (*+0)') a lack ody !lo"s ri!htly, ecause a non6ne!li!i le part of its radiation is in the visi le ran!e. Bodies are never completely lack, ut a hole throu!h the "all of a lar!e enclosure can e used to approximate lack ody conditions, ecause radiation enterin! the hole under!oes multiple reflections and a sorptions. 1s a result, most of the radiation is retained in the enclosure, and surfaces are treated as !ray. Fortunately, a num er of commercial surfaces, particularly at hi!h temperatures, have emissivities of +./+ to +.0, and ehave much like lack odies. Typical avera!e emissivity values are noted in Ta le 0. 1lthou!h emissivity depends on the surface composition and rou!hness and "avelen!th of radiation, the "avelen!th dependence is often ne!lected in practical oiler calculations and surfaces are treated as !ray.
Ash deposits

The emittance and thermal properties of furnace ash deposits have a lar!e effect on oiler heat transfer. The emittance depends on the temperature, chemical composition, structure and porosity of the particulate layer, and "hether deposits are partially fused or molten. The same ash at different locations "ithin the same oiler (or the same location in different oilers) may have si!nificantly different values of surface emittance. 7eported values in the literature claim emittances et"een +., and +.0 for most ash and sla! deposits. The effect of coal ash composition, structure, and temperature on deposit emittance,,# is sho"n in Fi!. /. 1 fria le particulate material has lo" emittance ecause radiation is scattered (and reflected) from individual particles and does not penetrate eyond a thin layer (8* mm) near the surface. 4mittance of fria le ash deposits decreases "ith increasin! surface temperature, until sinterin! and fusion chan!es the structure of the deposit. 1 sharp increase in emittance is associated "ith ash fusion as particles !ro" to!ether (pores close) and there are fe"er internal surfaces to scatter radiation. 'ompletely molten ash or sla! is partially transparent to radiation, and emittance may depend upon su strate conditions. The emittance of completely fused deposits (molten or fro9en sla!) on oxidi9ed car on steel is a out +.0. 4mittance increases "ith increasin! particle si9e of fria le particulate deposits (Fi!. /a), ecause lar!er particles have less capacity to ack6scatter incident radiation. 4mittance increases "ith increasin! iron oxide (Fe(:)) and un urned car on content of the ash (Fi!. / ) ecause these components have a !reater capacity to a sor radiation. ;o" emittance of some li!nitic ash deposits, kno"n as reflective ash, may e attri uted to lo" Fe(:) content, althou!h this alone is not a relia le indicator of a reflective ash. 4mittance is also indirectly dependent upon oxidi9in! and reducin! environment

of the flue !as, due to the effect on the meltin! characteristics and un urned car on content in the ash. The thermal and radiative effects of coal6ash deposits are further descri ed y Wall et al.,
Combustion gases

1lthou!h many !ases, such as oxy!en and nitro!en, a sor or emit only insi!nificant amounts of radiation, others, such as "ater vapor, car on dioxide, sulfur dioxide and car on monoxide, su stantially a sor and emit. Water vapor and car on dioxide are important in oiler calculations ecause of their presence in the com ustion products of hydrocar on fuels. These !ases are selective radiators. They emit and a sor radiation only in certain ands ("avelen!ths) of the spectrum that lie outside of the visi le ran!e and are conse$uently identified as nonluminous radiators. Whereas the radiation from a furnace "all is a surface phenomenon, a !as radiates and a sor s ("ithin its a sorption ands) at every point throu!hout the furnace. Furthermore, the emissivity of a !as chan!es "ith temperature, and the presence of one radiatin! !as may have characteristics that overlap "ith the radiatin! characteristics of another !as "hen they are mixed. The ener!y emitted y a radiatin! !aseous mixture depends on !as temperature, the partial pressures, p, of the constituents and a eam len!th, ;, that depends on the shape and dimensions of the !as volume. 1n estimate of the mean eam len!th is ; < ).. =/1 for radiative transfer from the !as to the surface of the enclosure, "here = is the enclosure volume and 1 is the enclosure surface area. The factor ).. is approximate, and values et"een ).- to )./ have een recommended dependin! on the actual !eometry.Fi!s. 0 and *+ sho" the emissivity for "ater vapor and car on dioxide. / The accuracy of these charts has !ained !reater acceptance than the more "idely kno"n charts of 3ottel,- particularly at hi!h temperatures and short path len!ths. The effective emissivity of a "ater vapor6car on dioxide mixture is calculated as follo"s>

? ? ? ? =+

3 : ':

((

(41)

"here is a correction factor that accounts for the effect of overlappin! spectral ands. This e$uation ne!lects pressure corrections and considers oilers operatin! at approximately * atm. The factors sho"n in Fi!. ** depend on temperature, the partial pressures, p, of the constituents and the eam len!th, ;. The presence of car on monoxide and sulfur dioxide can typically e ne!lected in com ustion products, ecause ': and &:( are "eakly participatin! and overlap "ith the infrared spectrum of 3(: and ':(. When usin! Fi!s. 0 to ** to evaluate a sorptivity, , of a !as, 3ottel- recommends modification of the p; product y a surface to !as temperature ratio. This is illustrated in 4xample . at the end of this chapter. 7adiation properties of !ases can e calculated more accurately ased on fundamental models for spectral !as radiation. The exponential "ide and model0 predicts spectral a sorption and emission properties of sin!le and multi6 component !ases includin! 3(:, ':(, ':, '3-, @:, and &:( as a function of temperature and pressure. Aiatomic !ases @(, :( and 3( may contri ute to the

total !as volume and pressure of the mixture, ut are considered transparent to infrared radiation. 7adiation properties are conveniently expressed as emission and a sorption coefficients that depend on local variations in !as composition, temperature, and pressure. This approach is suita le for numerical modelin! of radiation "ith participatin! media, "hich re$uires fre$uent evaluation of !as properties at a lar!e num er of control volumes.
Entrained particles

'om ustion usually involves some form of particulate that is entrained in com ustion !ases. Barticles are introduced as the fuel "hich under!o transformations of com ustion and/or are formed y the processes of condensation and a!!lomeration of aerosol particles. 4ntrained particles have a si!nificant role in radiation heat transfer ecause they a sor , emit, and scatter radiation. &catterin! effectively extends the eam len!th of radiation in an enclosure, ecause the eam chan!es direction many times efore it reaches a "all. 7adiation from entrained particles depends on the particle shape, si9e distri ution, chemical composition, concentration, temperature, and the "avelen!th of incident radiation. Barticulates in oilers are comprised of unreacted fuel (coal, oil, lack li$uor), char, ash, soot, and other aerosols. &oot is an example of an aerosol that contri utes to radiation from !as flames in oilers. @e!lectin! the effect of soot on radiation heat transfer in the flame could lead to si!nificant errors in the calculated flame temperature, and radiation heat transfer to the furnace "alls in the flame 9one. 1sh is an example of particulate that contri utes to radiation in coal6fired oilers. &catterin! y ash particles effectively redistri utes radiation in the furnace, and smooths out variations in radiation heat flux, analo!ous to the "ay a cloud distri utes solar radiation on the earth. The a sorption and emission characteristics of flyash particles increase, and scatterin! decreases "ith the relative amount of iron oxide or residual car on, "hich acts as a colorin! a!ent in the ash. 1nalytical methods such as 4$uation )0 that depend upon emissivity and a sorptivity of the participatin! media are inaccurate "hen particles other than soot are involved, ecause the effects of scatterin! are ne!lected. @umerical methods "hich solve the !eneral form of the radiative transport e$uation include the effects of scatterin! (see Numerical methods). 2ie Theory*+ is a !eneral method for calculatin! the radiation properties of spherical particles as a function of particle composition, concentration, diameter and "avelen!th. 7i!orous calculations y this method can only e performed "ith the aid of a computer and re$uire that optical properties (complex refractive index as a function of "avelen!th) of the particle materials are kno"n. The complex refractive index of li!nite, ituminous, and anthracite coals, and correspondin! properties of char and ash have een measured, as "ell as other materials that are typically encountered in com ustion systems. 7adiation properties of particles are conveniently expressed as total emission, a sorption, and scatterin! efficiencies that depend on particle composition, diameter and temperature.

Barticle properties must e com ined "ith !as properties in an analysis of radiation "ith participatin! media.

Working formulas for convection heat transfer

3eat transfer y convection et"een a fluid (!as or li$uid) and a solid is expressed y 4$uation -. This e$uation is a definition of the heat transfer coefficient ut is inade$uate in descri in! the details of the convective mechanisms. :nly a comprehensive study of the flo" and heat transfer "ould define the dependence of the heat transfer coefficient alon! the surface. %n the literature, simple !eometries have een modeled and predictions a!ree "ell "ith experimental data. 3o"ever, for the more complex !eometries encountered in oiler analysis, correlations are used that have een developed principally from experimental data. 'onvective heat transfer near a surface takes place y a com ination of conduction and mass transport. %n the case of heat flo"in! from a heated surface to a cooler fluid, heat flo"s from the solid first y conduction into a fluid element, raisin! its internal ener!y. The heated element then moves to a cooler 9one "here heat flo"s from it y conduction to the cooler surroundin! fluid. Fluid motion can occur in t"o "ays. %f the fluid is set in motion due to density differences arisin! from temperature variations, free or natural convection occurs. %f the motion is externally induced y a pump or fan, the process is referred to as forced convection. 'onvective heat transfer can occur in laminar or tur ulent flo"s. For laminar flo", the fluid moves in layers, or lamina, "ith each element follo"in! an orderly path. %n tur ulent flo", prevalent in oiler passa!es, the local motion of the fluid is chaotic and statistical treatment is used to esta lish avera!e velocity and heat transfer values. 4xperimental studies have confirmed that a flo" field can e divided into t"o 9ones> a viscous 9one adCacent to the surface and a nonviscous 9one removed from the heat transfer surface. The viscous, heated 9one is termed the oundary layer re!ion. The hydrodynamic oundary layer is defined as the distance from the "all at "hich the local velocity reaches 00D of the velocity far from the "all. 1t the entrance of a pipe or duct, the oundary layer e!ins to !ro"E this flo" portion is called the developin! re!ion. Ao"nstream, "hen the viscous re!ion fills the pipe core or !ro"s to a maximum, the flo" is termed fully developed. Aevelopin! re!ion heat transfer coefficients are lar!er than the fully developed values. %n many applications it is sufficient to assume that the hydrodynamic and thermal oundary layers start to !ro" at the same location, althou!h this is not al"ays the case. Flo" over a ody (around a circular cylinder) is termed external flo", "hile flo" inside a confined re!ion, like a pipe or duct, is termed internal flo".

Natural or free convection 1 fluid at rest, exposed to a heated surface, "ill e at a hi!her temperature and lo"er density than the surroundin! fluid. The differences in density, ecause of this difference in temperature, cause the li!hter, "armer fluid elements to circulate and carry the heat else"here. The complex relationships !overnin! this type of convective

heat transfer are covered extensively in other texts.* 4xperimental studies have confirmed that the main dimensionless parameters !overnin! free convection are the Frashof and Brandtl num ers>

Fr =

()

g T T L sG H I

()(

(42)

Br = c k p I (43) The Frashof num er is a ratio of the uoyant to viscous forces. The Brandtl num er is the ratio of the diffusion of momentum and heat in the fluid. The product, Fr Br, is also called the 7aylei!h num er, 7a. %n oiler system desi!ns, air and flue !ases are the important free convection heat transfer media. For these desi!ns, the e$uation for the convective heat transfer coefficient h is>

h C T T s=

( ) * ) / (44)

This correlation is applica le "hen the 7aylei!h num er, 7a, is !reater than *+ 0, "hich is !enerally reco!ni9ed as the transition et"een laminar and tur ulent flo". =alues of the constant C in the e$uation are listed elo"> The correlation !enerally produces convective heat transfer coefficients in the ran!e of * to , Btu/h ft( F (,../ to (/.)0 W/m( K).

Forced convection
Dimensionless numbers Forced convection implies the use of a fan, pump or

natural draft stack to induce fluid motion. &tudies of many heat transfer systems and numerical simulation of some simple !eometries confirm that fluid flo" and heat transfer data may e correlated y dimensionless num ers. Jsin! these principles, scale models ena le desi!ners to predict field performance. For simple !eometries, a minimum of dimensionless num ers is needed for modelin!. 2ore complex scalin! re$uires more dimensionless !roups to predict unit performance. The 7eynolds num er is used to correlate flo" and heat transfer in closed conduits. %t is defined as> 7e= = H I I V L GL (45) "here ; is a characteristic len!th of the conduit or an o stacle in the flo" field. This dimensionless !roup represents the ratio of inertial to viscous forces. The 7eynolds num er is only valid for a continuous fluid fillin! the conduit. The use of this parameter !enerally assumes that !ravitational and intermolecular forces are ne!li!i le compared to inertial and viscous forces. The characteristic len!th, termed e$uivalent hydraulic diameter, is different for circular and noncircular conduits. For circular conduits, the inside diameter (%A) is used. For noncircular ducts, the e$uivalent diameter ecomes>

De = Flo" cross6sectional area Wetted perimeter (46) This approach, used to compare dynamically similar fluids in !eometrically similar conduits of different si9e, yields e$ual 7eynolds num ers for the flo"s considered. 1t lo" velocities, the viscous forces are stron! and laminar flo" predominates, "hile at hi!her velocities, the inertial forces dominate and there is tur ulent flo". %n closed conduits, such as pipes and ducts, the transition to tur ulent flo" occurs near 7e < (+++. The !enerally accepted ran!e for transition to tur ulent flo" under common tu e flo" conditions is (+++ K 7e K -+++. For fluid flo" over a flat external surface, the characteristic len!th for the 7eynolds num er is the surface len!th in the direction of the flo", x. Transition to tur ulence is !enerally considered for 7e *+,. %n the case of flo" over a tu e, the outside diameter (:A), D, is the characteristic len!th. %n tu e undles "ith crossflo", transition !enerally occurs at 7e L *++. 4xperimental studies have confirmed that the convective heat transfer coefficient can e functionally characteri9ed y the follo"in! dimensionless !roups> @u = (

) f 7e, Br (47)

"here @u is the @usselt num er, 7e is the 7eynolds num er and Br is the Brandtl num er. The @usselt num er, a ratio of the "all temperature !radient to reference !radients, is defined as follo"s> @u = hL k (48) The previously discussed Brandtl num er, representin! a ratio of the diffusion of momentum and heat in the fluid, is also the ratio of the relative thickness of viscous and thermal oundary layers. For air and flue !ases, Br K *.+ and the thermal oundary layer is thicker than the viscous oundary layer. %n the literature, correlations are also presented usin! other dimensionless !roupsE the Beclet and &tanton num ers are the most common. The Beclet num er is defined as follo"s> Be = 7e Br (49) The &tanton num er is defined in terms of the @usselt, 7eynolds and Brandtl num ers> &t @u = 7e Br (50)
Laminar flow inside tubes

For heatin! or coolin! of viscous fluids in hori9ontal or vertical tu es "ith constant surface temperature and laminar flo" conditions (7e K ()++), the heat

transfer coefficient, or film conductance, can e determined y the follo"in! e$uation>** @u = :r h k D GD c k D L

bpbbw

* /.

* ) + *-

. 7eBr

/.

DL

bw

I I (51)

= * /.

* ) + *-

/.

I I I I (52)

"here the parameter G < V is defined as the mass flux or mass flo" rate per unit area and tu e diameter, D, is the characteristic len!th used in the evaluation of the 7eynolds num er. The ratio of viscosities ( b / w) is a correction factor that accounts for temperature dependent fluid properties. Broperties in 4$uations ,* and ,( are evaluated at an avera!e ulk fluid temperature, except w "hich is evaluated at the "all temperature. For lo" viscosity fluids, such as "ater and !ases, a more complex e$uation is re$uired to account for the effects of natural convection at the heat transfer surface. This refinement is of little interest in industrial practice ecause "ater and !ases in laminar flo" are rarely encountered.
Turbulent flow

&tudies of tur ulent flo" indicate several "ell defined re!ions as sho"n in Fi!. *(. @ext to the heat transfer surface is a very thin laminar flo" re!ion, less than +.(D of the characteristic len!th, "here the heat flo" to or from the surface is y molecular conduction. The next 9one, kno"n as the uffer layer, is less than *D of the characteristic len!th and is a mixture of laminar and tur ulent flo". 3ere the heat is transferred y a com ination of convection and conduction. %n the tur ulent core, "hich comprises rou!hly 0/D of the cross6 section, heat is transferred mainly y convection. %n tur ulent flo", the local ut chaotic motion of the fluid causes axial and radial motion of fluid elements. This com ination of motions sets up eddies, or local s"irlin! motions, au!mentin! the heat transfer from the core to the laminar su layer. The laminar flo" in the su layer and the laminar component in the uffer layer act as a arrier, or film, to the heat transfer process. %ncreasin! the fluid velocity has een found to decrease this film thickness, reducin! the resistance to heat transfer.
Turbulent flow in tubes

The distance re$uired to o tain hydrodynamically and thermally fully developed tur ulent flo" is shorter than that for laminar flo". The flo" len!th needed to achieve hydrodynamically fully developed conditions is varia le and depends upon the specific 7eynolds num er (operatin! conditions) and surface !eometry. %t typically varies from . to (+ diameters (x/D). Fully developed thermal flo" for !ases and air, important in oiler analysis, occurs at similar x/D ratios. 3o"ever, for li$uids, the ratio is some"hat hi!her and increases "ith the Brandtl num er. 4xtensive research data usin! lo" viscosity !ases and li$uids have een correlated. The follo"in! e$uation*( is recommended for fully developed flo" "ith small to moderate temperature differences>

@ufd
n

= + +()

+/

. 7e Br . (53)

"ith n < +.- for heatin! of the fluid and n < +.) for coolin! of the fluid, and properties evaluated at the ulk temperature. 4$uation ,) applies to !ases and li$uids in the ran!e +.# K Br K *.+, "hich covers all fluids in oiler analysis. %f the conditions are not fully developed, the correlation is corrected as sho"n elo"> *) @u @u = +(

fd

Dx*

+#

/ . (54)

"ith the stipulation that ( x/D (+. These correlations should only e used for small to moderate temperature differences. 1 correlation y &eider and Tate** is "idely used for heatin! or coolin! of a fluid and lar!er temperature differences. 1ll of the properties are evaluated at the ulk temperature, except w "hich is evaluated at the "all temperature> @ufd b w = + +(#
+ / * ) + *-

. 7e Br

./.

I I (55)

The fore!oin! correlations may e applied for oth constant surface temperature and heat flux conditions to a !ood approximation. For oiler applications involvin! tur ulent flo" in tu es, 4$uation ,) is re"ritten "ith the temperature ratio added to convert the properties from a ulk to film temperature asis> @ufd f f b f T T = + +()
+/+-+/

. 7e Br

...

(56)

1ll properties are evaluated at the film temperature (T ), "hich is defined as the arithmetic mean temperature et"een the "all temperature (Tw) and the ulk fluid temperature (Tb)> T < (Tw M Tb)/ ( "ith all temperatures in a solute units (7 or K). 4$uation ,. is re"ritten usin! parametric !roupin!s> h G D c k T T l e p f b f = + ( + - + . + - + . . . . . . I ./ (57) "hich can e expressed in the form> hh
l l pp T

+ +()

+/

= (58)

Fi!s. *) to *# display the various factors that make up the ri!ht side of 4$uation ,/. Jnlike non6dimensional parameters (@u, 7e, Br), these terms do not have any physical si!nificance and are dependent upon the choice of en!ineerin! units. The physical properties factor, pp, com ines all of the properties of the fluid into one term, and is evaluated at the !as film temperature for a particular fluid (!as, air or steam). @ote that if pp for steam can not e o tained from Fi!. *., it can e calculated "ith values of cp, k and evaluated at the film temperature from the 1&24 &team Ta les..
Turbulent cross flow around tubes

The most important oiler application of convection is heat transfer from the com ustion !ases to the tu ular surfaces in the convection passes. Berhaps the most complete and authoritative research on heat transfer of tu es in crossflo"

"as completed in an extensive pro!ram conducted y The Ba cock N Wilcox 'ompany (BNW).*The follo"in! correlation "as adapted from this study for different fluids>
Structure of turbulent flow field near a solid boundary. Fig. 12

@u = + )(*

+ .* + ))

. 7e Br

..ffad

(59)

The last terms are an arran!ement factor, a! and a depth factor d! that correct the results from the ase confi!uration ( OO /A+ < (.+, O /A+ < *.#,, num er of ro"s *+) "hich y definition a < d < *. The e$uation applies to heatin! and coolin! of fluids for clean tu es in crossflo". 4$uation ,0 is re"ritten usin! parametric !roupin!s sho"n elo"> h GDck
cpfad

= + )(*

+ .* + )0 + )) + .# + (/

. . . ..

I (60)

"hich can e expressed in the form> hh

c c pp a d

(61)

Fi!s. */ to () display the various factors that make up the ri!ht side of 4$uation .*. Jnlike non6 dimensional parameters (@u, 7e, Br), these terms do not
Fig. 1 Effect of film temperature, Tf, and moisture on the physical properties factor, Fpp, for gas; turbulent flow inside tubes or longitudinal flow over tubes (English units only). Fig. 1! Effect of film temperature, Tf, and moisture on the physical properties factor, Fpp, for air; turbulent flow inside tubes or longitudinal flow over tubes (English units only). Fig. 1" Effect of film temperature, Tf, and pressure on the physical properties factor, Fpp, for steam; turbulent flow inside tubes or longitudinal flow over tubes (English units only). Fig. 1# Basic convection velocity and geometry factor, hl , for air, gas or steam; turbulent flow inside tubes or longitudinal flow over tubes (English units only).

have any physical si!nificance and are dependent upon the choice of en!ineerin! units. The physical properties factor, pp, similar to the one previously defined, is evaluated at the !as film temperature for a particular fluid (!as or air). The mass flux or mass flo" per unit area, G, and the 7eynolds num ers used in 4$uations ,0 and .+ and Fi!s. */, (* and (( are calculated ased on flo" conditions at the minimum free area (maximum velocity) et"een tu es. The arran!ement factor, a! depends on the !eometric confi!uration of tu es, the ratio of tu e spacin! to diameter, 7eynolds num er, and the presence of ash in the flue !as. =alues of a for clean tu e conditions "ith air or flue !as "ithout ash are !iven in Fi!. (*. =alues of a for commercially clean tu e conditions "ith ash6laden flue !as are !iven in Fi!. ((. The depth factor, d! accounts for entrance effects for anks of tu es "hich are less than ten ro"s deep

in the direction of !as flo". For undistur ed flo" Pflo" that is strai!ht and uninterrupted for at least - ft (*.( m) efore enterin! a tu e ankQ approachin! a ank of less than ten ro"s, the film conductance must include the correction factor, d! sho"n in Fi!. (). d is unity "hen the tu e ank is preceded y a end, screen, damper or another tu e ank in close proximity.
Turbulent longitudinal flow around tubes

'orrelations that "ere developed ased on tur ulent flo" in tu es (4$uations ,. and ,#, and Fi!s. *) to *#) can also e applied for external flo" parallel to tu es. %n this case, the e$uivalent diameter De (defined y 4$uation -.) is used in the evaluation of 7eynolds num er. For flo" parallel to a ank of circular tu es arran!ed on rectan!ular spacin!, the e$uivalent diameter ecomes> D D D e o o = - * ( O O R (62) "here Do is the tu e outside diameter and O* and O( are the centerline spacin! et"een tu es. The mass flux or mass flo" per unit area, G, in 4$uations ,. and ,#, and Fi!. *) is calculated ased on the free area et"een tu es.
Fig. 1$ Effect of film temperature, Tf, and moisture on the physical properties factor, Fpp, for gas in turbulent crossflow over tubes (English units only). Fig. 2% Effect of film temperature, Tf, and moisture on the physical properties factor, Fpp, for air in crossflow over tubes (English units only). Fig. 1& Temperature factor, FT, for converting mass velocity from bul to film basis for air, gas or steam; turbulent flow inside tubes or longitudinal flow over tubes.

'hapter !
Boiling Heat Transfer! T"o#$hase Flo" an% &irc'lation
1 case of heat transfer and flo" of particular interest in steam !eneration is the process of oilin! and steam6"ater flo". The oilin! or evaporation of "ater is a familiar phenomenon. %n !eneral terms, oilin! is the heat transfer process "here heat addition to a li$uid no lon!er raises its temperature under constant pressure conditionsE the heat is a sor ed as the li$uid ecomes a !as. The heat transfer rates are hi!h, makin! this an ideal coolin! method for surfaces exposed to the hi!h heat input rates found in fossil fuel oilers, concentrated solar ener!y collectors and the nuclear reactor fuel undles. 3o"ever, the oilin! phenomenon poses special challen!es such as> *) the sudden reakdo"n of the oilin! ehavior at very hi!h heat input rates, () the potential flo" rate fluctuations "hich may occur in steam6"ater flo"s, and )) the efficient separation of steam from "ater. 1n additional feature of oilin! and t"o6phase flo" is the creation of si!nificant density differences et"een heated and

unheated tu es. These density differences result in "ater flo"in! to the heated tu es in a "ell desi!ned oiler natural circulation loop. 2ost fossil fuel steam !enerators and all commercial nuclear steam supply systems operate in the pressure ran!e "here oilin! is a key element of the heat transfer process. Therefore, a comprehensive understandin! of oilin! and its various related phenomena is essential in the desi!n of these units. 4ven at operatin! conditions a ove the critical pressure, "here "ater no lon!er oils ut experiences a continuous transition from a li$uid6like to a !as6like fluid, oilin! type ehavior and special heat transfer characteristics occur.

(oiling process and fundamentals

(oiling point and thermophysical properties The oilin! point, or saturation temperature, of a li$uid can e defined as the temperature at "hich its vapor pressure is e$ual to the total local pressure. The saturation temperature for "ater at atmospheric pressure is (*(F (*++'). This is the point at "hich net vapor !eneration occurs and free steam u les are formed from a li$uid under!oin! continuous heatin!. 1s discussed in 'hapter (, this saturation temperature (Tsat) is a uni$ue function of pressure. The 1merican &ociety of 2echanical 4n!ineers (1&24) and the %nternational 1ssociation for the Broperties of &team (%1B&) have compiled extensive correlations of thermophysical characteristics of "ater. These characteristics include the enthalpy (or heat content) of "ater, the enthalpy of evaporation (also referred to as the latent heat of vapori9ation), and the enthalpy of steam. 1s the pressure is increased to the critical pressure P)(++ psi (((.* 2Ba)Q, the latent heat of vapori9ation declines to 9ero and the u le formation associated "ith oilin! no lon!er occurs. %nstead, a smooth transition from li$uid to !aseous ehavior occurs "ith a continuous increase in temperature as ener!y is applied. T"o other definitions are also helpful in discussin! oilin! heat transfer> *. "ubcooling For "ater elo" the local saturation temperature, this is the difference et"een the saturation temperature and the local "ater temperature (Tsat S T ). (. #uality This is the flo"in! mass fraction of steam (fre$uently stated as percent steam y "ei!ht or D&BW after multiplyin! y *++D)> x m mm

= + O OO
steam "ater steam

(1) "here O msteam = steam flo" rate, l /h (k!/s) O m"ater = "ater flo" rate, l /h (k!/s) Thermodynamically, this can also e defined as> x $$ $ or $$ $$
f fg f gf

= (2) "here $ = local avera!e fluid enthalpy, Btu/l (T/k!) $f = enthalpy of "ater at saturation, Btu/l (T/k!) $g = enthalpy of steam at saturation, Btu/l (T/k!) $fg = latent heat of vapori9ation, Btu/l (T/k!) When oilin! is occurrin! at saturated, thermal e$uili rium conditions, 4$uation ( provides the fractional steam flo" rate y mass. For su cooled condi

(ater#t')e )oiler sections

The energy from the heat source may be e/tracted as either radiant or convection and conduction.

The f'rnace or ra%iant section

This is an open area accommodating the flame's( from the burner's(. ,f the flames were allowed to come into contact with the boiler tubes, serious erosion and finally tube failure would occur. The walls of the furnace section are lined with finned tubes called membrane panels, which are designed to absorb the radiant heat from the flame.

"ig. 0.0.0 Neat transfer in the furnace or radiant section

&on*ection section
This part is designed to absorb the heat from the hot gases by conduction and convection.

;arge boilers may have several tube banks 'also called pendants( in series, in order to gain ma/imum energy from the hot gases.

Fig. 3.3.4 Heat transfer in the con*ection section