Flury 2012 Hydroelectric Power Generation

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation
Karin Flury, Rolf Frischknecht
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ESU-services Ltd. Rolf Frischknecht Niels Jungbluth Sybille Bsser Karin Flury Ren Itten Salome Schori Matthias Stucki www.esu-services.ch Kanzleistrasse 4 T +41 44 940 61 91 T +41 44 940 61 32 T +41 44 940 61 35 T +41 44 940 61 02 T +41 44 940 61 38 T +41 44 940 61 35 T +41 44 940 67 94 F +41 44 940 61 94 CH - 8610 Uster frischknecht@esu-services.ch jungbluth@esu-services.ch buesser@esu-services.ch flury @esu-services.ch itten @esu-services.ch schori@esu-services.ch stucki@esu-services.ch
Imprint
Title Authors Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation Karin Flury;Rolf Frischknecht ESU-services Ltd., fair consulting in sustainability Kanzleistr. 4, CH-8610 Uster www.esu-services.ch Phone +41 44 940 61 02, Fax +41 44 940 61 94 flury@esu-services.ch; frischknecht@esu-services.ch ko-Institute e.V. ESU-services Ltd. has been founded in 1998. Its core objectives are consulting, coaching, training and research in the fields of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), carbon footprints, water footprint in the sectors energy, civil engineering, basic minerals, chemicals, packaging, telecommunication, food and lifestyles. Fairness, independence and transparency are substantial characteristics of our consulting philosophy. We work issue-related and accomplish our analyses without prejudice. We document our studies and work transparency and comprehensibly. We offer a fair and competent consultation, which makes it for the clients possible to control and continuously improve their environmental performance. The company worked and works for various national and international companies, associations and authorities. In some areas, team members of ESU-services performed pioneering work such as development and operation of web based LCA databases or quantifying environmental impacts of food and lifestyles. All content provided in this report is copyrighted, except when noted otherwise. Such information must not be copied or distributed, in whole or in part, without prior written consent of ESU-services Ltd. or the customer. This report is provided on the website www.esu-services.ch and/or the website of the customer. A provision of this report or of files and information from this report on other websites is not permitted. Any other means of distribution, even in altered forms, require the written consent. Any citation naming ESU-services Ltd. or the authors of this report shall be provided to the authors before publication for verification. Information contained herein have been compiled or arrived from sources believed to be reliable. Nevertheless, the authors or their organizations do not accept liability for any loss or damage arising from the use thereof. Using the given information is strictly your own responsibility. Flury-2012-hydroelectric-power-generation.docx, 10/07/2012 10:28:00
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Zusammenfassung
Zusammenfassung
In der vorliegenden Studie werden die kobilanzen der Stromerzeugung mit Wasserkraft dokumentiert. Es handelt sich hierbei um eine umfassende Aktualisierung und Erweiterung der Sachbilanzdaten des ecoinvent Datenbestandes v2.2, welche auf den Mitte der neunziger Jahre an der ETH Zrich erarbeiteten kobilanzdaten (koinventare von Energiesystemen) basieren. Neben Speicher- und Flusskraftwerken wurden neu auch Kleinwasserkraftwerke bilanziert, wobei unterschieden wird zwischen Kraftwerken, die in Anlagen der Wasserversorgung (Bewsserung, Trinkwasserbereitstellung) eingebunden sind, und alleinstehenden Kraftwerken. Die Grsse der bilanzierten Kraftwerke entspricht dem produktionsgewichteten Durchschnitt aller Speicher- beziehungsweise Laufwasser- oder Kleinwasserkraftwerke der Schweiz. Daten zum Materialbedarf von Wasserkraftanlagen wurden revidiert und zum Teil mit Informationen aus neuen Publikationen ergnzt. Beton, Kies und Zement sind die massenmssig wichtigsten Baustoffe, wobei bei den bilanzierten Kraftwerken oftmals entweder die Menge Beton, oder die Mengen Zement und Kies bekannt sind. Im Weiteren werden Stahl in unterschiedlichen Qualitten, Kupfer (neu in die Bilanzen aufgenommen) und weitere, hier nicht aufgefhrte Baustoffe und Materialien eingesetzt. Gemss aktuellen Forschungserkenntnissen liegen die direkten Treibhausgas-Emissionen pro kWh Strom aus alpinen europischen Speicherseen bei rund 1.4 g CO2-eq/kWh, bei Speicherkraftwerken in gemssigten Zonen gehen wir von rund 12 g CO2-eq/kWh aus. Bei den Laufwasserkraftwerken spielt es eine Rolle, ob diese einen Stausee aufweisen oder nicht. Bei Laufwasserkraftwerken mit Stausee liegen die Methan-Emissionen bei 0.67 g pro kWh (knapp 13.4 g CO2-eq/kWh). Ein weiterer wichtiger Aspekt stellt die Modellierung des Strombedarfs der Speicherpumpen dar. Hierbei handelt es sich um diejenigen Pumpen, welche einem Stausee Wasser aus einem anderen Einzugsgebiet oder aus tieferen Lagen zufhren.1 Neu wird dieser Netzstrombedarf als Aufwand verbucht und nicht beim produzierten Wasserkraftstrom in Abzug gebracht. Die Treibhausgas-Emissionen der Bereitstellung von Strom mit Wasserkraftwerken sind vergleichsweise tief und schwanken zwischen 2 g CO2-eq/kWh ab Klemme integrierter Kleinwasserkraftwerke, 3.8 g CO2-eq/kWh ab Klemme Laufwasserkraftwerk, 5.9 g CO2-eq/kWh ab Klemme alpinem Speicherkraftwerk (netto, ohne Zulieferpumpen), und rund 16.6 g CO2eq/kWh ab Klemme Speicherkraftwerk in gemssigten Zonen. Werden die hier bereitgestellten Sachbilanzdaten zu Flusswasserkraftwerken auf Anlagen grsserer Leistung angewendet, drften die Aufwendungen und damit auch die kumulierten Emissionen tendenziell berschtzt werden. Dies entspricht einer konservativen Vorgehensweise. Die in diesem Bericht beschriebenen Sachbilanzdaten sind in bereinstimmung mit den Qualittsrichtlinien des ecoinvent Datenbestands v2.2 erhoben und modelliert und werden im Datenformat EcoSpold 1 zur Verfgung gestellt.
Speicherpumpen sind nicht zu verwechseln mit den Pumpspeicherpumpen, welche dazu dienen, zu Niedertarifzeiten Wasser aus einem tiefer liegenden Becken in ein hher gelegenes zu pumpen, um es zu einem spteren Zeitpunkt (Hochtarif) wieder zu turbinieren.
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Summary
Summary
The aim of this study is to describe the environmental impacts of construction, operation and deconstruction of hydroelectric power stations. The main focus is on power plants and their conditions in Switzerland. The LC inventories are then extrapolated to alpine and non-alpine regions of Europe and, in the case of storage power stations, to Brazil. Storage and pumped storage power stations, run-of-river power stations with and without reservoirs and their mix as well as small hydropower stations are covered in this report. Small hydropower stations are differentiated between stations that are integrated in existing waterworks infrastructures and standalone small hydropower stations. The inventory is composed of the three life cycle phases construction, operation and deconstruction. The following inputs are examined: consumption of cement, explosive agents, steel, copper, gravel, energy consumption of the construction, transport services (road and rail), land use, useful capacity of the reservoirs, turbined water, particle emissions during construction, oil spill to water and soil and the emissions of greenhouse gases from construction machines as well as from reservoirs (CO2, CH4, N2O) and from electrical devices (SF6) emitted during the operation. All life cycle inventory datasets established in this study are in compliance with the quality guidelines of ecoinvent data v2.2. They are provided in the EcoSpold v1 data format.
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Content
Content
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG SUMMARY CONTENT 1 INTRODUCTION I II III 1
1.1 Scope of the study............................................................................................................................1 1.2 State of the hydropower production .................................................................................................1 1.2.1 Switzerland .............................................................................................................................1 1.2.2 Europe ....................................................................................................................................2 1.2.3 World ......................................................................................................................................4
CHARACTERISATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM
2.1 Power stations ..................................................................................................................................5 2.1.1 Storage power stations ..........................................................................................................5 2.1.2 Pumped storage power station ..............................................................................................6 2.1.3 Run-of-river power stations ....................................................................................................6 2.2 Small hydropower stations ...............................................................................................................7 2.3 Specific properties of the alpine storage hydropower stations .........................................................7 2.4 Temporal focus .................................................................................................................................7 2.5 Expected useful life ..........................................................................................................................8 2.6 Efficiency ..........................................................................................................................................9 2.7 Functional unit ................................................................................................................................10 2.8 Hydrological and biological aspects ...............................................................................................11 2.8.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................................................11 2.8.2 Storage power stations ........................................................................................................11 2.8.3 Run-of-river hydropower stations .........................................................................................12
CONSTRUCTION OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATIONS
13
3.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................................13 3.2 Storage power station ....................................................................................................................13 3.2.1 Cement, gravel and water ....................................................................................................13 3.2.2 Steel .....................................................................................................................................14 3.2.3 Copper .................................................................................................................................14 3.2.4 Explosives ............................................................................................................................14 3.2.5 Transport ..............................................................................................................................14 3.2.6 Construction energy .............................................................................................................15 3.2.7 Particle emissions ................................................................................................................16 3.3 Run-of-river power station ..............................................................................................................16 3.3.1 Cement, gravel and water ....................................................................................................16 3.3.2 Steel .....................................................................................................................................16 3.3.3 Copper .................................................................................................................................16 3.3.4 Explosives ............................................................................................................................17 3.3.5 Transport ..............................................................................................................................17 3.3.6 Construction energy .............................................................................................................17 3.3.7 Particle emissions ................................................................................................................17 3.4 Small hydropower stations .............................................................................................................17 3.4.1 Small hydropower stations integrated in waterworks...........................................................18 3.4.2 Standalone small hydropower stations ................................................................................19 3.5 Data quality ....................................................................................................................................20
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Content 3.6 Life Cycle inventories of the construction of hydropower plants ....................................................21
OPERATION OF THE HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATIONS
25
4.1 Storage power station ....................................................................................................................25 4.1.1 Land use ..............................................................................................................................25 4.1.2 Useful capacity of the reservoirs ..........................................................................................25 4.1.3 Water use and consumption ................................................................................................26 4.1.4 Electricity use .......................................................................................................................26 4.1.5 Use of lubricating oil .............................................................................................................26 4.1.6 Greenhouse gas emissions .................................................................................................27 4.1.7 SF6 emissions ......................................................................................................................27 4.1.8 Operation of certified storage hydropower stations .............................................................28 4.2 Pumped storage power station ......................................................................................................28 4.2.1 Land use, material input and emissions...............................................................................28 4.2.2 Electricity use .......................................................................................................................28 4.3 Run-of-river power station ..............................................................................................................28 4.3.1 Land use ..............................................................................................................................28 4.3.2 Useful capacity of the reservoirs ..........................................................................................30 4.3.3 Water use and consumption ................................................................................................30 4.3.4 Use of lubricating oil .............................................................................................................30 4.3.5 Greenhouse gas emissions .................................................................................................30 4.4 Small hydropower stations .............................................................................................................30 4.5 Data quality ....................................................................................................................................31 4.6 Life Cycle inventories of the operation of hydropower plants ........................................................32
DECONSTRUCTION OF THE HYDROPOWER STATIONS
36
5.1 Storage power stations...................................................................................................................36 5.2 Run-of-river power stations ............................................................................................................36 5.3 Small hydropower stations .............................................................................................................37 5.3.1 Small hydropower plant in waterworks infrastructure ..........................................................37 5.3.2 Standalone small hydropower plant .....................................................................................37 5.4 Data quality ....................................................................................................................................37
6 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY DATA OF HYDROPOWER STATIONS IN OTHER COUNTRIES
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6.1 European hydropower stations ......................................................................................................38 6.1.1 Storage and pumped storage hydropower stations .............................................................38 6.1.2 Run-of-river ..........................................................................................................................39 6.1.3 Small hydropower ................................................................................................................39 6.2 Brazil...............................................................................................................................................39 6.3 Life Cycle inventories of the operation of hydropower stations in other countries .........................40
CUMULATIVE RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION
50
7.1 Cumulative Energy Demand ..........................................................................................................50 7.2 Greenhouse gas emissions ............................................................................................................52
REFERENCES APPENDIX
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1. Introduction
1
1.1
Introduction
Scope of the study
Hydropower is widely perceived as a clean energy source as it is renewable and, until recently, it is assumed that the operation of hydropower stations causes hardly any emissions of pollutants. In this study the environmental impacts of electricity from hydroelectric power stations in each stage of their life cycle (construction, operation, dismantling) are quantified. The first environmental impacts occur during the construction of the power stations. This includes the activities of the construction itself and the production and transport of the materials used (e.g. cement). Furthermore, there are hydrological aspects. The construction and operation of hydropower stations influences the spatial and temporal patterns of the water flow. The aim is to describe the most important aspects of the environmental impacts of hydropower stations in Switzerland. The following parameters are considered: consumption of cement, explosive agents, steel, copper, gravel, energy consumption of the construction, transport services (road and rail), land use, useful capacity of the reservoirs, turbined water, particle emissions during construction, oil spill to water and soil and the emissions of greenhouse gases from construction machines as well as from reservoirs (CO2, CH4, N2O) and from electrical devices (SF6) emitted during the operation. Storage and pumped storage hydropower stations, run-of-river hydropower stations and small hydropower stations are analysed. It is not the intention to characterise single hydropower stations but to find average data representing the hydropower mix in Switzerland and other European and non-European countries. The main part of the study is the identification and quantification of the material and energy demand and the emissions caused and the waste produced. The total material and energy demand is applied to the net electricity production. It is difficult and, if at all possible, very sumptuous to access original data. Most of the Swiss hydropower stations have been constructed decades ago. The enormous labour was divided between different contractors which had sub-contractors themselves. Therefore it is nearly impossible to access all the information needed, if it is stored at all. The data used in this study are based on earlier studies (Bolliger & Bauer 2007; Frischknecht et al. 1996) and their sources. Additional information is gained from new publications such as from Vattenfall (2008) and Axpo (2008). The data sets on small hydropower stations are based on the students thesis of Jean-Baptiste and Konersmann (2000) and on Baumgartner and Doka (1998). Statistical data on the electricity production and the installed capacity are gained from up to date statistical publications of the BFE (2010a, b, 2011b).
1.2
State of the hydropower production
1.2.1 Switzerland Hydropower is the most important renewable energy source in Switzerland. In 2010 37.5 TWh of hydroelectricity were produced, which is 56.5 % of the total electricity generation in Switzerland in 2010. 24.2 % is generated from run-of-river hydropower stations, 32.3 % from storage hydropower stations. In the electricity statistics of the Swiss Federal Office of Energy, the pumped storage hydropower stations (i.e. basic water flow plants) are not
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1. Introduction
registered as electricity production sites because they show a net electricity consumption. (BFE 2011a). According to the hydropower statistics of 2010 (BFE 2011c) the Swiss hydropower stations have an expected electricity production volume of 35.6 TWh. As shown in Tab. 1.1, over half of it is generated in storage hydropower stations and the run-of-river hydropower stations contribute 47 %. The total installed capacity is 13.3 GW (BFE 2011a, c). In 2008, small hydropower stations (<300 kW) had a production volume of 3400 GWh, which is around 10 % of the total annual hydropower electricity production. The capacity of small hydropower stations is 760 MW2.
Tab. 1.1: Expected production volumes of the hydropower stations in Switzerland, including hydropower stations with an installed capacity of >300 kW. Pumped storage hydropower plants are not included in total (BFE 2011c).
Production volume (GWh) 16611 18991 17397 1593 1 326 35602 100.0 % Percentage Capacity (MW) 46.7 % 53.3 % 48.9 % 4.5 % 8073 1384 0316 13338 100.0 % 3707 27.5 % 70.2 % 59.9 % 10.3 % Percentage
Power station
Run-of-river hydropower stations Storage power stations Mostly natural water supply Partly pumped water supply Pumped storage power stations Total (excl. pumped storage)
The capacity potential of hydropower in Switzerland is nearly exploited. The outlook of the Swiss Academy of Engineering Sciences (SATW) states that the hydroelectricity production of large-scale hydropower stations (>300 kW) will increase by 6% until 2050 (Berg & Real 2006). In future it is mainly the extension of existing power stations and the improvement of the technology that will lead to a growth in the production volume. At the same time, regulations of the residual flow will decrease the production potential (Frischknecht et al. 1996). Compared to the large-scale hydropower, the growth potential of the electricity production from small hydropower stations is still significant. The Swiss Academy of Engineering Sciences (SATW) projects the amount of electricity produced in 2050 to be four times as much as todays generation. According to their roadmap, the number of small hydropower stations will double till then (Berg & Real 2006). 1.2.2 Europe In Europe, hydropower is an important energy source too. In the EU-27 countries, the electricity generated from hydropower has a share of 10 % of the total net electricity production (EUROSTAT 2010). In Austria and Norway the hydroelectricity accounts for even more than half of the net electricity production (see Tab. 1.2).
Bundesamt fr Energie, April 2011: http://www.bfe.admin.ch/themen/00490/00491/00493/index.html?lang=de
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1. Introduction Tab. 1.2: Hydropower electricity production and capacity in EU-27 countries (without pumped storage). Data are missing from Iceland, no hydropower generation in Malta and Cyprus (EUROSTAT 2010).
<1 MW Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) 1 '637 454 26 9 108 39 1 1 492 151 12 5 28 5 167 31 1 '582 455 2 '060 561 117 44 16 4 47 23 1 '770 437 64 24 51 17 7 2 235 48 290 74 67 31 99 61 58 25 264 117 >1 MW <10 MW 3'179 725 207 50 417 191 94 32 475 141 14 4 1'449 285 5'342 1'604 5'286 842 207 114 34 10 85 20 7'390 2'105 6 1 22 8 126 38 5'402 1'048 605 183 670 361 549 292 108 65 193 37 >10 MW 33'129 7'040 176 52 2'299 1'890 5'121 1'749 1'057 753 15'496 2'786 56'802 18'823 13'596 2'104 2'987 2'319 163 37 836 196 32'464 11'190 3'038 1511 329 90 102 37 133'917 27'150 1'257 672 6'060 3'634 1'6547 6009 3'874 1'542 3'561 873 Share of total net electricity production 60.5 % 0.5 % 6.9 % 44.2 % 2.6 % 0.1 % 0.3 % 23.0 % 11.6 % 3.5 % 5.6 % 0.6 % 3.4 % 13.6 % 61.1 % 3.1 % 3.8 % 0.1 % 98.6 % 1.5 % 15.2 % 28.6 % 15.2 % 26.2 %
Country Austria Belgium Bulgaria Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Luxembourg Netherland Norway Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia
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Spain Sweden Turkey United Kingdom Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) Production (GWh) Capacity (MW) 674 267 601 101 38 16 57 65 2'357 1'605 3'188 815 472 231 511 108 20'469 11'232 65'280 15'436 32'760 13'582 4'600 1'456 7.8 % 47.2 % 17.5 % 1.4 %
1.2.3 World The worldwide hydroelectricity generation amounts to 3.29 PWh (Tab. 1.4). Worldwide it is mainly North and South America with a high share on total electricity production (see Tab. 1.3 and Tab. 1.4) while, for example, the Middle East, with its dry climate, has a hydroelectricity production of a bit more than 1% of its total electricity production.
Tab. 1.3: Net electricity generation from hydropower and percentage of the total electricity production in different OECD countries of the world in 2010. Including pumped storage power production (IEA 2011).
Electricity production from hydropower (GWh) 15'070 369'556 348'392 88'189 6'215 36'109 24'765 281'739 Percentage to the total electricity production 6.60 % 79.75 % 58.15 % 8.61 % 1.33 % 14.67 % 58.13 % 6.75 %
Country Australia Brazil3 Canada Japan Korea Mexico New Zealand United States
Tab. 1.4:
Hydroelectricity generation and its percentage of the total electricity production in 3 different regions of the world in 2008, including pumped storage power production .
Electricity production from hydropower (GWh) 98153 252091 585187 673862 8887 3'287554 Percentage to the total electricity production 15.73 % 13.72 % 16.74 % 63.02 % 1.15 % 16.23 %
Region Africa Asia excl. China China Latin America Middle East World
International Energy Agency, IEA, April 2011: http://www.iea.org/stats/prodresult.asp?PRODUCT=Electricity/Heat
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2. Characterisation and description of the system
2
2.1
Characterisation and description of the system

Power stations
2.1.1 Storage power stations Storage power stations are power plants with an appreciable reservoir. Depending on the drop height it is distinguished between low, medium and high pressure power stations. The main focus in this study is on the latter ones. The pumped storage power stations are a special type of storage power stations. While conventional storage power stations use water that comes from natural catchment areas higher up, the pumped storage power stations pump water up to reuse it. The share of pumped water to turbined water can reach up to 100 % (basic water flow plants). In this case the power plant has no natural supply of water. Often, storage hydropower stations are a mix of both, storage hydropower plants and pumped storage hydropower plants. Generally the different kinds of power plants differ more in the way they are operated than in the way they are built. Therefore the construction and deconstruction of storage hydropower stations and pumped storage hydropower stations are modelled identically, while the operation of storage and pumped storage hydropower plants is modelled separately. In this study, storage hydropower stations include all hydropower stations with a share of pumped water to turbined water of less than 100 % (see Tab. 2.1). Consequently it includes also hydropower stations that are commonly called pumped hydropower stations. The pumped storage hydropower stations modelled in this study only include basic water flow plants though. These are plants with no natural water supply. Following the two terms storage hydropower station and pumped storage hydropower station are used according to this definition.
Tab. 2.1: Classification of the hydropower stations.
Storage hydropower stations 0 %, only basic operation Pumped storage hydropower stations < 100% Basic water flow plants
Common naming Share of pumped water to turbined water Categories in this study
100% Pumped storage hydropower station
Storage hydropower station
The capacity of the reservoirs differs between the storage power stations: It can range from the storage capacity of water for a whole year down to only one day. Strictly speaking, even the run-of-river power stations have a small reservoir where the water is hold back. In this study the definition of storage power stations is made according to Frischknecht et al. (1996): Power stations with dams higher than 30 meters are classified as storage hydropower stations. This includes also a couple of high and medium pressure run-of-river power stations (BFE 2010b). Either are they part of clusters of power stations which are dominated by storage power plants or they are power stations with a small storage capacity (e.g. Amsteg, Croix). The first group of stations is left in the list of storage power plants, as it is not practical to separate single power stations from the cluster. The other group of run-of-river power stations could be added to the run-of-river power stations, but due to their construction they are more similar to storage power plants than to run-of-river hydropower stations. The sample of storage hydropower stations (including pumped storage hydropower stations) considered in this study consists of 30 different groups with 52 dams. They are all situated in
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Switzerland with an installed capacity of 8565 MW and an expected net production of 16639 GWh/a (BFE 2011c). An average storage hydropower station is modelled in this study. It has a capacity of 95 MW and the expected net production is 190 GWh/a. The expected lifespan of 150 years is specified in Subchapter 2.5. Efficiencies are discussed in Subchapter 2.6. Detailed information about the storage hydropower stations is listed in Tab. 0.1 in the attachment. 2.1.2 Pumped storage power station Pumped storage describes the circulation of water between a lower and an upper reservoir. It can run in a closed circuit where the water is pumped up in the hours with low electricity costs and turbined again when the demand and the costs for electricity are high. Pumped storage is also on hand, if the water is pumped up to a hydropower station to increase the inflow or for seasonal storage. In this study, only the hydropower stations with a closed circuit are considered as pumped storage hydropower stations. The others are included in the storage hydropower stations due to their similarities. Depending on the altitude ratio of the pumping and the turbination of the water, there is either no net electricity generation (altitude ratio > 0.7) or the amount of net produced electricity corresponds to the difference between the electricity needed for pumping and the total electricity produced (altitude ratio < 0.7). In the statistics of the hydropower stations the pumped storage power stations with a closed water circulation and no net electricity generation are not considered (BFE 2010b), the produced electricity is included in the statistics of electricity production though (BFE 2010a). The expected annual electricity generation of pumped storage is roughly 1300 GWh (BFE 2011a, c), which represents 3.5 % of the total gross hydropower production in Switzerland. The yearly electricity consumption of the pumps is 1657 GWh (BFE 2011a, c). This results in an efficiency of 0.8 (BFE 2011a). The pumping electricity stems partly from the hydropower stations themselves. However, the main part is drawn from the Swiss electricity mix. This is considered in the inventory in Section 4.2.2. There are no standalone pumped storage power stations but they normally are integrated in a group of hydro power stations (storage and run-of-river power stations) sharing reservoirs and other infrastructures. Therefore it is not feasible to establish a separate inventory of the construction of pumped storage power stations. The inventory of the construction and deconstruction of the reservoirs is the same for storage power stations and the pumped storage power stations. The operation is inventoried separately. 2.1.3 Run-of-river power stations The run-of-river power stations can also be divided into high, medium and low pressure power stations. The last category is the most common one including the power plants in rivers and canals. As already mentioned above, some high pressure run-of-river hydropower stations are already taken into account in the list of the storage hydropower stations. The set of run-of-river power stations considered in this study is therefore mainly based on low pressure power plants. Run-of-river power stations in Switzerland with an installed capacity of 3707 MW are considered. They have an expected annual net production of 16611 GWh (BFE 2011c). The expected life span of the infrastructure and the machines is described in Subchapter 2.5. The efficiency of the run-of-river power stations is specified in Subchapter 2.6. The average run-
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of-river hydropower station modelled in this study has a capacity of 8.6 MW and the expected net production is 38.5 GWh/a.
2.2
Small hydropower stations
The category of small hydropower stations includes all the hydropower stations with a capacity below 300 kW (BFE 2010b). In other definitions hydropower stations with a capacity up to 1 MW are included4. A lot of them have been constructed during the industrialisation. First they were used as mechanical driving mechanism later they were converted to generate electricity. When the larger power stations were built and the production cost fell, the small hydropower stations were abandoned (Programm Kleinwasserkraftwerke 2010). Due to action programmes of the Swiss Federal Office of Energy (SFOE) promoting renewable energy, the small hydropower stations have come back5. In 2008 small hydropower stations with a capacity of 760 MW and an annual production of 3400 GWh were in operation6. They are situated in rivers and ravines but also in infrastructures such as drinking water supply systems, waste water treatment facilities, tunnels and the infrastructure for the production of artificial snow (Programm Kleinwasserkraftwerke 2010). The small hydropower stations under study have a total capacity of 1.2 MW and a net production of 6.8 GWh/a (Baumgartner & Doka 1998; Jean-Baptiste & Konersmann 2000). They are located in rivers, in a drinking water supply system, in small ravines and in an irrigation system. The sample is divided into two groups: the power stations integrated in waterworks infrastructures and standalone hydropower stations (e.g. in rivers). This allows accounting for the differences in material consumption. The average small hydropower station modelled (in both groups) has a capacity of 193 MW and the expected net production is 1.1 GWh/a.
2.3
Specific properties of the alpine storage hydropower stations
Due to topographical, geological, climatic and hydrological differences as well as their state of technology, the hydropower plants in Switzerland are different from each other. There are no standards and each one has its own characteristics. In this study, a sample of 52 storage power stations is examined. The most important information is collected for all of them, whereas some specific aspects are investigated only on a few power stations and then extrapolated to the whole sample.
2.4
Temporal focus
The aim of this study is to analyse the environmental impacts of the Swiss hydroelectricity mix of today. Most of the Swiss hydro power stations have been erected between 1945 and 1970. As they still produce most of the hydropower electricity, it is not the latest technology that is described but the actual hydropower production mix.
Programm Kleinwasserkraftwerke, BFE, April 2011: http://www.bfe.admin.ch/kleinwasserkraft/index.html?lang=de Programm Kleinwasserkraftwerke, BFE, April 2011: http://www.bfe.admin.ch/kleinwasserkraft/index.html?lang=de Bundesamt fr Energie, April 2011: http://www.bfe.admin.ch/themen/00490/00491/00493/index.html?lang=de
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The life cycle inventory of hydropower is modelled as if its infrastructure is continuously replaced. Each kWh of electricity produced asks for a tiny fraction of the erection of the power plant. It is assumed that in the early phase of hydropower development in Switzerland the most convenient locations have been used to build a power station (Frischknecht et al. 1996). Later projects are forced to use less accessible or less suited locations. There, the constructions are more complex and most often more material consuming. On the other hand, with the development of technologies, less material is used and more energy is generated. Those two trends tend to compensate each other, depending on the project.
2.5
Expected useful life
A decisive factor in quantifying the environmental impacts per kWh electricity is the technical lifespan of the power stations. The technical lifespan is assumed to be between the economic pay-back time and the actual lifespan. In Tab. 2.2, the approximated values of the economic and the technical lifespan are given for different parts in a hydropower station.
Tab. 2.2: Approximate values of the pay-back time and technical lifespan in years of different parts in a hydropower station (Engel et al. 1985).
Pay-back time Technical lifespan Aspects to be considered
Station/function unit Construction Dams, tubes, tunnels, caverns, reservoirs, artificial lakes, surge chambers Buildings, Water catchment, weir, pressure pipes, streets, bridges Mechanical parts Kaplan turbine Pelton turbine Pump turbine Storage turbine Valves Cranes, other mechanical parts Electrical parts Generators Transformers, high voltage facilities, other electrical facilities, monitoring system, Batteries
60-80 40-50 40-50
80-150 50-80 40-60
Duration of water rights, quality, decay, security, losses General conditions, wear, quality, state of the art, security, corrosion, maintenance
30-40 40-50 25-33 25-33 25-40 20-40 25-40 20-25 10-20
30-60 40-70 25-40 25-40 25-50 25-50 30-60 30-40 15-30 Condition of the parts, cleanness, wear, security, quality, maintenance Security, losses, cavitation, erosion, corrosion, fatigue, reduction in efficiency, state of the art, quality, wear, load, construction
The listed values tend to be conservative. This could result in an underestimation of the lifespans (Frischknecht et al. 1996): It is not expected that a reservoir shows major damages after 80-150 years of use (Sinniger et al. 1991). The outer layers of the dam might get minor damages due to frost and corrosion but it is possible to renovate them. The degradation of concrete is hardly severe enough to damage a dam severely. Earthquakes, flooding and glaciers are more capable to destroy a dam. The probability of these things to happen is, depending on the region, quite low though.
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However, there is another factor to be considered: the siltation. While this can happen fast in small lakes (see e.g. artificial lake of Solis, completed in 19867), big reservoirs are assumed to be fully functional for hundreds of years (Frischknecht et al. 1996). In galleries, the concrete can be damaged too after a while depending on the water properties and composition of the concrete. In this case a renovation is needed. The service life of galleries can be longer than the one of reservoirs. In this case it is possible to turn a storage power plant with a reservoir where for example the process of siltation is already very advanced or even finished into an alpine run-of-river power station. Depending on the type of turbine, their lifespan can be up to 300 years and more. This refers to the low-speed motors of run-of river power stations. Pelton turbines on the other hand can be worn by sand and the variations in the loading can lead to symptoms of fatigue. It can be cost-effective to change a turbine already before the end of its lifespan in order to improve the efficiency and by that the electricity production. The above mentioned lifespans are summarised and averaged. The resulting values are shown in Tab. 2.3. All calculations in this study are based on these values.
Tab. 2.3: Average lifespan in years of different parts of a storage and run-of-river power stations (Frischknecht et al. 1996).
Storage power station 200 150 80 150
8
Parameter Concrete Reinforcing steel Steel (rest) Copper Explosives Transport Construction energy
Run-of-river power station 80 80 40 80

8
250 150 150
100 60 80
2.6
Efficiency
There are different possible causes and places for losses in hydropower stations: Unused drop height, friction in the galleries and tubes and inefficiencies in the turbines. The losses due to frictions are estimated to 5 % on average (Bischof 1992) while the turbines cause losses between 9 and 13 %, depending on their age. The efficiency of the generators has not increased very much: Modern generators reach 98 % and is only 2 % higher than the average of all the Swiss hydropower plants (Knig 1985). We assume that today the average efficiency of generators operated in hydroelectric power stations is 97 %. Tab. 2.4 summarises the estimated efficiencies of modern power stations as well as of todays portfolio of hydropower stations in Switzerland.
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http://www.stadt-zuerich.ch/solis, access on November 9, 2011 Own assumption
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2. Characterisation and description of the system Tab. 2.4: Average efficiency of run-of-river, storage and pumped storage hydropower stations in Switzerland (Bischof 1992; Knig 1985). Bold values are used in this study.
Average 0.95 0.87 0.97 0.98 0.82 0.82 0.78 0.80
9
Part Water works Turbines Generators Transformers Run-of-river power station (total) Storage power station (total) Without water works With water works Pumped storage
Modern power stations 0.95 0.91 0.98 0.99 0.88 0.88 0.84 0.8
2.7
Functional unit
There is no linear relation between number and size of the reservoirs and the power stations. One power station can be fed by several lakes or there can be a reservoir that supplies several power stations on different levels. Therefore it is not practical to separate and allocate the material consumption and energy use to single power stations. Most often it is easier to consider a whole group of stations and reservoirs and to model an average hydropower station from this sample. This study focuses on a sample of 52 dams to represent the storage and pumped storage hydropower stations and on individual run-of-river power stations in Switzerland as well as on 6 small hydropower stations. From these samples, the material and energy input as well as the emissions of the construction, the operation and the deconstruction of the stations is modelled for an average hydropower station. The capacity and production of the average hydroelectric power plant is calculated using the Statistics of hydroelectric installations in Switzerland (BFE 2011c). As mentioned before, the storage and the pumped storage hydropower stations are not examined separately in terms of their infrastructure. The infrastructure is a mix of both. It is only the electricity production (operation phase) that is differentiated. The construction of run-of-river hydropower stations with and without reservoir are modelled identically (making use of the same infrastructure model). The operation of these two types is modelled separately to take into account the difference in land use and in emissions. They add up to the run-of-river hydropower stations with a capacity of 8.6 MW. This station represents the average run-of-river hydropower station mix in Switzerland. Tab. 2.5 describes the characteristics of the different types of hydropower stations examined.
While the average efficiency of pumped storage hydropower stations was 0.7 in the national electricity statistics until 2009, it has been raised to 0.8 for 2010 (BFE 2011a)
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2. Characterisation and description of the system Tab. 2.5: Characteristics for each type of hydropower station under study.
Capacity (MW) Expected annual net production (GWh) 190 38.5 1.2 1.1 Lifespan
Hydropower station Storage hydropower, electricity Pumped storage hydropower, electricity Run-of-river hydropower Small hydropower (integrated) Small hydropower (standalone)
95 8.6 0.19 0.18
150 80 70 70
2.8
Hydrological and biological aspects
2.8.1 Introduction This chapter describes the environmental impacts of the hydrological changes due to the construction and operation of hydropower plants. This text was initially written by Hans MllerLemans, Tergeso AG, Sargans and published in 1994 (Frischknecht et al. 1994). The system is complex and the quantification and description of all processes and impacts is either an enormous effort or it leads to a biased picture, if only parts are considered. Even if it was possible to quantify all the influences, the focus on the hydrological implications of hydropower stations hinders the comparison with other energy systems where the focus lies on the material and energy demand and on the emissions caused by the energy and material supply and from the reservoirs. As a consequence the hydrological and biological aspects are discussed only qualitatively in the following paragraphs. In order to include at least a couple of factors the following ones are quantified in the Sections 4.1.1-4.1.3 and 4.3.1-4.3.3: land use, useful capacity of the reservoir and turbined water. 2.8.2 Storage power stations The storage power stations influence the natural system mainly at two points: the reservoir and the water catchment. The reservoirs disrupt the natural flow of the water and, depending on the size of the reservoir, hold it back for a certain amount of time. Furthermore they are barriers for the actively migrating fishes and invertebrates and the organisms that are transported passively from upstream regions. Depending on the type of the water catchment, special constructions for the ascent of fishes and even invertebrates are available, but this kind of water catchments is not very common among the Swiss storage power stations. The construction of storage hydropower stations results in the flooding of pastures, forests, moors and rubble fields that can be part of valuable biotopes. The fluctuation of the water level inhibits the development of riverine vegetation and disfigures the landscape. Furthermore, the expanse of water can present a barrier for the migration of animals. They need to find new routes, often in impassable terrain. The water courses above the reservoirs are cut from those below. For the storage power stations considered in this study, this concerns an area of 6865 km2 (Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee 2011). The residual flow reach is highly influenced by the catchment and storage of the water. The amount of water released just beneath the dam is mainly given by the amount of water statutorily defined. Further downstream more factors influence the amount of water flowing: weather, geology, topography. The quality of the residual flow does not only depend on the amount
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of water but also on the properties of the streambed. The interrupt of the migration of fishes and invertebrates described above has an impact on the residual flow reach too. The storage power stations also interrupt the flow of coarse and fine grained organic substances that serve as nutrients downstream. The reduced peaks of the outflow lower the capacity of the water to transport the bed load. This might cause accumulations of rubble in the river bed. In summary, the storage power stations disturb the balance of solid matter in the river bed. This concerns mostly the temporal distribution as well as the grading of the solid matter transported. The stream after the backflow of the turbined water is exposed to fluctuations in the volume of water due to temporal fluctuations in the electricity production. Fluctuations occur in a natural environment too. The biocoenosis is probably better adapted to fluctuations following natural rhythms and patterns than to artificial ones though. 2.8.3 Run-of-river hydropower stations The dams of run-of-river hydropower stations disrupt the flowing waters. The consequences for fishes and invertebrates are described above. Depending on the type of dam, passage ways are available. Generally, the dams of run-of-river power stations are more easily conquerable than those of storage power stations. The transport of solid matter is mainly influenced by the spillway. The overflow is less favourable than the release at the bottom. Further impacts of the slack flow due to the dams are the following: The flow velocity decreases and this leads to the sedimentation of solid matter. The decomposition of the sediments consumes the oxygen and creates anoxic conditions. This process is supported by warmer water temperatures and a longer retention time of the water. Due to the sedimentation of particles the gravel in the riverbed is covered, which is unfavourable for species depending on gravel as spawning ground. The parallel arrangement of the dams inhibits the settlement of a diverse biocoenosis. Only the availability of a wide range of biotopes enables the settlement of a wide range of biocoenosis. Fishes can end up in the turbined water and get injured or killed. There are more or less successful ways to avoid that. Residual flow reach is mainly found in run-of-river power stations built in channels. The problems of residual flow reaches are discussed above. They are influenced by the amount of water statutorily defined, the interactions between the ground water and the river and the structure of the river bed. In general, the problems of the residual flow reaches of run-of-river power stations are less severe than those of storage power stations. In the sector of the tail water, erosion can be a consequence of the sedimentation above the dam. This leads to the recess of the riverbed. This can be avoided by the construction of barrages in the tail water. It is a general fact, that run-of-river hydropower stations disturb the transport of solid matter. The area around a run-of-river power station is mainly influenced by the disruption due to the dam as well as by the consequent adjustments of the confluences of inflows. This affects the network of rivers and ravines and hinders fishes to use inflows as spawning grounds or as shelter during high water. The dams inhibit the overflow of biotopes that are dependent on the flooding with water and nutrients (e.g. floodplain forest). These biotopes have already been destroyed in earlier years by the measures of flood prevention though. The separation of the groundwater from the river has no immediate consequences, but it is an interference with the natural flow of the water bodies.
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3. Construction of hydroelectric power stations
3
3.1
Construction of hydroelectric power stations

Introduction
In this Chapter the efforts and emissions related to the construction of the power stations are described. The main focus lies on the most important building materials such as cement, steel and explosives as well as on the transport and construction energy. In addition, the consumption of copper is quantified, which has been neglected in previous studies. The demand in material and energy needed to construct power stations is related to the annual electricity produced. The system analysed includes the reservoirs, the dams and the associated buildings and the transformer. The distribution of the electricity is modelled in separate datasets.
3.2
Storage power station
In this Subchapter the life cycle inventory of the construction of an average storage hydropower station in Switzerland is described. The infrastructure is used for the generation of electricity by storage and pumped storage hydroelectric power plants. The term plant refers to the average hydropower station with the characteristics described in Tab. 2.5. 3.2.1 Cement, gravel and water In terms of mass, gravel and cement are the most important building materials used in hydropower stations. They are used for the dams, the injections (cement only), the galleries and tunnels, the water catchment, the equalising reservoir, the buildings and the transport infrastructure. The most prominent part of a storage power station is the dam. There are two different types of dams: the (concrete) dam and the barrage. As there are only few barrages in Switzerland, this study concentrates on the dams. There are several types of dams and all of them can be found in Switzerland. Depending on the construction of those dams, the fraction of cement in the concrete varies from 140 to 300 kg/m3. The average concentration of cement in concrete in the present sample is 230 kg/m3 (see Tab. 0.1 in the Annex). Concrete is also used for injections into the underground of the dams for the sealing and contact of the construction. These injections mainly consist of concrete but there can also be additions of clay, smectite (bentonite), phosphate, aluminate and silicate. Additionally a considerable amount of concrete is used in galleries and tunnels. Depending on the function and construction of the tunnels, the amount of cement used per meter varies considerably. There are not much data available about the cement consumption in tunnels, neither about the construction of the buildings. Due to lack of data a rough estimation is done: With the available data of a few power stations an average ratio between the cement consumption in dams and the total amount of cement consumed is established. This ratio is applied to all other power stations of the sample and, based on their cement consumption for the dams, their total cement consumption is estimated. The resulting cement consumption is shown in Tab. 0.1 in the Annex. Information sources used to quantify the cement consumption in storage hydropower stations are: Aegina (1965), Bertschinger (1959), Biedermann et al. (1985), DesMeules (1961), Gicot (1956), KVR (1968), Link (1970), Meyer (1960), Morf (1962), Salanfe (1951), Schnitter (1961, 1971), Stucky (1962), Tndury (1956, 1964), Walther & Fetz (1963, 1971), Weber et al. (1965, 1970), Zingg (1961).
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The total cement consumption and the average lifespan of 150 years for dams and 100 years for galleries and tunnels result in a cement consumption of 1.02*108 kg/plant (3.42 g/kWh). Concrete is made using cement, gravel and water. 1 m3 of concrete consists of 0.8 m3 gravel, 0.127 m3 water and 0.073 m3 cement which is equivalent to 2000 kg, 127 kg and 230 kg respectively (Bolliger & Bauer 2007). This results in a consumption of 5.65*107 kg/plant (1.89 g/kWh) of water and 8.89*108 kg/plant (29.8 g/kWh) of gravel. 3.2.2 Steel Steel (construction steel, reinforcing steel and stainless steel) is the second most important material in terms of mass. Here, iron and cast iron is included in the total steel demand. Steel has a wide range of applications: Reinforcement, rock anchors, armoured tubes, pressure pipes, generators, transformers, turbines. Furthermore it is found in buildings and in the transport infrastructure. The steel consumption varies even more between the different power stations and only few data are available. Information sources are Bertschinger (1959), Condrau (1962), KVR (1968), Salanfe (1951), Walther und Fetz (1963, 1971), Weber (1965, 1971) and other sources. A lifespan of 150 years is used for reinforcing steel and 80 years for the rest. The specific steel consumption is about 0.26 g/kWh. A specific amount of 0.06 g/kWh is allotted to reinforcing steel, 0.06 g/kWh to the machines and 0.14 g/kWh to the tubes and anchors etc. The consumption of the whole plant is 1.74*106 kg/plant of reinforcing steel, 1.82*106 kg/plant of chromium steel and 4.07*106 kg/plant of low-alloyed steel. 3.2.3 Copper Copper is part of the turbines and generators as well as electric cables. According to Vattenfall (2008), the copper consumption in the infrastructure of a Swedish storage hydropower plant is 9.9*10-3 g/kWh. Applied on the power stations considered, this is a total amount of 2.96*105 kg/plant. 3.2.4 Explosives Explosives are mainly used for the excavation of the fundament of the dam. Until 1970 also the galleries and tunnels have been blasted. Nowadays electric drilling machines are used. As the consumption of explosives are approximately proportional to the amount of excavation, the measurement of the length and diameter of all the tunnels could be a basis to quantify the amount of explosives used. This is laborious though. The consumption of explosives is estimated based on the few data available (see Tab. 0.1). Information sources are Bguin et al. (1963), Bertschinger (1959), Blenio Kraftwerke (1968), Condrau (1962), KVR (1963, 1968), Tndury (1956, 1964), Weber et al. (1965) and other unpublished sources. The average specific consumption of explosives is about 2*10-2 g/kWh. In total, it results in 5.95*105 kg/plant. 3.2.5 Transport Most of the materials necessary to build the power stations need to be transported to the site. In Switzerland, transports are done by train as far as possible. The tonnage is dominated by the cement followed by the mass of the other materials: armoured tubes, reinforcing steel, construction machines etc. To be cost efficient, sand and gravel were gained from quarries as
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close to the site as possible. In some cases long distance transports were necessary. Further transports were caused by the excavated material. From the closest railway station the transport was done by lorries. Often the streets leading to the construction site had to be built or expanded first. In some cases, the location of the site was inaccessible by road and a cableway was erected. The transport is distinguished between the public transport network and the rest of the transport to the construction site. In the first case the transport itself is analysed and generic data are used to model the transport services. The second part is described via the energy consumption (fuel for lorries, electricity for cableways). This has two reasons: Firstly, the assessment of the wear of the streets and the noise does not have an effect outside of the public transport network. Secondly, it is assumed that the emission factors of the lorries do not apply under the conditions found on the routes leading to the construction site due to the steepness and impassibility of the streets. Due to their locations and accessibility, the transport figures vary a lot between the power stations. The Bergeller Kraftwerke are analysed in a case study. The figures of the transport on the public transport network in Tab. 3.1 are based on the data of Bertschinger (1959):
Tab. 3.1: Transport services required during the construction of storage hydropower stations.
Material Train Cement Other materials Total Lorry Cement Gravel and sand Other materials Total Specific transport distances 7.40*10 1.33*10 8.73*10 1.13*10 3.33*10 1.33*10 1.60*10
-4 -4 -4 -4 -5 -5 -4
Total transport distances 2.21*10 3.98*10 2.61*10 3.39*10 9.96*10 3.98*10 4.78*10
7 6 7 6 5 5 6
tkm/kWh tkm/kWh tkm/kWh tkm/kWh tkm/kWh tkm/kWh tkm/kWh
tkm/plant tkm/plant tkm/plant tkm/plant tkm/plant tkm/plant tkm/plant
The material is transported 2.61*107 tkm/plant by train and 4.78*106 tkm/plant by lorry. 3.2.6 Construction energy The construction of hydropower stations is energy intensive. Energy is used in construction machines as well as for the transport of the material from the public transport network to the construction site (see also Section 3.2.5). In the following the consumption of electricity and fuel is described. The electricity consumption sampled at the two sites Biasca and Linthal (Limmern) (see Tab. 0.1) amounts to an average specific value of 9.13*10-4 kWh/kWh. This results in the total electricity consumption of 2.73*107 kWh/plant. The specific use of fuel (mainly diesel) is around 4.67*10-2 g/kWh (Frischknecht et al. 1996). It is assumed that the diesel is used in average building machines. Applying an average calorific value of 42 MJ/kg this results in a total diesel consumption of 5.97*107 MJ/plant. More detailed information about the energy consumption for the construction of hydropower stations can be found in the following sources: Bertschinger (1959), Blenio Kraftwerke (1968), KVR (1968), Tndury (1964), Walther und Fetz (1963), Weber et al. (1965), BFE (1992) and other sources.
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3.2.7 Particle emissions Due to raised dust from blasting, excavations, vehicles on non-asphaltic streets and the preparation of concrete considerable amounts of particle emissions may be caused from the construction site of a hydropower station. There is no specific information and data available about particle emissions during the construction of a storage hydropower station. As an approximation, the amount of the emissions is calculated according to the emission factors of general construction sites in Switzerland (BUWAL 2001, 2003). According to this source, an average of 500 kg PM10 is emitted per hectare, of which 15 % are PM2.5 emissions. The total amount of dust is 2000 kg/ha. As a first approach, twice the area covered with the dam and other infrastructure (see Subchapter 4.1), 1.4 ha is considered. This results in total emissions of 103 kg PM2.5, 2063 kg PM>10 and 584 kg 2.5<PM<10. The construction of the storage power station emits a total amount of 2750 kg dust. This equals to 3.62*10-6 g of PM2.5, 6.90*10-5 g of PM>10 and 1.96*10-5 g of 2.5<PM<10 per kWh electricity produced.
3.3
Run-of-river power station
This Subchapter describes the construction of an average run-of-river hydropower station in Switzerland. Its characteristics are described in Tab. 2.5. The term plant refers to this hydropower station described. 3.3.1 Cement, gravel and water It is expected that the average consumption of cement is lower for the run-of-river power stations than for the storage power station. As presented in Baumann (1949), Brux (1983), Herbeck und Reismann (1977), NOK (1956), Radag (1979) and others, the average is around 1.88 g/kWh. It results in a total consumption of 5.78*106 kg/plant. The consumption of gravel amounts to 5.03*107 kg/plant (16.3 g/kWh) and 3.19*106 kg/plant (1.04 g/kWh) of water is used. 3.3.2 Steel Steel is to be found in different parts of a run-of-river power station. Apart from the use in generators and transformers, steel is also consumed for reinforcement, bulkheads, stop logs, screens, cranes and others. The literature gives an average steel consumption of 30 g/(kWh/a) (Aegerter et al. 1954; Baumann 1949; Brux 1983; Erbiste 1984; Herbeck & Reismann 1977; NOK 1956; Radag 1979; Stambach 1944; Wunderle 1984). The power station Wildegg-Brugg (NOK 1956) suggests the following fractions for the different types of steel: 41 % reinforcing steel, 55 % low alloyed steel (tubes, anchors) and 4 % chromium steel (machines). Averaged over a lifespan of 80 years for reinforcing steel and 40 years for the rest, the specific steel consumption is 0.6 g/kWh. The total amount of reinforcing steel in the run-of-river hydropower station is 4.73*105 kg/plant (0.15 g/kWh). The consumption of low-alloyed steel is 1.27*106 kg/plant (0.41 g/kWh) and of chromium steel it is 9.23*104 kg/plant (0.03 g/kWh). 3.3.3 Copper Copper is used for turbines and generators as well as electric cables. It is assumed that the specific copper consumption of 9.9*10-3 g/kWh specified by Vattenfall (2008), is also valid for run-of-river hydropower stations. This results in a total amount of 3.05*104 kg/plant.
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3.3.4 Explosives Even though there are no tunnels to be built for run-of-river power stations, there are other purposes for which explosives are used: deepening of the river channel, removing big rocks and mining of boulders. The amount used is estimated based on Bolliger and Bauer (2007), where the specific consumption for the construction of the power station Wildegg-Brugg is reported to be 6.3*10-4 g/kWh. Applied on the average power plant under study, this is 1.94*103 kg/plant. 3.3.5 Transport There are hardly any data available for the transport services required to ship the material to the site. Estimations based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) give values around 1.90*10-4 tkm/kWh for the transport by lorry as well as by train. This results in transport services of 5.84*105 tkm/unit. 3.3.6 Construction energy Energy is needed to run the different construction machines as well as for the transport of the construction materials and the excavated material. On-site, the transport is often carried out by trucks. In earlier years steam locomotives with coal fuel firing were used. Information about the electricity and fuel consumption is found in Baumann (1949), NOK (1956) and Wunderle (1984). The specific energy consumption is 5.0*10-4 kWh/kWh of electricity and 0.11 g/kWh of diesel. Applied on the whole plant, it results in a electricity consumption of 1.54*106 kWh/plant. The consumption of diesel amounts to 1.45*107 MJ/plant. 3.3.7 Particle emissions There is not information on the particle emissions due to the construction of run-of-river power stations in Switzerland. It can be assumed that, in comparison to the storage power stations, the emissions are lower as parts of the excavation work is taking place under water and as the dams are smaller. As an approximation, the amount of the emissions is calculated according to the emission factors of general construction sites in Switzerland (BUWAL 2001, 2003). It is specified that per hectare of area under construction a total amount of 2000 kg dust is emitted. 500 kg of it is PM10. Of the total PM10 emissions another 15 % is classified as PM2.5. For the application of these factors to the run-of-river power stations under study, a total construction area of 0.34 ha is assumed. This corresponds to twice the area classified as industrial area, built up (see Section 4.3.1). The particle emissions amount to: 2.58*101 kg/plant PM<2.5, 5.17*102 kg/plant PM>10 and 1.46*102 kg/plant 2.5<PM<10. Per kWh of produced electricity the dust emissions consist of 8.40*10-9 kg PM<2.5, 1.68*10-7 kg PM>10 and 4.76*10-8 kg 2.5<PM<10.
3.4
This Subchapter describes the construction of two types of small hydropower stations in Switzerland. One station is integrated in waterworks infrastructure the other one is a standalone small hydropower station. The term plant refers to the respective hydropower station as described in Tab. 2.5.
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3.4.1 Small hydropower stations integrated in waterworks The material consumption figures of the small hydropower stations integrated in waterworks infrastructures are based on Baumgartner and Doka (1998) and on Jean-Baptiste and Konersmann (2000). The sample of small hydropower stations integrated in waterworks infrastructure has an average specific consumption of 1.49 g/kWh of concrete, which is in total 1.21*105 kg/plant or 55.2 m3/plant, respectively. Additionally 5.21*105 kg/plant (6.41 g/kWh) gravel is used. Both materials are mainly used for the pipes and high pressure pipes for the water supply. The construction of the water supply consumes steel as well. Reinforcing steel is also used for the buildings and the generators. The total amount consumed is 2.12*103 kg/plant (2.60*10-2 g/kWh). 1.01*103 kg/plant and 1.31*103 kg/plant of chromium steel and low-alloyed steel, respectively, are used in the turbines and the generators. This is based on the average specific consumption of 1.24*10-2 g/kWh of chromium steel and 1.62*10-2 g/kWh of low-alloyed steel. Polyethylene (PE) and polyvinylchloride (PVC) are further materials used in the construction of the water supply. The small hydropower stations integrated in waterworks infrastructures have a total consumption of 8.52*103 kg/plant (1.05*10-1 g/kWh) of PE and 1.24*103 kg/plant (1.52*10-2 g/kWh) of PVC. High pressure pipes consist of cast iron. With an average weight of 50 kg per meter of pipe (Jean-Baptiste & Konersmann 2000) and 2290 m of length, the total amount of cast iron used is 4.67*104 kg/plant (5.74*10-1 g/kWh). The total copper consumption amounts to 2.18*102 kg/plant (2.68*10-3 g/kWh). Copper is used in the turbines, generators, the electric devices as well as in the high pressure pipes. In the material inventory of the hydropower stations described by Baumgartner and Doka (1998), there is a category miscellaneous. No further information on this category is available. Based on the study of Jean-Baptiste and Konersmann (2000), the consumption of aluminium, lead, steel panel, glass, argon and wood as well as the amount of waste and waste water is modelled based on the ratio of the average material use per average capacity (kW) of the power station. The factors are only applied to the power stations described by Baumgartner and Doka (1998). The original data are used to model the power stations of Jean-Baptiste and Konersmann (2000). In Tab. 3.2 the modelling factors as well as the resulting average and total consumptions are listed.
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3. Construction of hydroelectric power stations Tab. 3.2: Factors for the modelling of the consumption of different materials of small hydropower stations integrated in waterworks infrastructure. The factors are based on the average material use per average capacity (Jean-Baptiste & Konersmann 2000).
Factor kg/kW Aluminum Lead Steel panel Glass Argon Wood (m ) ) Tap water Waste Waste water )
1 3 3
Material
Specific consumption g/kWh 2.98*10 1.70*10 6.49*10 1.23*10 7.20*10 3.84*10 4.96*10 1.14*10 1.97*10
-4 -4 -4 -5 -5 -10 1 -4 -8
Total consumption kg/plant 24.2 13.9 52.7 1.00 5.85 3.12*10 4.03*10 9.25 1.60
-2 6
0.14 0.08 0.44 0.003 0.03
0.14 24'034 0.06

1
0.01
3
): in m /kW; m /kWh; m /plant
The consumption of diesel and electricity during the construction of the power stations is 6.27*103 MJ/plant (7.72*10-5 MJ/kWh) and 7.67*102 kWh/plant (9.44*10-6 kWh/kWh), respectively. . The amount of transport services needed is based on the standard distances of Frischknecht et al. (2007). 3.4.2 Standalone small hydropower stations The material consumption of the small hydropower stations is based on Baumgartner and Doka (1998) and Axpo (2008). The data are complemented with information from JeanBaptiste and Konersmann (2000). On average, the sample of small hydropower stations consumes 17.9 g/kWh of concrete, which is in total 1.39*106 kg/plant or 6.30*102 m3/plant, respectively. Furthermore, 1.11*106 kg/plant (14.3 g/kWh) of gravel is used. The concrete and the gravel are used for the construction of pipes and high pressure pipes in the water supply. Steel is also consumed for the construction of the water supply. Reinforcing steel is used for the buildings and the generators. Per kWh electricity produced 6.44*10-1 g of reinforcing steel is consumed. The total amount is 4.99*104 kg/plant. The turbines and generators consume a total of 5.33*102 kg/plant (6.87*10-3 g/kWh) and 1.39*103 kg/plant (1.79*10-2 g/kWh) of chromium steel and low-alloyed steel, respectively. The small hydropower stations have an average specific consumption of 1.17*10-1 g PE/kWh and 2.51*10-2 g PVC/kWh. Both materials are used in the water supply. In total this is 9.05*103 kg/plant of PE and 1.95*103 kg/plant of PVC. The hydropower stations have high pressure pipes with a total length of 815 m. They consist of cast iron and have a weight of 50 kg per meter (Jean-Baptiste & Konersmann 2000). Consequently, a total of 2.72*104 kg/plant of cast iron is consumed, which results in a specific demand of 3.50*10-1 g/kWh. Copper is generally used in electric devices. Furthermore it is used in the turbines, the generators and the high pressure pipes. The total consumption of the power stations under study is 2.08*102 kg/plant (2.68*10-3 g/kWh).
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The category miscellaneous in the inventory of Baumgartner and Doka (1998) is not further specified. Therefore, the consumption of aluminium, lead, steel panel, glass, argon and wood as well as the amount of waste and waste water is modelled based on the ratio of the average material use per average capacity (kW) of the power station in the study of Jean-Baptiste and Konersmann (2000). In Tab. 3.3 the modelling factors as well as the resulting average and total consumptions are listed.
Tab. 3.3: Factors for the modelling of the consumption of different materials of standalone small hydropower stations. The factors are based on the average material use per average capacity (Jean-Baptiste and Konersmann 2000).
Factor kg/kW 0.14 0.08 0.44 0.003 0.03
3 1
Material unit Aluminum Lead Steel panel Glass Argon Wood (m ) ) Tap water Waste Waste water )
1
Specific consumption g/kWh 3.45*10 2.09*10 1.09*10 7.26*10 8.67*10 4.63*10 5.97*10 1.37*10 2.37*10
-4 -4 -3 -6 -5 -10 1 -4 -8
Total consumption kg/plant 26.8 16.2 84.5 0.56 6.73 3.59*10 10.6 1.84
-2 6
0.14 24'034 0.06kg/kW

1
4.63*10
0.01m3/kW
): in m3/kW; m3/kWh; m3/plant
The consumption of diesel and electricity during the construction of the power stations is 5.33*104 MJ/plant (6.87*10-4 MJ/kWh), and 1.02*103 kWh/plant (1.31*10-5 kWh/kWh), respectively. The amount of transport services needed is based on the standard distances of Frischknecht et al. (2007).
3.5
Data quality
For the storage power stations, most of the data are based on information of the whole or parts of the sample under study. The temporal and geographic correlation is good. The technology described is the same as well. As the original data of the construction of the storage power stations are not directly accessible, a basic uncertainty is given. It is increased due to missing data and, for some inputs and emissions, the limited number of data samples. Information on the copper consumption is derived from other power stations that are not part of the sample under study. It can be assumed though that the technology is similar and that the geographic differences do not influence the specific demand significantly. The modelling of the particle emissions is not based on the same application and neither on the same geographic conditions, which adds to the uncertainty. In general, the quality of the data is good. The data are well suited to describe the system under study. More detailed investigations are mainly needed for the construction energy (electricity and diesel) and the transport services required as well as the particle emissions. Specific figures necessary for the modelling of the construction phase of the run-of-river power station are adopted from earlier studies (Bolliger & Bauer 2007; Frischknecht et al. 1996) and the original information sources are not available. This leads to a significant uncertainty. The data are derived from some power stations under study and this provides a satisfying correlation in terms of geography, temporal aspects and technology though. On the other
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hand, the data-sets do not describe the whole set of power stations under study, therefore the data-sets are not complete and the necessary extrapolations increase the general uncertainty. The particle emissions are modelled based on data from another application (general construction sites), which leads to uncertainties. In general, the data are well suited to describe the system under study. The original data of the small hydropower stations integrated in existing waterworks infrastructure are very detailed and accurate. The sample size of the small hydropower stations for both groups is rather small though and possible outliers get more weight. This leads to a rather high uncertainty. There is a good correlation regarding technology, geography as well as temporal aspects though. Certain assumptions were needed for the standalone small hydropower stations, which increases the uncertainties. Further investigations on the material requirements and the construction efforts of small hydropower stations are recommended.
3.6
Life Cycle inventories of the construction of hydropower plants
In this Subchapter the unit process raw data of the construction of the hydropower plants are presented.
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3. Construction of hydroelectric power stations Tab. 3.4: Unit process raw data of reservoir hydropower plant/CH.
UncertaintyType Standard Deviation95%
Location
Name
reservoir hydropower plant
Unit
GeneralComment
product
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit reservoir hydropower plant
CH unit
CH 1 unit 1 (4,3,1,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Turbines and generators; recalculated based on Bertschinger (1959), Condrau (1962), KVR (1968), Salanfe (1951), 1 1.24 Walther und Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber (1965; 1971) and other sources. 1 1.24 (4,3,1,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Fuel for construction machines; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,1,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Tunnels and galleries; recalculated based on Bguin et al. 1963, Bertschinger 1959, Blenio Kraftwerke 1968, Condrau 1962, KVR 1963; 1968, Tndury 1956; 1964, Weber et al. 1965 and other sources.
technosphere
chromium steel 18/8, at plant
RER kg
1.82E+6
diesel, burned in building machine GLO MJ
5.97E+7
explosives, tovex, at plant
CH
kg
5.95E+5
1 1.24
gravel, round, at mine
CH
kg
8.89E+8
(3,5,1,1,1,2,BU:1.05); Concrete for dams, buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Aegina (1965), Bertschinger (1959), Biedermann et al. (1985), DesMeules (1961), Gicot (1956), 1 1.24 KVR (1968), Link(1970), Meyer (1960), Morf (1962), Salanfe (1951), Schnitter (1961; 1971), Stucky (1962), Tndury (1956; 1964), Walther & Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber et al. (1965; 1970), Zingg(1961). (3,5,1,1,1,2,BU:1.05); Concrete for dams, buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Aegina (1965), Bertschinger (1959), Biedermann et al. (1985), DesMeules (1961), Gicot (1956), 1 1.24 KVR (1968), Link(1970), Meyer (1960), Morf (1962), Salanfe (1951), Schnitter (1961; 1971), Stucky (1962), Tndury (1956; 1964), Walther & Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber et al. (1965; 1970), Zingg(1961). (4,3,1,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Bertschinger (1959), Condrau (1962), KVR (1968), Salanfe (1951), Walther und Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber (1965; 1971) and other sources.
cement, unspecified, at plant
CH
kg
1.02E+8
reinforcing steel, at plant
RER kg
1.74E+6
1 1.24
steel, low-alloyed, at plant
RER kg
4.07E+6
copper, at regional storage
RER kg
2.96E+5
tap water, at user
CH
kg
5.65E+7
(4,3,1,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Tubes and pipes; recalculated based on recalculated based on Bertschinger (1959), Condrau (1962), KVR (1968), Salanfe (1951), Walther und Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber (1965; 1971) and other sources. 1 1.34 (3,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.05); Electric cables; Vattenfall (2008) (3,5,1,1,1,2,BU:1.05); Concrete for dams, buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Aegina (1965), Bertschinger (1959), Biedermann et al. (1985), DesMeules (1961), Gicot (1956), 1 1.24 KVR (1968), Link(1970), Meyer (1960), Morf (1962), Salanfe (1951), Schnitter (1961; 1971), Stucky (1962), Tndury (1956; 1964), Walther & Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber et al. (1965; 1970), Zingg(1961). 1 1.24 (4,3,1,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Electricity supply for the construction; recalculated based on Bertschinger (1959), Blenio Kraftwerke (1968), KVR (1968), Tndury (1964), Walther und Fetz (1963), Weber et al. (1965), BFE (1992) and other sources. (4,3,1,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Recycling of reinforced infrastructure; based on Frischknecht (1996), assumed recycling rate: 100% (4,3,1,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Non-inforced infrastructure left on-site at the end of the use phase of the power station (especially the dams, tunnels, galleries); based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,1,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Recycling of turbines, generators, tubes and pipes; assumed recycling rate: 100%
electricity, medium voltage, at grid
CH kWh
2.73E+7
1 1.24
disposal, building, reinforced concrete, to recycling disposal, building, concrete, not reinforced, to final disposal disposal, building, reinforcement steel, to recycling transport, lorry 20-28t, fleet average transport, freight, rail emission air, low Heat, waste population Particulates, < 2.5 um Particulates, > 10 um Particulates, > 2.5 um, and < 10um
CH CH
kg kg
5.79E+7 9.36E+8
1 1.24 1 1.24
CH
kg
5.88E+6 4.78E+6 2.61E+7 9.82E+7 1.03E+2 2.06E+3 5.84E+2
1 1.24 1 2.09
CH tkm CH tkm MJ kg kg kg
(4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport of materials to the construction site; based on Bertschinger (1959) (4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport of materials to the construction site; 1 2.09 based on Bertschinger (1959) 1 1.24 (4,3,1,1,1,4,BU:1.05); From electricity 1 3.61 1 2.17 (4,5,5,5,4,5,BU:3); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003)
(4,5,5,5,4,5,BU:1.5); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003) (4,5,5,5,4,5,BU:2); Particle emissions during the construction; based 1 2.61 on BUWAL (2001, 2003)
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3. Construction of hydroelectric power stations Tab. 3.5: Unit process raw data of run-of-river hydropower plant/CH.
StandardDeviation95%
Name
run-of-river hydropower plant
UncertaintyType
Location
Unit
GeneralComment
product technosphere
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit run-of-river hydropower plant chromium steel 18/8, at plant diesel, burned in building machine explosives, tovex, at plant gravel, round, at mine
CH RER
unit kg
CH 1 unit 1 9.23E+4 1 1.27 (4,3,3,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Turbines and generators; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Bauer et al. (2007) (4,5,3,1,1,5,BU:1.05); Fuel for building machines; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,5,3,1,1,5,BU:1.05); Tunnels and galleries; based on Bauer et al. (2007) (4,3,3,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Concrete for buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Concrete for buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Buildings and other infrastructure; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Bauer et al. (2007) (4,3,3,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Tubes and pipes; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Bauer et al. (2007) (4,5,4,5,3,5,BU:1.05); Electric cables; calculated based on Vattenfall (2008) (4,3,3,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Concrete for buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,5,3,1,1,5,BU:1.05); Electricity supply for the construction; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Recycling of reinforced infrastructure (especially buildings); recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996), assumed recycling rate: 100% (4,3,3,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Recycling of turbines, generators, tubes and pipes; recalculated based Frischknecht et al. (1996), assumed recycling rate: 100% (4,3,3,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Recycling of turbines, generators, tubes and pipes; recalculated based Frischknecht et al. (1996), assumed recycling rate: 100% (4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport of materials to the construction site; Based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport of materials to the construction site; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,5,3,1,1,5,BU:1.05); From electricity; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,5,5,5,4,5,BU:3); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003) (4,5,5,5,4,5,BU:1.5); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003) (4,5,5,5,4,5,BU:2); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003)
GLO CH CH
MJ kg kg
1.45E+7 1.94E+3 5.03E+7
1 1 1
1.40 1.40 1.27
CH
kg
5.78E+6
1.27
RER
kg
4.73E+5
1.27
steel, low-alloyed, at plant copper, at regional storage tap water, at user
RER RER CH
kg kg kg
1.27E+6 3.05E+4 3.19E+6
1 1 1
1.27 1.52 1.27
CH
kWh
1.54E+6
1.40
disposal, building, reinforced concrete, to recycling
CH
kg
1.58E+7
1.27
disposal, building, reinforcement steel, to recycling
CH
kg
1.36E+6
1.27
disposal, building, concrete, not reinforced, to final disposal transport, lorry 20-28t, fleet average transport, freight, rail emission air, low population Heat, waste density Particulates, < 2.5 um
CH
kg
4.08E+7
1.27
CH
tkm
5.84E+5
2.09
CH
tkm
5.84E+5
2.09
MJ
5.54E+6
1.40
kg
2.58E+1
3.61
Particulates, > 10 um Particulates, > 2.5 um, and < 10um
kg
5.17E+2
2.17
kg
1.46E+2
2.61
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3. Construction of hydroelectric power stations Tab. 3.6: Unit process raw data of small hydropower plant, in waterworks infrastructure/CH and small hydropower plant/CH.
Name
small hydropower plant, in waterworks infrastructure
small hydropower plant
UncertaintyType
Location
Unit
GeneralComment
product 349-006 technosphere
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit small hydropower plant, in waterworks infrastructure small hydropower plant concrete, normal, at plant gravel, round, at mine reinforcing steel, at plant
CH CH CH CH RER
unit unit m3 kg kg
CH 1 unit 1 0 5.52E+1 5.21E+5 2.12E+3
CH 1 unit 0 1 6.30E+2 1.11E+6 4.99E+4 1 1 1 (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Infrastructure; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); 1.24 Infrastructure; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); 1.24 Infrastructure; literature 1.24 1.24 (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbines, generator, switchboard; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbines, generator; literature
RER
kg
1.01E+3
6.18E+2
RER
kg
1.31E+3
1.39E+3
1.24
RER
kg
2.18E+2
2.08E+2
(4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbine, 1.24 generatior and switchboard; literature 1.24 1.24 (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Water pipes; literature
polyethylene, HDPE, granulate, at plant polyvinylchloride, at regional storage cast iron, at plant aluminium, production mix, at plant lead, at regional storage flat glass, uncoated, at plant argon, liquid, at plant sawn timber, softwood, raw, plant-debarked, u=70%, at plant tap water, at user diesel, burned in building machine electricity, medium voltage, at grid transport, lorry 20-28t, fleet average transport, freight, rail disposal, municipal solid waste, 22.9% water, to municipal incineration treatment, sewage, to wastewater treatment, class 3 disposal, building, reinforced concrete, to recycling disposal, building, concrete, not reinforced, to final disposal disposal, building, concrete gravel, to final disposal
RER RER RER RER RER RER RER RER CH GLO CH CH CH CH CH CH CH CH
kg kg kg kg kg kg kg m3 kg MJ kWh tkm tkm kg m3 kg kg kg
8.52E+3 1.24E+3 4.67E+4 2.42E+1 1.39E+1 9.96E-1 5.85E+0 3.12E-2 4.03E+6 6.27E+3 7.67E+2 1.59E+4 3.28E+4 9.25E+0 1.60E+0 7.05E+4 5.31E+4 5.21E+5
9.05E+3 1.95E+3 2.72E+4 2.68E+1 1.62E+1 5.63E-1 6.73E+0 3.59E-2 4.63E+6 5.33E+4 1.02E+3 5.45E+4 4.98E+4 1.06E+1 1.84E+0 1.43E+6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Water pipes; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Water pipes; 1.24 literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); 1.24 Switchboard; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Switchboard; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); 1.24 Switchboard; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbines; 1.24 literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbines; 1.24 literature 1.24 (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbiens; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbines; 1.24 literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbines; 1.24 literature 1.24 2.09 2.09 1.24 (4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport of materials and waste (4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport of materials and waste
(4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From turbines; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From 1.24 turbines; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From 1.24 infrastructure; literature 1.24 1.24 (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From infrastructure; literature
1.11E+6
CH
kg
2.32E+3
9.05E+3
(4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From infrastructure; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From 1.24 turbines, generators, switchboards; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From water pipes; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From water 1.24 pipes; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From water 1.24 pipes; literature 1.24 (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From switchboards; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From 1.24 turbines; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From 1.24 electricity 1.24
disposal, polyethylene, 0.4% water, to municipal incineration disposal, polyvinylchloride, 0.2% water, to municipal incineration disposal, building, bulk iron (excluding reinforcement), to sorting plant disposal, glass, 0% water, to municipal incineration disposal, wood untreated, 20% water, to municipal incineration emission air, low Heat, waste population density
CH CH CH CH CH -
kg kg kg kg kg MJ
8.52E+3 1.24E+3 4.67E+4 9.96E-1 2.39E+1 7.67E+2
9.05E+3 1.95E+3 2.72E+4 5.63E-1 2.75E+1 1.02E+3
1 1 1 1 1 1
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4. Operation of the hydroelectric power stations
Operation of the hydroelectric power stations
In this Chapter the emissions, working material consumption during the operation of the different hydroelectric power stations are described. The specifications per plant refer to the operation of one plant over its lifespan. The potential energy of the water is calculated from the efficiency of the generators (0.97) and transformators (0.98) and amounts to 3.79 MJ/kWh. It is the same for all types of hydropower stations described. The exceptions are the pumped storage hydropower stations where the potential energy is not considered.
4.1
Storage power station
4.1.1 Land use The largest part of the land use of storage power stations is due to the reservoirs. The water floods pastures, swamps, rocks etc. and transforms them to water courses and artificial lakes. The average reservoir of the storage power stations in the sample covers a total area of 1.16*106 m2/plant10. This results in a land transformation of 2.41*10-5 m2/kWh electricity produced. The reservoir of the average storage hydropower station modelled in this study covers a total of 7.21*105 m2. This corresponds to a land occupation of the water bodies of 3.62*10-3 m2a/kWh. These values correspond to the surface area of the reservoirs. Considering the ground area being larger than its surface, the actual amount of land and biotopes covered by the reservoirs is even higher. There is no information about the ground area available though, further investigations would be needed. The area covered by buildings and other infrastructures is minor compared to the reservoirs. This is especially true, as they are often built into the rocks and therefore they do not use surface area. Following Frischknecht et al. (1996), 1 % of the area covered by the reservoirs is added and assigned to the dams, streets, buildings etc. The initial state of the area used is characterised as unknown because of the variety between the different sites: moorlands, pastures, forests, rocky ravines and even small villages. Due to the lack of data it is impossible to model the exact initial state and the ecological value of each flooded area. The state of the flooded area during the operation of the power stations is characterised as water bodies, artificial. The infrastructure around the reservoirs (dams, buildings etc.) is modelled as industrial area, built up. 4.1.2 Useful capacity of the reservoirs The volume of the reservoirs is not only important for the water management but also because of ecological aspects. Reservoirs withdraw the water from its natural circulation for a certain amount of time. The volume influences the water discharge in terms of the amount as well as the time of the release, depending on the type of reservoir.
10
Schweizerische Talsperrenkomitee, March 2011: http://www.swissdams.ch/Dams/damList/default_d.asp?Sort=NomAsc
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The fluctuation of the water level and the exposed stripes of land on the waters edge are influenced by the volume of the reservoir too. The fluctuation of the water level might be of climatic relevance especially in the tropics as the climatic conditions favour a rapid plant cover of the stripes. When the stripes are flooded again, the biomass is decomposed under relatively warm and often anaerobic conditions in shallow waters which can lead to emissions of greenhouse gases, especially methane (dos Santos et al. 2006; Fearnside 2004). Greenhouse gas emissions are discussed and quantified in Section 4.1.6. On average, a storage hydropower station has a total reservoir volume of 3.27*107 m3.11 This results in a specific volume of 1.09*10-3 m3/kWh. 4.1.3 Water use and consumption The amount of turbined water equals the amount of water withdrawn from its natural circulation minus losses. The specific amount of turbined water (1.40 m3/kWh) gives no direct information about its ecological impact though. It is rather a physical relationship between the head and the volume of the water. Nevertheless it gives an indication of the amount of water temporarily withdrawn from the natural environment. The average storage power station turbines a total amount of 4.19*1010 m3 water during its lifespan (Tab. 0.1) (BWW 1973). While the turbined water is released back to the original watershed after the use, water that evaporates from the reservoir is lost to the ecosystem. This is defined as water consumption. The water evaporated from reservoirs is estimated based on an average annual evaporation in Switzerland. It amounts to 484 mm (Spreafico & Weingartner 2005). In combination with the specific reservoir surface area of 2.41*10-5 m2/kWh, this results in a specific evaporation of 1.75 kg/kWh. It is listed as air emission water, CH. 4.1.4 Electricity use Pumps are not only used in pumped storage hydropower stations but also in storage power stations (e.g. as loader). Of the total annual pump electricity consumpt ion of 2494 GWh (BFE 2011a), 573 GWh are used in Swiss storage hydropower stations for such pumps and 263 GWh are used in hydropower plants that partly operate as pumped storage hydropower stations (BFE 2011c). This is an annual electricity consumption of storage hydropower stations of 835 GWh. The rest, 1657 GWh, is consumed in pumped storage hydropower stations (basic water flow plants only). With an annual electricity production of 18991 GWh by storage hydropower stations (BFE 2011c), 0.044 GWh electricity is used per GWh electricity produced. 4.1.5 Use of lubricating oil A study of Vattenfall (2008) indicates that their storage hydropower stations emit 2.27*10-5 g/kWh lubricating oil to the water and 9.76*10-6 g/kWh to the ground. Applied to the average power plant under study, this results in a loss of 6.78*102 kg/plant to the water and 2.92*102 kg/plant to the ground over the whole lifespan. The same amounts are included as material input to the operation of the storage hydropower station.
11
Schweizerische Talsperrenkomitee, March 2011: http://www.swissdams.ch/Dams/damList/default_d.asp?Sort=NomAsc
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4.1.6 Greenhouse gas emissions Measurements and studies on various reservoirs have shown that artificial lakes emit a substantial amount of greenhouse gases (Diem et al. 2008) . There are several processes that may lead to the emission of those gases from reservoirs: The aerobic and anaerobic decomposition of organic matter that is flooded due to the construction of a reservoir, the nutrient inflow from upstream, plants and plankton growing in the water, vegetation that quickly grows on exposed land around the shore, when the water level is low, and is flooded again when the water rises (Fearnside 2004; Mkinen & Khan 2010). To get an accurate estimation of the net emissions from reservoirs, the measurement of the emissions before and after the flooding of natural (aquatic) ecosystems is required as natural ecosystems cause emissions too (Mkinen & Khan 2010). The amount and type of emitted greenhouse gases depend on the climatic conditions, the surface area, the depth of the water and its topography (Mkinen & Khan 2010). The tropical reservoirs offer a range of factors that are favourable for the emission of large amounts of greenhouse gases: high temperatures, high levels of organic material, naturally productive carbon cycles and the combination of large surface areas with relatively shallow depth (Mkinen & Khan 2010; Soumis et al. 2005). Alpine reservoirs on the other side are expected to have low emissions due to low water temperatures and a low input of nutrient12. Diem et al. (2008) have conducted the first measurements of greenhouse gas emissions of Swiss reservoirs. The measurements include several reservoirs across an altitude gradient in the Swiss Alps and calculations were done for the diffusive fluxes of CO2, CH4 and N2O from the surface concentrations at different times of the year as well as losses at the turbine. It is shown that only low land reservoirs (27 % of the total surface in Switzerland) are a source of N2O while the subalpine and alpine reservoirs are in equilibrium with the atmospheric concentration. While there is no significant difference in the range of methane emissions due to diffusion between the different elevation levels, the altitude of the reservoirs seems to play a role regarding the emissions in the turbine. However this finding is strongly linked to the fact that in alpine power stations the head of the water is higher and therefore the gases have more time to outgas. The results of measurements show an average emission of 1030 mg CO2/m2d, 0.2 mg CH4/m2d and 72 g N2O/m2d. With an average surface area of 7.21*105 m2 this results in specific greenhouse gas emissions of 1.36 g CO2/kWh, 2.64*10-4 g CH4/kWh and 2.56*10-5 g N2O/kWh. The latter considers only emissions from four reservoirs in the lowlands. Nearly 30% of the total area of the reservoirs of storage hydropower stations is located in the lowlands of Switzerland. 4.1.7 SF6 emissions SF6 is applied in electric insulations, and switches. Considerable amounts of SF6 emissions are only to be expected due to accidents and breakdowns (Vattenfall 2008). Vattenfall states that under normal conditions there is a continuous emission of 3.40*10-7 g/kWh (2008). The same amounts are included as material input to the operation of the storage hydropower station.
12
Eawag (2010): Stauseen als heimliche Klimasnder? Medienmitteilung vom 11. Oktober 2010
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4.1.8 Operation of certified storage hydropower stations The operation of certified storage hydropower stations is modelled similarly to the storage hydropower station described above. Certified hydroelectric power only covers electricity produced with natural inflows. Hence, the amount of certified electricity is the net production of the hydropower plant (Bratrich & Truffer 2001). This is the total electricity produced minus the electricity consumed by the pumps. Consequently, the dataset reflecting the production of certified electricity from storage hydropower stations does not include an input of grid electricity.
4.2
Pumped storage power station
4.2.1 Land use, material input and emissions Because it is difficult to separate the two types of hydropower stations, the pumped storage hydropower station and the storage hydropower station are modelled similarly. The infrastructure as well as the land use, material input and the emissions caused during the operation are the same. The only difference in the operation is the additional electricity consumption of the pumps used in pumped storage power stations. 4.2.2 Electricity use The pumps of the Swiss pumped storage hydropower stations have an annual electricity consumption of 1657 GWh in 2010 (BFE 2011a, c). The average efficiency of the pumps is 0.8 (BFE 2011a), which results in 1326 GWh electricity produced per year in 2010. 1.25 kWh of electricity is needed to generate 1 kWh of electricity produced in basic water flow plants.
4.3
Run-of-river power station
As mentioned before, run-of-river hydropower stations are generally defined as hydropower stations without reservoirs. Among the run-of-river hydropower stations not included in the storage hydropower stations there are exceptions though. The study of Del Sontro et al. (2010) has shown that reservoirs of run-of-river hydropower stations do not only lead to more land use but also to an increased amount of methane emissions. Consequently, two types of run-of-river hydropower stations are differentiated in the modelling of the operation phase: stations with and without a reservoir. While the land use, the water volume and the methane emissions are specific for these two types, the rest of inputs and emissions of the average run-of-river hydropower station modelled are the same. For both types, the production of 1 kWh of electricity is modelled. The combination of the two types results in the modelled average run-of-river hydropower station. The run-of-river hydropower stations without reservoirs contribute 98 % to the total electricity production with run-of-river power stations. 4.3.1 Land use It is difficult to determine the area of land used due to the construction and operation of runof-river power stations without a reservoir. The first difficulty is to decide on the initial position: Run-of-river power stations are mostly constructed in stretches that are already obstructed due to flood protection and preservation of cultivated land. Is this the point of reference or is it the river before any modifications have taken place, close to nature? The latter leads to
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the question how the land transformations should be allocated to the power generation, the flood control and other modifications. The second difficulty is to describe the impact of the land transformation. In Central Europe each river and its surrounding has its own characteristics, they are unique. It is often difficult to find the same or similar ecosystem a second time. If a considerable stretch is transformed due to flooding and disconnected from its natural cycles, it is lost. Frischknecht et al. (1996) suggest taking the situation just before the construction of the power station (incl. earlier modifications). This gives not only a clear picture of the initial position but it also avoids the allocation problem. Further they suggest not examining the power stations individually but in the whole context. This means to consider the scarcity of the affected biotopes. Generally the used area is quite small due to the geometry of the channel. The area itself is not a good measure though. Biologically wide and open river beds are more valuable than conventional ones, but they use more land. The identification of land use due to run-of-river power stations faces various methodological difficulties. Frischknecht et al. (1996) have chosen a pragmatic approach which is followed for the run-of-river hydropower stations without reservoir as well. In a first step the area covered by the used stretch is determined by the product of the length (from the beginning of the slack flow to the dam) times the average width according to the map. The resulting area is not to be used as an absolute value but as an index. This index further includes that the run-ofriver power station influences the biocoenosis in the affected stretches as well as the disturbance of the ground water flows as they are most often disconnected from the river due to the necessary sealing of the river. Frischknecht et al. (1996) determine a specific land transformation of 5.6*10-5 m2/kWh for run-of-river hydropower stations without a reservoir. Large rivers tend to have a lower value while smaller rivers have a higher one. According to the approach used for the storage power stations 1 % is added to the land use for buildings and additional infrastructure of the power station (1.72*103 m2/plant, resulting in a land transformation of 5.60*10-7 m2/kWh). This leads to total values of 1.74*105 m2/plant or a land transformation of 5.66*10-5 m2/kWh. The occupation of the land is 4.52*10-3 m2a per kWh electricity produced with equals a total of 1.11*109 m2a over the lifespan of 80 years. The land transformation due to the reservoir is 1.48*10-4 m2/kWh produced in stations with a reservoir13. The total land transformation for power stations with a reservoir is therefore 2.04*10-4 m2/kWh of water courses. The area covered by the infrastructure is the same as for the stations without a reservoir. The total land occupation amounts to 1.63*10-2 m2a per kWh electricity produced which corresponds to 4.02*109 m2a over the lifespan of a run-of-river hydropower station. According to Frischknecht et al. (1996), the initial state of the area before the construction of the run-of-river hydropower station is characterised as half shrub land, sclerophyllous and half pasture and meadow. This accounts for the fact that most of the Swiss rivers have been modified due to flood protection and preservation of cultivated land. Because it is not allowed to fertilise land next to the river, it is assumed to be grown over with bushes and trees and, where this is not the case, it is used as pasture. The land is then transformed to water courses, artificial and industrial area, built up.
13
Schweizerischer Wasserwirtschaftsverband, March 2011: http://www.swv.ch/de/statistik.cfm
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4.3.2 Useful capacity of the reservoirs The run-of-river power stations without reservoir are characterised by having no or only a small storage capacity. The specific capacity is therefor set to null. The power stations with a reservoir have a storage capacity of 4.52*106 m3/plant; the storage capacity per kWh is 1.03*10-3 m3.14 4.3.3 Water use and consumption As it is already discussed in Section 4.1.3, the amount of turbined water correlates with the amount of produced electricity and the head. The ecological impact of the turbined water consists of the withdrawal of the water from its natural environment for a certain period of time. The typical head of a run-of-river power station is 10 m (Frischknecht et al. 1996). This results in a specific amount of turbined water of 45 m3/kWh (1.38*1011 m3/plant) for the modelled run-of-river hydropower station (Frischknecht et al. 1996). The water evaporated from reservoirs is estimated based on an average annual evaporation in Switzerland. It amounts to 484 mm (Spreafico & Weingartner 2005). In combination with the specific reservoir surface area of 1.48*10-4 m2/kWh, this results in a specific evaporation of 5.71 kg/kWh. It is listed as air emission water, CH. 4.3.4 Use of lubricating oil A total loss of 9.33*10-4 g/kWh oil to the water and 9.49*10-4 g/kWh to the soil is specified over the whole life cycle of the hydropower station Wildegg-Brugg (Axpo 2008). Assuming a similar pattern of oil losses as for the power stations of Vattenfall (2008), 9 % of the total spill to the water and 4 % of the spill to the soil comes from the power station itself. Applied to the modelled run-of-river hydropower station this amounts in 8.40*10-5 g/kWh oil to the water and 3.80*10-5 g/kWh to the soil. Over the whole lifespan of the run-of-river hydropower station 2.58*102 kg oil is spilled to the water and 1.17*102 kg to the soil. The same amounts are included as material input to the operation of the power stations. 4.3.5 Greenhouse gas emissions While the storage power stations store huge quantities of water in reservoirs, the run-of-river power stations do not require a large impoundment of water. Consequently there is no flooding of large areas of land necessary and it is assumed that run-of-river power stations without a reservoir do not emit greenhouse gases. Del Sontro et al. (2010) have conducted measurements of the methane emissions in one of the reservoirs belonging to the sample of run-of-river hydropower stations under study, the lake of Wohlen. It is shown that the lake is a significant source of methane (156 mg CH4/m2d). It is assumed that all run-of-river power stations with a reservoir emit equal amounts of methane. This leads to an emission of 0.67 g CH4/kWh produced in run-of-river hydropower stations with reservoir (2.07*106 kg CH4/plant).
4.4
There are no data available for specific working material consumption and emissions during the operation of small hydropower stations.
14
Schweizerischer Wasserwirtschaftsverband, March 2011: http://www.swv.ch/de/statistik.cfm
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4.5
Data quality
The operation of the storage hydropower stations is described well. Data describing the oil spill and the SF6 emissions are derived from power stations not included in the sample under study. It is assumed though that the technology is the same and that the geographic differences are not significant. The greenhouse gas emissions are based on a study done on a significant share of the sample investigated. The geographic and technological correlation is good. The quantification of the land use and the volume of the reservoirs are based on current data. They do not only cover the same geography, the same technology and the same temporal aspects but the information is also available for the whole set of storage power stations under study. In general, the operation of the storage hydropower stations is described well and with low uncertainties. The data of the operation of the run-of-river hydropower station on the other hand have more uncertainties. The factors for the land use of the stations without reservoir were adopted from earlier studies (Frischknecht et al. 1996) as no other data are available. This is also the case for the amount of turbined water and the volume of the water bodies. The methane emissions are based on one recent study conducted on one large run-of-river power station. This power station is part of the sample of this study but the emission factor might differ from the emissions of other run-of-river power stations. This leads to a relatively high uncertainty. In general, the operation of the run-of-river hydropower stations is described well. Further measurements of greenhouse gas emissions from reservoirs of run-of-river hydropower stations are needed (and currently on-going). No information is available about the operation of small hydropower stations. This part of the life cycle is not well described.
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4.6
Life Cycle inventories of the operation of hydropower plants

Unit process raw data of electricity, hydropower, at reservoir power plant/CH and electricity, hydropower, net, at reservoir power plant/CH.
Tab. 4.1:
Name
electricity, hydropower, at reservoir power plant
electricity, hydropower, net, at reservoir power plant
UncertaintyType
Location
Unit
GeneralComment
product
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit electricity, hydropower, at reservoir power plant electricity, hydropower, net, at reservoir power plant reservoir hydropower plant sulphur hexafluoride, liquid, at plant lubricating oil, at plant
CH 0 kWh CH CH CH kWh kWh unit 3.35E-11 1
CH 0 kWh
1 3.35E-11 1 3.05 (4,1,1,1,1,2,BU:3); Infrastructure of the storage power station producing the electricity (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.05); In electric insulation (e.g. switches); based on Vattenfall (2008) (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.05); Turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008) (3,1,1,1,1,2,BU:1.05); Electricity consumption for the pumps (excl. pumped storage) (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:2); Original area before the construction of the power station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011)
technosphere
RER
kg
3.40E-10
3.40E-10
1.40
RER
kg
3.24E-8
3.24E-8
1.40
electricity, high voltage, at grid
CH
kWh
4.40E-2
1.12
resource, land
Transformation, from unknown
m2
2.44E-5
2.44E-5
2.01
Transformation, to water bodies, artificial
m2
2.41E-5
2.41E-5
(3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:2); Area covered by the reservoir; 2.01 recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) (4,1,1,1,1,1,BU:2); Area covered by infrastructures other than held-back river; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011)
Transformation, to industrial area, built up
m2
2.41E-7
2.41E-7
2.05
Occupation, water bodies, artificial
m2a
3.62E-3
3.62E-3
(3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.5); Area occupied by the reservoir; 1.52 recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) (4,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.5); Area occupied by the infrastructure; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011)
Occupation, industrial area, built up
m2a
3.62E-5
3.62E-5
1.56
resource, in water
Volume occupied, reservoir
m3a
1.64E-1
1.64E-1
(3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.05); Volume occupied by the 1.11 reservoir; based on Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) 1.11 (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.05); Amount of water turbined for the generation of electricity; based on BWW (1973)
Water, turbine use, unspecified natural origin Energy, potential (in hydropower reservoir), converted emission air, low Dinitrogen monoxide population density
m3
1.40E+0
1.40E+0
MJ
3.79E+0
3.79E+0
1.11 (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.05); Potential energy of the water (4,3,2,3,1,4,BU:1.5); Nitrous oxide emissions due to 1.58 the biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008) (4,3,2,3,1,3,BU:1.5); Methane emissions due to the 1.57 biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008) (4,3,2,3,1,3,BU:1.4); Carbon dioxide emissions due to 1.48 the biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008) 1.69 (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From electric insulations (e.g. switches); based on Vattenfall (2008)
kg
2.56E-8
2.56E-8
Methane, biogenic
kg
2.64E-7
2.64E-7
Carbon dioxide, land transformation
kg
1.36E-3
1.36E-3
Sulfur hexafluoride Heat, waste emission air, unspecified emission water, river emission soil, industrial Water, CH
kg MJ kg
3.40E-10 1.58E-1 1.75E+0
3.40E-10 1.58E-1 1.75E+0
1 1 1
1.12 (3,1,1,1,1,2,BU:1.05); Waste heat 1.89 (4,3,3,2,4,5,BU:1.5); Water evaporated from reservoir; calculated based on Spreafico & Weingartner (2005) (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008) (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008)
Oils, unspecified
kg
2.27E-8
2.27E-8
1.69
Oils, unspecified
kg
9.76E-9
9.76E-9
1.69
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4. Operation of the hydroelectric power stations Tab. 4.2: Unit process raw data of electricity, hydropower, at pumped storage power plant/CH.
electricity, hydropower, at pumped storage power plant
StandardDeviation95% UncertaintyType
Location
Name
Unit
GeneralComment
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit product technosphere electricity, hydropower, at pumped storage power plant lubricating oil, at plant CH RER kWh kg
CH 0 kWh 1 3.24E-8 1 1.40 (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.05); Turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008) (4,1,1,1,1,2,BU:3); Infrastructure of the storage power station producing the electricity (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.05); In electric insulation (e.g. switches); based on Vattenfall (2008) (4,1,1,1,1,3,BU:1.05); For the pumping of the water; bfe (2010) (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:2); Original area before the construction of the power station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011)
CH
unit
3.35E-11
3.05
sulphur hexafluoride, liquid, at plant
RER
kg
3.40E-10
1.40
electricity, high voltage, at grid
CH
kWh
1.25E+0
1.22
resource, land
m2
2.44E-5
2.01
m2
2.41E-5
(3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:2); Area covered by the reservoir; 2.01 recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) (4,1,1,1,1,1,BU:2); Area covered by infrastructures other than held-back river; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.5); Area occupied by the reservoir; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) (4,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.5); Area occupied by the infrastructure; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011)
m2
2.41E-7
2.05
m2a
3.62E-3
1.52
m2a
3.62E-5
1.56
resource, in water
m3a
1.64E-1
(3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.05); Volume occupied by the 1.11 reservoir; based on Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.05); Amount of water turbined for 1.11 the generation of electricity; based on BWW (1973) (4,3,2,3,1,4,BU:1.5); Nitrous oxide emissions due 1.58 to the biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008) (4,3,2,3,1,3,BU:1.5); Methane emissions due to 1.57 the biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008) (4,3,2,3,1,3,BU:1.4); Carbon dioxide emissions 1.48 due to the biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008) 1.69 (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From electric insulations (e.g. switches); based on Vattenfall (2008)
Water, turbine use, unspecified natural origin
m3
1.40E+0
emission air, low Dinitrogen monoxide population density
kg
2.56E-8
Methane, biogenic
kg
2.64E-7
kg
1.36E-3
Sulfur hexafluoride
kg
3.40E-10
emission air, unspecified emission water, river emission soil, industrial
Water, CH
kg
1.75E+0
(4,3,3,2,4,5,BU:1.5); Water evaporated from 1.89 reservoir; calculated based on Spreafico & Weingartner (2005) 1.69 (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008) (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008)
Oils, unspecified
kg
2.27E-8
Oils, unspecified
kg
9.76E-9
1.69
emission air, low Heat, waste population density
MJ
9.00E-1
1.22 (4,1,1,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Heat emissions
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4. Operation of the hydroelectric power stations Tab. 4.3: Unit process raw data of electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant with reservoir/CH, electricity, at run-of-river power station without reservoir/CH and electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant, mix/CH.
Name
electricity, electricity, hydropower, at electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river hydropower, at run-of-river power plant run-of-river power plant without power plant with reservoir reservoir
UncertaintyType
Location
Unit
GeneralComment
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit product electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant with reservoir electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant without reservoir electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant technosphere electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant with reservoir CH CH CH kWh kWh kWh
CH 0 kWh 1
CH 0 kWh
CH 0 kWh
1 1 (4,3,3,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Proportion of 1.27 hydropower from run-of-river hydropower stations with reservoir (4,3,3,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Proportion of 1.27 hydropower from run-of-river hydropower stations without reservoir (4,3,3,1,1,4,BU:3); Infrastructure of 3.07 the run-of-river power station producing the electricity (4,5,3,5,3,5,BU:1.05); In turbines; 1.48 based on Axpo (2008) and Vattenfall (2008) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:2); Area covered by 2.11 infrastructures, not the river; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:2); Original area before the construction of the power station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:1.2); Original area before the construction of the power station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996)
CH
kWh
1.98E-2
electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant without reservoir
CH
kWh
9.80E-1
CH
unit
3.25E-10
3.25E-10
lubricating oil, at plant
RER
kg
1.22E-7
1.22E-7
resource, land Transformation, to industrial area, built up
m2
5.60E-7
5.60E-7
Transformation, from shrub land, sclerophyllous
m2
1.02E-4
2.83E-5
2.11
Transformation, from pasture and meadow
m2
1.02E-4
2.83E-5
1.40
Transformation, to water courses, artificial
m2
2.04E-4
5.60E-5
(4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:2); Area covered by 2.11 the river; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:1.5); Area occupied due to the run-of-river hydropower station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:1.5); Area occupied due to the run-of-river hydropower station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:1.05); Volume occupied due to the run-of-river hydropower station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:1.05); Amount of water turbined for the generation of electricity; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.05); Potential energy of the water (4,3,3,2,4,5,BU:1.5); Water evaporated from reservoir; calculated based on Spreafico & Weingartner (2005)
Occupation, water courses, artificial
m2a
1.63E-2
4.48E-3
1.64
m2a
4.48E-5
4.48E-5
1.64
resource, in water
m3a
8.24E-2
1.33
Water, turbine use, unspecified natural origin Energy, potential (in hydropower reservoir), converted
m3
4.50E+1
4.50E+1
1.33
MJ
3.79E+0
3.79E+0
1.11
emission air, unspecified
Water, CH
kg
5.71E+0
1.89
emission water, river
Oils, unspecified
kg
8.40E-8
8.40E-8
(4,5,3,5,3,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; 1.75 based on Axpo (2008) and Vattenfall (2008) (4,5,3,5,3,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; 1.75 based on Axpo (2008) and Vattenfall (2008) (4,3,3,3,1,5,BU:1.5); Methane 1.64 emissions due to the held-back river; DelSontro et al. (2010)
emission soil, Oils, unspecified industrial emission air, low population Methane, biogenic density
kg
3.80E-8
3.80E-8
kg
6.72E-4
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4. Operation of the hydroelectric power stations Tab. 4.4: Unit process raw data of electricity, hydropower, at small hydropower plant, in waterworks infrastructure/CH and electricity, hydropower, at small hydropower plant/CH.
electricity, hydropower, at small hydropower plant, in waterworks infrastructure CH 0 kWh CH CH kWh kWh 1 0
Name
electricity, hydropower, at small hydropower plant
3.11 3.11 1.33
UncertaintyType
Location
Unit
GeneralComment
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit product electricity, hydropower, at small hydropower plant, in waterworks infrastructure electricity, hydropower, at small hydropower plant
CH 0 kWh 0 1
technosphere
CH
unit
1.23E-8
(4,3,3,3,3,3,BU:3); literature
CH
unit
1.29E-8
resource, in water
Energy, potential (in hydropower reservoir), converted
MJ
3.79E+0
3.79E+0
(4,3,3,3,3,3,BU:1.05); Potenzielle Energie Wasser; literature
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5. Deconstruction of the hydropower stations
Deconstruction of the hydropower stations
There is no long-term experience with hydropower stations at the end of their lifespan and consequently nothing is known about the handling of such hydropower stations. It is assumed, that the dams will not be deconstructed but they will be abandoned (Frischknecht et al. 1996). Furthermore it seems probable that the other parts of storage power stations as well as of runof-river power stations are replaced by new plants at the end of their lifetime (Frischknecht et al. 1996; Vattenfall 2008). The old parts will be deconstructed to give space to new ones, while the dams are continuously maintained. The deconstructed material needs to be transported and handled accurately. For the new power station no excavation is needed anymore and other energy intense parts of the construction might fall away too. The exact allocation between the two generations of power stations is an open question. With the replacement of the hydropower station, there is neither a re-cultivation nor a land transformation to be considered. The complete abandoning of the dams on the other hand would lead to a siltation of the lake with a gradual re-cultivation. However, there is no certainty that the same vegetation, typical for this habitat, establishes again. This does not per se mean a decline in the quality of the fauna as the arising areas might offer niches for rare species. In this study it is assumed that the hydropower stations are replaced. This applies not only to the storage and run-of-river hydropower stations, but also for both types of small hydropower stations. The disposal activities are included in the infrastructure datasets (construction of hydroelectric power stations, see Chapter 3).
5.1
Storage power stations
As described above, it is assumed that the dam is not deconstructed at the end of its lifespan. Therefore the handling of the non-reinforced concrete is modelled as to final disposal. The amount of non-reinforced concrete is defined as follows: It is assumed that the total amount of reinforcing steel is used in the product reinforced concrete. One kilo of reinforced concrete consists of 0.03 kg reinforcing steel and 0.97 kg concrete (Doka 2009). With an amount of 1.74*106 kg reinforcing steel a total of 5.79*107 kg reinforced concrete can be produced. The remaining 9.36*108 kg of concrete which is not used in the product reinforced concrete is treated as non-reinforced concrete. After 150 years, the reinforced concrete goes to recycling, the non-reinforced concrete goes to the final disposal, as already mentioned. For the end-of-life treatment of other metals a recycling rate of 100% is assumed.
5.2
Run-of-river power stations
The treatment of the concrete (reinforced and non-reinforced) is modelled as described above: the reinforced concrete is recycled, the non-reinforced one goes to final disposal. At the end of the lifetime of the run-of-river hydropower stations there is a total of 1.58*107 kg reinforced concrete (to recycling) and 4.08*107 kg non-reinforced concrete (to final disposal). For the end-of-life treatment of other metals than the reinforcing steel a recycling rate of 100 % is assumed.
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5. Deconstruction of the hydropower stations
5.3
5.3.1 Small hydropower plant in waterworks infrastructure It is assumed that the total amount of reinforcing steel (2.12*103 kg) is used to reinforce concrete. The resulting 7.05*104 kg reinforced concrete is recycled at the end of its lifetime. The remaining 5.31*104 kg of concrete (non-reinforced concrete) is assumed to remain on-site, which is modelled as to final disposal. The gravel is left within the remaining infrastructure of the dams and in the ditch of the pipes. Therefore it goes to final disposal too. The plastics (PE and PVC) and the wood as well as glass and the other non-metals are assumed to be incinerated in a municipal waste incineration plant. For the remaining metals a recycling rate of 100 % is assumed. 5.3.2 Standalone small hydropower plant For this type of hydropower plants the ratio between the concrete and the reinforcing steel is reversed. A total amount of 1.43*106 kg reinforced concrete is used (1.39*106 kg concrete plus 4.29*104 kg reinforcing steel). Both, the reinforced concrete and the remaining 7.05*103 kg of reinforcing steel are recycled at the end of the use phase. The gravel is left on-site, which is modelled as to final disposal. All the non-metallic materials (plastics, wood, glass etc.) are assumed to be incinerated in a municipal waste incineration plant. For the remaining metals a recycling rate of 100 % is assumed.
5.4
Data quality
As there is no experience with the handling of hydropower stations at the end of use, it is on the one hand difficult to model this phase, but it is also difficult to evaluate the data. The quantities of the materials to be deposited and of the corresponding uncertainties are based on the data of the construction phase. Predictions of the treatment of the materials leads to relatively high uncertainties, as it is not possible to know yet how the power stations will be handled at the end of their useful life.
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6. Life Cycle Inventory data of hydropower stations in other countries
6
6.1
Life Cycle Inventory data of hydropower stations in other countries

European hydropower stations
6.1.1 Storage and pumped storage hydropower stations It is assumed that there is no significant difference between the infrastructure of storage power stations in Switzerland and the alpine regions of Europe. Therefore the same data are used. Where available, the processes are adapted to European processes (RER). As the data in the inventory are representative for Switzerland, storage power stations that lay outside of the alpine area get an increased uncertainty by factor 1.25 (Bolliger & Bauer 2007). This is due to other geologic and hydrologic characteristics. Furthermore, the technology might vary. The operation of the storage hydropower stations in Europe is based on the data set of the Swiss storage power stations too. The consumption of lubricating oil and SF6 as well as their emissions remain the same. The uncertainty is adapted according to the pattern described above. In Subchapter 6.3 the unit process raw data of the electricity production in Europe (RER) is presented. The electricity mix for the operation of the pumped storage hydropower stations in other countries is adapted. The following countries are considered: Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro, Czech Republic, Germany, Spain, France, the United Kingdom, Greece, Croatia, Ireland, Italy, Luxemburg, Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, Slovenia and Slovakia as well as Australia, Canada, India, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, South Africa and the United States. In Subchapter 6.3 only the unit process raw data of the electricity production in Europe (RER) is presented as an example. The datasets of the operation of pumped storage hydropower station in other countries are not shown. It is assumed that the geographic and climatic conditions are the same for storage power stations operating in the alpine regions of Europe. Therefore the land transformation and the amount of water turbined and evaporated remains the same for these power stations. This applies for the greenhouse gas emissions too as it can be further assumed that the climatic conditions do not vary much within the alpine area. In case of the water evaporated, the elementary flow of the air emissions is adapted to the respective regional reference. The topographic conditions are different outside the alpine regions though. While the reservoirs in the Alps are most often located in steep narrow valleys, the landscape in the nonalpine regions is flatter. This leads to more shallow reservoirs with a larger area covered. To take this into account, their land use is assumed to be ten times higher than for the alpine reservoirs (Bolliger & Bauer 2007). The volume of the water bodies is multiplied with the same factor as well as the amount of turbined water. The water evaporated from the reservoirs is calculated from the global average of 25 kg/kWh specified by Pfister et al. (2011). The elementary flow is adapted according to the respective regional reference. As the N2O emission factors apply for lowland reservoirs only, they are also valid for nonalpine regions. The area is larger though, which leads to higher N2O emissions (9.51*104 g/kWh). For the other greenhouse gas emissions other factors are needed. In literature, an average emission factor of about 820 mg CO2/m2d and 3.6 mg CH4/m2d is given for temperate regions (Soumis et al. 2005). The larger area covered leads to CO2 emissions of 10.8 g/kWh and specific CH4 emissions of 4.8*10-2 g/kWh.
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6.1.2 Run-of-river The construction of the run-of-river stations in Europe is assumed to be the same as in Switzerland. As far as possible the processes are adapted to European processes (RER). The factors of the methane emissions from run-of-river hydropower stations with reservoirs are the same as there are no significant geographic or climatic differences. The water evaporated from the reservoirs is calculated from the global average of 25 kg/kWh specified by Pfister et al. (2011). The elementary flow is adapted according to the respective regional reference. The uncertainties are increased by a factor of 1.2 to account for differences. For the same reason the uncertainty of the data set describing the operation of the European hydropower stations is increased too. There are no further differences to the Swiss data sets. 6.1.3 Small hydropower The construction of the small hydropower stations is modelled in the same way as the Swiss power stations. European processes (RER) are used where they are available. The differences between the two regions are considered by increasing the uncertainties by a factor of 1.2. This is done for the infrastructure as well as for the operation of the small hydropower stations. There are no further differences to the Swiss data sets.
6.2
Brazil
An average Brazilian storage hydropower is modelled based on information from the Itaipu hydropower station (Binacional 2000) and completed with data from non-alpine storage hydropower stations. The dataset describes this specific hydropower station and not an average Brazilian station. The construction consumes a total of 3.90*106 m3/plant concrete (Binacional 2000). The weight of the turbines and generators is 7.00*106 kg (Binacional 2000). In a first approach it is assumed that the turbines and generators consist primarily of steel. Due to missing data, the amount of reinforcing steel and low-alloyed steel for the construction of the stations is modelled according to the proportions of the storage power stations in Europe, including a lifespan of 150 years for reinforcing steel and 80 years for the other types: 1.26*107 kg/plant reinforcing steel, 5.51*107 kg/plant steel low-alloyed and 1.31*107 kg/plant of chromium steel. The consumption of all the other materials as well as the transports during the construction are based on the specific values of the European storage hydropower stations and adjusted to the production figures of the Itaipu hydropower station too. The particle emissions are based on the emission factors of general construction sites in Switzerland (BUWAL 2001, 2003). The area of the construction site is assumed to be twice the area of the dam and other infrastructures (1 % of the area of the reservoir), see also Section 4.1.1. The resulting unit process raw data of an average storage hydropower station in Brazil is shown in Tab. 6.9. The specific land use and the volume of the reservoir is derived from the Itaipu hydropower station (Binacional 2000), whereas the use and emission of oil and SF6 as well as the electricity consumption are based on the specific data of the electricity production in non-alpine hydropower stations in Europe. The area covered by the hydropower station is 1.35*109 m2. The transformation is modelled as from tropical rain forest to water bodies, artificial and industrial area, built up. The latter is an additional 1 % of the area covered by the reservoir.
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The water evaporated from the reservoirs is calculated from the global average of 25 kg/kWh specified by Pfister et al. (2011). The elementary flow is adapted according to the respective regional reference. The greenhouse gas emission factors are a widely discussed matter. Many publications on this subject are available (dos Santos et al. 2006; Lima 2005; Rosa et al. 2003; Rosa et al. 2004 and more). Nevertheless no official factors are available yet. The emission factors vary widely from source to source (Tab. 6.1).
Tab. 6.1: Greenhouse gas emissions of Brazilian storage hydropower stations. The values are derived from different literature sources.
Reservoir Diem et al. 2008 Tucurui Samuel St.Louis et al. 2009 Rosa et al. 2003 Tropical reservoirs Tucurui Samuel dos Santos et al. 2006 Miranda Tres marias Barra Bonita Segredo Xingo Tucurui Itaipu Serra da Mesa CO2 (mg/m d) 3'500 8'088 5'350 10'433 6'516 4'980 -142 6'434 4'789 9'837 8'087 10'433 1'205 1'316
2
CH4 (mg/m d) 13.82 71.19 300 183.6 209.2 24.4 14.6 262.4 328.2 19.2 9.9 29.99 183.6 205.4 12.9 121
For this study an average of 7.6 g CO2/m2d and 86 mg CH4/m2d is implemented (Lima 2005; Rosa et al. 2003). This leads to emissions of 31 g CO2/kWh and 0.56 g CH4/kWh. The variation in literature and the many open questions regarding the origin of the gases and the development over time leads to high uncertainties. Therefore the uncertainty factor of these emission factors is set to 2 for the CO2 emissions and 4 for the CH4 emissions. This data set is generally afflicted with high uncertainties as the raw data are based on one single Brazilian storage hydropower station and European data, which are adopted without further adaptions to the Brazilian conditions.
6.3
Life Cycle inventories of the operation of hydropower stations in other countries
The operation of the hydropower stations in other countries is described in the Subchapters 6.1 and 6.2.
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6. Life Cycle Inventory data of hydropower stations in other countries Tab. 6.2: Unit process raw data of reservoir hydropower plant, alpine/RER and reservoir hydropower plant, non-alpine/RER.
StandardDeviation95% StandardDeviation95% UncertaintyType
Name
reservoir hydropower plant, alpine region
reservoir hydropower plant, non alpine regions
Location
Unit
GeneralComment
product
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit reservoir hydropower plant, alpine region reservoir hydropower plant, non alpine regions
RER 1 unit RER RER unit unit 1
RER 1 unit
1 (4,3,1,3,1,4,BU:1.05); Turbines and generators; recalculated based on Bertschinger (1959), Condrau (1962), KVR (1968), Salanfe (1951), Walther und Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber (1965; 1971) and other sources. (4,3,1,3,1,4,BU:1.05); Fuel for construction machines; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,1,3,1,4,BU:1.05); Tunnels and galleries; recalculated based on Bguin et al. 1963, Bertschinger 1959, Blenio Kraftwerke 1968, Condrau 1962, KVR 1963; 1968, Tndury 1956; 1964, Weber et al. 1965 and other sources. (3,5,1,3,1,2,BU:1.05); Concrete for dams, buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Aegina (1965), Bertschinger (1959), Biedermann et al. (1985), DesMeules (1961), Gicot (1956), KVR (1968), Link(1970), Meyer (1960), Morf (1962), Salanfe (1951), Schnitter (1961; 1971), Stucky (1962), Tndury (1956; 1964), Walther & Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber et al. (1965; 1970), Zingg(1961). (3,5,1,3,1,2,BU:1.05); Concrete for dams, buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Aegina (1965), Bertschinger (1959), Biedermann et al. (1985), DesMeules (1961), Gicot (1956), KVR (1968), Link(1970), Meyer (1960), Morf (1962), Salanfe (1951), Schnitter (1961; 1971), Stucky (1962), Tndury (1956; 1964), Walther & Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber et al. (1965; 1970), Zingg(1961). (4,3,1,3,1,4,BU:1.05); Buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Bertschinger (1959), Condrau (1962), KVR (1968), Salanfe (1951), Walther und Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber (1965; 1971) and other sources. (4,3,1,3,1,4,BU:1.05); Tubes and pipes; recalculated based on recalculated based on Bertschinger (1959), Condrau (1962), KVR (1968), Salanfe (1951), Walther und Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber (1965; 1971) and other sources. (3,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.05); Electric cables; Vattenfall (2008) (3,5,1,3,1,2,BU:1.05); Concrete for dams, buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Aegina (1965), Bertschinger (1959), Biedermann et al. (1985), DesMeules (1961), Gicot (1956), KVR (1968), Link(1970), Meyer (1960), Morf (1962), Salanfe (1951), Schnitter (1961; 1971), Stucky (1962), Tndury (1956; 1964), Walther & Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber et al. (1965; 1970), Zingg(1961). (4,3,1,3,1,4,BU:1.05); Electricity supply for the construction; recalculated based on Bertschinger (1959), Blenio Kraftwerke (1968), KVR (1968), Tndury (1964), Walther und Fetz (1963), Weber et al. (1965), BFE (1992) and other sources. (4,3,1,3,1,4,BU:1.05); Recycling of reinforced infrastructure; based on Frischknecht (1996), assumed recycling rate: 100% (4,3,1,3,1,4,BU:1.05); Non-inforced infrastructure left on-site at the end of the use phase of the power station (especially the dams, tunnels, galleries); based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,1,3,1,4,BU:1.05); Recycling of turbines, generators, tubes and pipes; assumed recycling rate: 100% (4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport of materials to the construction site; based on Bertschinger (1959) (4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport of materials to the construction site; based on Bertschinger (1959) (4,3,1,3,1,4,BU:1.05); From electricity (4,5,5,5,4,5,BU:3); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003) (4,5,5,5,4,5,BU:1.5); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003) (4,5,5,5,4,5,BU:2); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003)
technosphere
RER
kg
1.82E+6
1.24
1.82E+6
1.55
diesel, burned in building machine
GLO
MJ
5.97E+7
1.24
5.97E+7
1.55
CH
kg
5.95E+5
1.24
5.95E+5
1.55
CH
kg
8.89E+8
1.24
8.89E+8
1.55
CH
kg
1.02E+8
1.24
1.02E+8
1.55
RER
kg
1.74E+6
1.24
1.74E+6
1.55
RER
kg
4.07E+6
1.24
4.07E+6
1.55
RER
kg
2.96E+5
1.34
2.96E+5
1.68
tap water, at user
RER
kg
5.65E+7
1.24
5.65E+7
1.55
electricity, medium voltage, production ENTSO kWh ENTSO, at grid disposal, building, reinforced concrete, to recycling disposal, building, concrete, not reinforced, to final disposal disposal, building, reinforcement steel, to recycling transport, lorry >16t, fleet average
2.73E+7
1.24
2.73E+7
1.55
CH
kg
5.79E+7
1.24
5.79E+7
1.55
CH
kg
9.36E+8
1.24
9.36E+8
1.55
CH
kg
5.88E+6
1.24
5.88E+6
1.55
RER
tkm
4.78E+6
2.09
4.78E+6
2.62
transport, freight, rail emission air, low Heat, waste population density Particulates, < 2.5 um
RER
tkm
2.61E+7
2.09
2.61E+7
2.62
MJ
9.82E+7
1.24
9.82E+7
1.55
kg
1.03E+2
3.61
1.03E+2
4.51
Particulates, > 10 um
kg
2.06E+3
2.17
2.06E+3
2.72
Particulates, > 2.5 um, and < 10um
kg
5.84E+2
2.61
5.84E+2
3.26
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6. Life Cycle Inventory data of hydropower stations in other countries Tab. 6.3: Unit process raw data of electricity, hydropower, at reservoir power plant, alpine region/RER and electricity, hydropower, at reservoir power plant, non-alpine region/RER.
StandardDeviation95% StandardDeviation95%
Name
electricity, hydropower, at reservoir power plant, alpine region
electricity, hydropower, at reservoir power plant, non alpine regions
UncertaintyType
Location
Unit
GeneralComment
product
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit electricity, hydropower, at reservoir power plant, alpine region electricity, hydropower, at reservoir power plant, non alpine regions reservoir hydropower plant, alpine region reservoir hydropower plant, non alpine regions sulphur hexafluoride, liquid, at plant lubricating oil, at plant
RER 0 kWh RER kWh 1
RER 0 kWh
RER
kWh
1 (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:3); Infrastructure of the storage power station producing the electricity (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:3); Infrastructure of the storage power station producing the electricity (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.05); In electric insulation (e.g. switches); based on Vattenfall (2008) (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.05); Turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008) (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:2); Original area before the construction of the power station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011)
technosphere
RER
unit
3.35E-11
3.78
4.72
RER
unit
3.78
3.35E-11
4.72
RER
kg
3.40E-10
1.67
3.40E-10
2.09
RER
kg
3.24E-8
1.67
3.24E-8
2.09
resource, land
m2
2.44E-5
2.42
2.44E-4
3.02
m2
2.41E-5
2.42
2.41E-4
(3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:2); Area covered by the reservoir; 3.02 recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) (4,1,1,1,1,1,BU:2); Area covered by infrastructures other than held-back river; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011)
m2
2.41E-7
2.46
2.41E-6
3.07
m2a
3.62E-3
1.82
3.62E-2
m2a
3.62E-5
1.87
3.62E-4
(3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.5); Area occupied by the reservoir; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) (4,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.5); Area occupied by the infrastructure; recalculated based on 2.34 Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) 2.28 (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.05); Volume occupied by the 1.67 reservoir; based on Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.05); Amount of water turbined for 1.67 the generation of electricity; based on BWW (1973) 1.67 (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.05); Potential energy of the water (4,3,2,3,1,4,BU:1.5); Nitrous oxide emissions due 2.37 to the biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008) (4,3,2,3,1,3,BU:1.5); Methane emissions due to 2.36 the biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008) (4,3,2,3,1,3,BU:1.4); Carbon dioxide emissions 2.22 due to the biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008) 2.53 (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From electric insulations (e.g. switches); based on Vattenfall (2008)
resource, in water
m3a
1.64E-1
1.34
1.64E+0
Water, turbine use, unspecified natural origin Energy, potential (in hydropower reservoir), converted emission air, low Dinitrogen monoxide population density
m3
1.40E+0
1.34
1.40E+1
MJ
3.79E+0
1.34
3.79E+0
kg
2.56E-8
1.90
9.51E-7
Methane, biogenic
kg
2.64E-7
1.88
4.78E-5
kg
1.36E-3
1.77
1.08E-2
Sulfur hexafluoride Heat, waste emission air, unspecified emission water, river emission soil, industrial Water, OECD
kg MJ kg
3.40E-10 1.58E-1 1.75E+0
2.02 1.34 2.27
3.40E-10
1 1
1.67 (3,1,1,1,1,2,BU:1.05); Waste heat (4,3,3,2,4,5,BU:1.5); Water evaporated from 2.84 reservoir; calculated based on Pfister et al. (2011) 2.53 (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008) (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008)
2.50E+1
Oils, unspecified
kg
2.27E-8
2.02
2.27E-8
Oils, unspecified
kg
9.76E-9
2.02
9.76E-9
2.53
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6. Life Cycle Inventory data of hydropower stations in other countries Tab. 6.4: Unit process raw data of electricity, hydropower, at pumped storage power plant/RER.
Name
electricity, hydropower, at pumped storage power plant
Location
Unit
GeneralComment
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit product electricity, hydropower, at pumped storage power plant lubricating oil, at plant RER kWh
RER 0 kWh 1 (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.05); Turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008) (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:3); Infrastructure of the storage power station producing the electricity (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.05); In electric insulation (e.g. switches); based on Vattenfall (2008) (5,5,2,5,1,5,BU:1.05); For the pumping of the water; bfe (2010) (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:2); Original area before the construction of the power station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011)
technosphere
RER
kg
3.24E-8
1 1.67
reservoir hydropower plant, alpine region
RER
unit
3.35E-11
1 3.78
RER
kg
3.40E-10
1 1.67
electricity, high voltage, production ENTSO, ENTSO kWh at grid
1.25E+0
1 1.97
resource, land
m2
2.44E-5
1 2.42
m2
2.41E-5
m2
2.41E-7
m2a
3.62E-3
(3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:2); Area covered by the reservoir; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) (4,1,1,1,1,1,BU:2); Area covered by infrastructures other than held-back river; 1 2.46 recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.5); Area occupied by the reservoir; recalculated based on Frischknecht 1 1.82 et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) 1 2.42 (4,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.5); Area occupied by the infrastructure; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011)
m2a
3.62E-5
1 1.87
resource, in water
m3a
1.64E-1
(3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.05); Volume occupied by the 1 1.34 reservoir; based on Schweizerisches Talsperrenkomitee (2011) (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.05); Amount of water 1 1.34 turbined for the generation of electricity; based on BWW (1973) (4,3,2,3,1,4,BU:1.5); Nitrous oxide emissions 1 1.90 due to the biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008) (4,3,2,3,1,3,BU:1.5); Methane emissions due 1 1.88 to the biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008) (4,3,2,3,1,3,BU:1.4); Carbon dioxide emissions due to the biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008) (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From electric insulations (e.g. switches); based on Vattenfall (2008)
Water, turbine use, unspecified natural origin
m3
1.40E+0
emission air, low Dinitrogen monoxide population density
kg
2.56E-8
Methane, biogenic
kg
2.64E-7
kg
1.36E-3
1 1.77
Sulfur hexafluoride emission air, unspecified emission water, river emission soil, industrial
kg
3.40E-10
1 2.02
Water, OECD
kg
1.75E+0
(4,3,3,2,4,5,BU:1.5); Water evaporated from 1 2.27 reservoir; calculated based on Spreafico & Weingartner (2005) 1 2.02 (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008) (4,5,1,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008)
Oils, unspecified
kg
2.27E-8
Oils, unspecified
kg
9.76E-9
1 2.02
emission air, low Heat, waste population density
MJ
9.00E-1
1 1.46 (4,1,1,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Heat emissions
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ESU-services Ltd.
6. Life Cycle Inventory data of hydropower stations in other countries Tab. 6.5: Unit process raw data of run-of-river hydropower plant/RER.
Name
UncertaintyType
Location
Unit
GeneralComment
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit product run-of-river hydropower plant RER unit
RER 1 unit 1 (4,3,3,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Turbines and generators; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Bauer et al. (2007) (4,5,3,5,1,5,BU:1.05); Fuel for construction machines; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,5,3,5,1,5,BU:1.05); Tunnels and galleries; based on Bauer et al. (2007) (4,3,3,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Concrete for buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Concrete for buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (19969 (4,3,3,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Buildings and other infrastructure; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Bauer et al. (2007) (4,3,3,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Tubes and pipes; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) and Bauer et al. (2007) (4,5,4,5,3,5,BU:1.05); Electric cables; calculated based on Axpo (2008) (4,3,3,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Concrete for buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,5,3,5,1,5,BU:1.05); Electricity supply for the construction; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Recycling of reinforced infrastructure; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996), assumed recycling rate: 100% (4,3,3,1,1,4,BU:1.05); Recycling of turbines, generators, tubes and pipes; recalculated based Frischknecht et al. (1996), assumed recycling rate: 100% (4,3,3,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Recycling of turbines, generators, tubes and pipes; recalculated based Frischknecht et al. (1996), assumed recycling rate: 100% (4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport of materials to the construction site; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport of materials to the construction site; Based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,5,3,5,1,5,BU:1.05); From electricity (4,5,5,5,4,5,BU:3); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003) (4,5,5,5,4,5,BU:1.5); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003) (4,5,5,5,4,5,BU:2); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003)
technosphere
RER
kg
9.23E+4
1.55
diesel, burned in building machine
GLO
MJ
1.45E+7
1.70
CH
kg
1.94E+3
1.70
CH
kg
5.03E+7
1.55
CH
kg
5.78E+6
1.55
RER
kg
4.73E+5
1.55
RER
kg
1.27E+6
1.55
RER
kg
3.05E+4
1.83
tap water, at user
RER
kg
3.19E+6
1.55
electricity, medium voltage, domestic production, at grid
ENTSO kWh
1.54E+6
1.70
CH
kg
1.58E+7
1.55
CH
kg
1.36E+6
1.52
disposal, building, concrete, not reinforced, to final disposal
CH
kg
4.08E+7
1.55
transport, lorry >16t, fleet average
RER
tkm
5.84E+5
2.51
transport, freight, rail emission air, low Heat, waste population density Particulates, < 2.5 um
RER
tkm
5.84E+5
2.51
MJ
5.54E+6
1.41
kg
2.58E+1
3.61
kg
5.17E+2
2.17
kg
1.46E+2
2.61
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ESU-services Ltd.
6. Life Cycle Inventory data of hydropower stations in other countries Tab. 6.6: Unit process raw data of electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant, with reservoir/RER, electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant, without reservoir/RER and electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant, mix/RER.
Name
electricity, electricity, hydropower, at hydropower, at run-of-river run-of-river power plant with power plant reservoir without reservoir
electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant
UncertaintyType
Location
Unit
GeneralComment
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit product electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant with reservoir electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant without reservoir electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant technosphere electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant with reservoir RER kWh RER kWh RER kWh
RER 0 kWh 1
RER 0 kWh
RER 0 kWh
1 1 (4,3,3,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Proportion of hydropower from run-of-river hydropower stations with reservoir (4,3,3,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Proportion of hydropower from run-of-river hydropower stations without reservoir (4,3,3,5,1,4,BU:3); Infrastructure of the run-of-river power station producing the electricity (4,5,3,5,3,5,BU:1.05); In turbines; based on Axpo (2008) and Vattenfall (2008) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:2); Area covered by infrastructures, not the river; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:2); Original area before the construction of the power station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:1.2); Original area before the construction of the power station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:2); Area covered by the river; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:1.5); Area occupied due to the run-of-river hydropower station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:1.5); Area occupied due to the run-of-river hydropower station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:1.05); Volume occupied due to the run-of-river hydropower station; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (4,3,3,1,1,5,BU:1.05); Amount of water turbined for the generation of electricity; based on Frischknecht et al. (1996) (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.05); Potential energy of the water (4,3,3,2,4,5,BU:1.5); Water evaporated from reservoir; calculated based on Pfister et al. (2011) (4,5,3,5,3,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; based on Axpo (2008) and Vattenfall (2008) (4,5,3,5,3,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; based on Axpo (2008) and Vattenfall (2008) (4,3,3,3,1,5,BU:1.5); Methane emissions due to the held-back river; DelSontro et al. (2010)
RER kWh
1.98E-2
1.55
electricity, hydropower, at run-of-river power plant without reservoir
RER kWh
9.80E-1
1.55
RER
unit
3.25E-10
3.25E-10
3.70
RER
kg
1.22E-7
1.22E-7
1.78
resource, land Transformation, to industrial area, built up
m2
5.60E-7
5.60E-7
2.53
Transformation, from shrub land, sclerophyllous
m2
1.02E-4
2.83E-5
2.53
Transformation, from pasture and meadow
m2
1.02E-4
2.83E-5
1.67
Transformation, to water courses, artificial
m2
2.04E-4
5.60E-5
2.53
Occupation, water courses, artificial
m2a
1.63E-2
4.48E-3
1.96
m2a
4.48E-5
4.48E-5
1.96
resource, in water
m3a
8.24E-2
1.59
Water, turbine use, unspecified natural origin Energy, potential (in hydropower reservoir), converted emission air, unspecified emission water, river
m3
4.50E+1
4.50E+1
1.59
MJ
3.79E+0
3.79E+0
1.34
Water, OECD
kg
2.50E+1
2.27
Oils, unspecified
kg
8.40E-8
8.40E-8
2.10
emission soil, Oils, unspecified industrial emission air, low population Methane, biogenic density
kg
3.80E-8
3.80E-8
2.10
kg
6.72E-4
1.96
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ESU-services Ltd.
6. Life Cycle Inventory data of hydropower stations in other countries Tab. 6.7: Unit process raw data of small hydropower plant, in waterworks infrastructure/RER and small hydropower plant/RER.
Name
Location
Unit
GeneralComment
product 349-022 technosphere
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit small hydropower plant, in waterworks infrastructure small hydropower plant concrete, normal, at plant gravel, round, at mine reinforcing steel, at plant
RER RER CH CH RER
unit unit m3 kg kg
RER 1 unit 1 0 5.52E+1 5.21E+5 2.12E+3
RER 1 unit 0 1 6.30E+2 1.11E+6 4.99E+4 1 1 1 1.49 1.49 1.49 (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Infrastructure; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Infrastructure; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Infrastructure; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbines, generator, switchboard; literature
RER
kg
1.01E+3
6.18E+2
1.49
steel, low-alloyed, at plant copper, at regional storage
RER RER
kg kg
1.31E+3 2.18E+2
1.39E+3 2.08E+2
1 1
(4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbines, generator; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbine, 1.49 generatior and switchboard; literature 1.49 (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Water pipes; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Water pipes; 1.49 literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Water pipes; 1.49 literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); 1.49 Switchboard; literature 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49 1.49 (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Switchboard; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Switchboard; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbines; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbines; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbiens; literature
polyethylene, HDPE, granulate, at plant polyvinylchloride, at regional storage cast iron, at plant aluminium, production mix, at plant lead, at regional storage flat glass, uncoated, at plant argon, liquid, at plant sawn timber, softwood, raw, plant-debarked, u=70%, at plant tap water, at user diesel, burned in building machine electricity, medium voltage, production ENTSO, at grid transport, lorry >16t, fleet average transport, freight, rail disposal, municipal solid waste, 22.9% water, to municipal incineration treatment, sewage, to wastewater treatment, class 3 disposal, building, reinforced concrete, to recycling disposal, building, concrete, not reinforced, to final disposal disposal, building, concrete gravel, to final disposal
RER RER RER RER RER RER RER RER RER GLO
kg kg kg kg kg kg kg m3 kg MJ
8.52E+3 1.24E+3 4.67E+4 2.42E+1 1.39E+1 9.96E-1 5.85E+0 3.12E-2 4.03E+6 6.27E+3 7.67E+2 1.59E+4 3.28E+4 9.25E+0 1.60E+0 7.05E+4 5.31E+4 5.21E+5
9.05E+3 1.95E+3 2.72E+4 2.68E+1 1.62E+1 5.63E-1 6.73E+0 3.59E-2 4.63E+6 5.33E+4 1.02E+3 5.45E+4 4.98E+4 1.06E+1 1.84E+0 1.43E+6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ENTSO kWh RER RER CH CH CH CH CH tkm tkm kg m3 kg kg kg
(4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbines; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); Turbines; 1.49 literature (4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport of materials and waste (4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport 2.51 of materials and waste 2.51 1.49 1.49 (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From turbines; literature
1.11E+6
(4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From turbines; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From 1.49 infrastructure; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From 1.49 infrastructure; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From 1.49 infrastructure; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From 1.49 turbines, generators, switchboards; literature 1.49 1.49 1.49 (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From water pipes; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From water pipes; literature
CH
kg
2.32E+3
9.05E+3
disposal, polyethylene, 0.4% water, to municipal incineration disposal, polyvinylchloride, 0.2% water, to municipal incineration disposal, building, bulk iron (excluding reinforcement), to sorting plant disposal, glass, 0% water, to municipal incineration disposal, wood untreated, 20% water, to municipal incineration emission air, low Heat, waste population density
CH CH CH CH CH -
kg kg kg kg kg MJ
8.52E+3 1.24E+3 4.67E+4 9.96E-1 2.39E+1 7.67E+2
9.05E+3 1.95E+3 2.72E+4 5.63E-1 2.75E+1 1.02E+3
1 1 1 1 1 1
(4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From water pipes; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From 1.49 switchboards; literature (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From 1.49 turbines; literature 1.49 (4,1,3,1,1,3,BU:1.05); From electricity
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ESU-services Ltd.
6. Life Cycle Inventory data of hydropower stations in other countries Tab. 6.8: Unit process raw data of electricity, hydropower, at small hydropower plant, in waterworks infrastructure/RER and electricity, hydropower, at small hydropower plant/RER.
electricity, hydropower, at small hydropower plant, in waterworks infrastructure RER 0 kWh RER RER kWh kWh 1 1
Name
electricity, hydropower, at small hydropower plant
3.73 3.73 1.60
UncertaintyType
Location
Unit
GeneralComment
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit electricity, hydropower, at small hydropower plant, in waterworks infrastructure electricity, hydropower, at small hydropower plant
RER 0 kWh
RER
unit
1.23E-8
RER
unit
1.29E-8
resource, in water
Energy, potential (in hydropower reservoir), converted
MJ
3.79E+0
3.79E+0
(4,3,3,3,3,3,BU:1.05); Potenzielle Energie Wasser; literature
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ESU-services Ltd.
6. Life Cycle Inventory data of hydropower stations in other countries Tab. 6.9: Unit process raw data of reservoir hydropower plant/BR.
UncertaintyType Standard Deviation95%
Location
Name
Unit
GeneralComment
product technosphere
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit reservoir hydropower plant chromium steel 18/8, at plant
BR unit RER kg
BR 1 unit 1 1.31E+7 1 1.65 (5,5,4,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Turbines and generators; based on data of the Itaipu (4,4,1,3,1,4,BU:1.05); Excavation; based on data of the Itaipu
excavation, hydraulic digger
RER m3
2.36E+7
1 1.26
CH
kg
2.24E+8
(5,5,4,5,1,5,BU:1.05); Tunnels and galleries; recalculated based on Bguin et al. 1963, 1 1.69 Bertschinger 1959, Blenio Kraftwerke 1968, Condrau 1962, KVR 1963; 1968, Tndury 1956; 1964, Weber et al. 1965 and other sources. (4,4,1,3,1,4,BU:1.05); Concrete for dams, buildings and other infrastructure; based on data of the Itaipu
concrete, normal, at plant
CH m3
3.90E+6
1 1.26
RER kg
1.26E+7
(5,5,4,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Buildings and other infrastructure; recalculated based on Bertschinger 1 1.65 (1959), Condrau (1962), KVR (1968), Salanfe (1951), Walther und Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber (1965; 1971) and other sources. (5,5,4,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Tubes and pipes; recalculated based on recalculated based on 1 1.65 Bertschinger (1959), Condrau (1962), KVR (1968), Salanfe (1951), Walther und Fetz (1963; 1971), Weber (1965; 1971) and other sources. 1 1.65 (5,5,4,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Electric cables; Vattenfall (2008)
RER kg
5.51E+7
RER kg
1.11E+8
BR kWh 1.03E+10
(5,5,4,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Electricity supply for the construction; recalculated based on Bertschinger 1 1.65 (1959), Blenio Kraftwerke (1968), KVR (1968), Tndury (1964), Walther und Fetz (1963), Weber et al. (1965), BFE (1992) and other sources. (5,5,4,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Recycling of reinforced 1 1.65 infrastructure; based on Frischknecht (1996), assumed recycling rate: 100% (5,5,4,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Non-inforced infrastructure left on-site at the end of the use phase of the power station (especially the dams, tunnels, galleries); based on Frischknecht et al. (1996)
CH
kg
4.19E+8
disposal, building, concrete, not reinforced, to final disposal
CH
kg
8.17E+9
1 1.65
CH
kg
6.83E+7
(5,5,4,5,1,4,BU:1.05); Recycling of turbines, 1 1.65 generators, tubes and pipes; assumed recycling rate: 100% (4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport of materials to the construction site; based on Bertschinger (1959)
transport, lorry >32t, EURO3
RER tkm
1.80E+9
1 2.09
transport, freight, rail emission air, low Heat, waste population Particulates, < 2.5 um
RER tkm
9.83E+9
1 2.09
(4,5,na,na,na,na,BU:2); Transport of materials to the construction site; based on Bertschinger (1959)
MJ
3.70E+10
1 1.65 (5,5,4,5,1,4,BU:1.05); From electricity (4,5,3,5,5,5,BU:3); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003) (4,5,3,5,5,5,BU:1.5); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003) (4,5,3,5,5,5,BU:2); Particle emissions during the construction; based on BUWAL (2001, 2003)
kg
2.03E+5
1 3.83
kg
4.05E+6
1 2.39
kg
1.15E+6
1 2.83
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ESU-services Ltd.
6. Life Cycle Inventory data of hydropower stations in other countries Tab. 6.10: Unit process raw data of electricity, hydropower, at reservoir power plant/BR.
Name
electricity, hydropower, at reservoir power plant
UncertaintyType
Location
Unit
GeneralComment
product
Location InfrastructureProcess Unit electricity, hydropower, at reservoir power plant reservoir hydropower plant
BR 0 kWh BR kWh 1 (4,5,3,3,1,5,BU:3); Infrastructure of the 3.15 storage power station producing the electricity (5,5,3,5,1,5,BU:1.05); In electric 1.65 insulation (e.g. switches); based on Vattenfall (2008) 1.65 (5,5,3,5,1,5,BU:1.05); Turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008)
technosphere
BR
unit
8.89E-14
RER
kg
3.40E-13
RER
kg
3.24E-8
resource, land
Transformation, from tropical rain forest Transformation, to water bodies, artificial
m2
1.21E-4
(4,1,1,3,1,5,BU:2); Original area before 2.10 the construction of the power station; based on data of the Itaipu 2.10 (4,1,1,3,1,5,BU:2); Area covered by the reservoir; based on data of the Itaipu (4,1,1,3,1,5,BU:2); Area covered by infrastructures other than held-back river; recalculated based on Frischknecht et al. (1996)
m2
1.20E-4
m2
1.20E-6
2.10
m2a
1.80E-2
(4,1,1,3,1,5,BU:1.5); Area occupied by 1.62 the reservoir; based on data of the Itaipu (4,1,1,3,1,5,BU:1.5); Area occupied by 1.62 the infrastructure; based on data of the Itaipu (4,1,1,3,1,5,BU:1.05); Volume occupied 1.30 by the reservoir; ; based on data of the Itaipu (4,1,1,3,1,5,BU:1.05); Amount of water 1.30 turbined for the generation of electricity; based on data of the Itaipu 1.11 (3,1,1,1,1,1,BU:1.05); Potential energy of the water (4,3,3,3,1,3,BU:1.5); Methane emissions due to the biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008) (4,3,3,3,1,3,BU:1.4); Carbon dioxide emissions due to the biomass in the reservoirs; calculated based on Diem et al. (2008)
m2a
1.80E-4
resource, in water
m3a
2.53E-1
Water, turbine use, unspecified natural origin Energy, potential (in hydropower reservoir), converted emission air, low Methane, biogenic population density
m3
2.90E-1
MJ
3.79E+0
kg
5.56E-4
4.00
kg
3.09E-2
2.00
Sulfur hexafluoride
kg
3.40E-13
(5,5,3,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From electric 1.90 insulations (e.g. switches); based on Vattenfall (2008) 1.90 (5,5,3,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008) (5,5,3,5,1,5,BU:1.5); From turbines; based on Vattenfall (2008)
emission water, river emission soil, industrial
Oils, unspecified
kg
2.27E-8
Oils, unspecified
kg
9.76E-9
1.90
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7. Cumulative results and interpretation
7
7.1
Cumulative results and interpretation

Cumulative Energy Demand
The CED of the electricity generated in storage hydropower stations is around 4.22 MJ/kWh. Most of the energy demand is covered by renewable energy sources. This is due to the potential energy of the water itself. It amounts to 3.79 MJ/kWh. 10.7 % of the CED of electricity from storage hydropower stations derives from the electricity used for the operation of pumps that supply additional water to the reservoir. The dataset storage hydropower station, CH, net does not include the electricity consumption of pumps as an input. The electricity consumption of the pumps is subtracted from the gross electricity production of the storage hydropower plant. Due to missing information, the electricity consumption of pumps is not considered for the European storage hydropower stations. With around 1.1 %, the infrastructure makes only a small contribution. The CED of the electricity generated in Swiss run-of-river hydropower stations equals 3.83 MJ/kWh and is nearly completely covered by the potential energy of the water turbined. The infrastructure contributes very little (1.1 %) to the CED. The CED of the electricity generated in small hydropower stations is mainly covered by the potential energy of the water too (Tab. 7.2). The contribution of the infrastructure to the total CED amounts to 0.8 % for small hydropower stations that are integrated in waterworks infrastructures and 1.5 % for standalone hydropower stations. The electricity generated in pumped storage hydropower stations in Switzerland and Europe has the highest cumulative energy demand (Fig. 7.1). Compared to the other types of hydroelectricity generation it is more than three times higher (Tab. 7.1). Nearly 100 % of the CED is due to the electricity consumption of the pumps. There is no significant difference in the CED between Switzerland and Europe for the other types of hydroelectricity generation.
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Fig. 7.1:
Cumulative energy demand of the electricity generated in Swiss and European storage and run-of-river hydropower stations. CH net: electricity consumption of pumps is subtracted from gross electricity production. Cumulative energy demand (in MJ oil-eq/kWh) of the storage, pumped storage and run-of-river hydroelectricity generated in Switzerland and Europe. In comparison, the total cumulative energy demand according to the ecoinvent v2.2 datasets (Bolliger & Bauer 2007). CH net: electricity consumption of pumps is subtracted from gross electricity production.
Storage Europe alpine 0.037 0.008 3.793 3.838 3.850 0% Europe nonalpine 0.037 0.008 3.793 3.838 3.850 0% Pumped storage CH 1.931 8.903 1.843 12.677 14.04 -10 % Europe 7.595 4.581 1.253 13.428 Run-of-river
Tab. 7.1:
CH Fossil Nuclear Renewable Total Total ecoinvent v2.2 Change 0.100 0.325 3.858 4.283 3.848 +11 %
CH net 0.033 0.012 3.794 3.838
CH 0.033 0.008 3.792 3.833 3.834 0%
Europe 0.035 0.006 3.792 3.833 3.835 0%
Tab. 7.2:
Cumulative energy demand (in MJ oil-eq/kWh) of the hydroelectricity generated small hydropower stations in Switzerland and Europe.
Small standalone CH Europe 0.049 0.007 3.792 3.848 CH 0.026 0.003 3.791 3.821 Small integrated Europe 0.027 0.003 3.791 3.821
Fossil Nuclear Renewable Total
0.050 0.007 3.792 3.849
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Hydroelectricity produced in the Brazilian storage hydropower station has a total CED of 3.8 MJ/kWh. Nearly all is covered by renewable energy sources, most of it by the potential energy of the water turbined. The infrastructure accounts for 0.2 %. In comparison with electricity from hydropower according to the current ecoinvent data sets (Bolliger & Bauer 2007), the CED of the electricity from Swiss storage hydropower stations increases by 11 %. This is mainly due to the additional consideration of the electricity consumption of various pumps (excluding pumped storage pumps). This is supported by the CED of electricity from storage hydropower stations where only the net production and hence no electricity consumption is considered. Their CED is similar to the ecoinvent data modelled by Bolliger & Bauer (2007). As the electricity consumption of the pumps is not considered for European storage hydropower stations, their CED does not change. The material consumption per hydropower station is lower than in the existing data sets as the hydropower stations are smaller (lower capacity). On the other hand, less electricity is generated in these plants. The material consumption per kWh electricity produced is therefore about the same. The average run-of-river hydropower station modelled in this study is smaller too. However the material intensity per kWh electricity produced remains about the same.
7.2
Greenhouse gas emissions
In Fig. 7.2 the greenhouse gas emissions of different types of hydroelectricity generation in Switzerland and Europe are compared. The electricity from pumped storage hydropower stations is omitted due to its high emission factors and a better readability of the figure. All the greenhouse gas emissions and other impact category indicator results are listed in Tab. 7.3. Electricity generated in storage hydropower stations in Switzerland causes emissions of 10.8 g CO2-eq/kWh. 50 % of these emissions are caused by the electricity consumption in pumps during the operation of the station. The emissions from the reservoirs cover 12.8 % of the total emissions. The rest is contributed by the construction of the stations. The importance of the electricity is apparent if the storage hydropower stations are compared to the storage hydropower stations where only the net production is considered. Their greenhouse gas emissions are half as high. Due to the larger surface area of the non-alpine reservoirs as well as a different climate, the greenhouse gas emissions are significantly higher than from alpine reservoirs. The emissions from the reservoirs contribute 73 % to the total greenhouse gas emissions. The greenhouse gas emissions of the electricity generation in pumped storage hydropower stations are strongly dominated by the electricity generation of the pumps. In Switzerland, this is 96.6 %, in Europe it is 99.1 %. The emissions from the reservoirs account for 0.9 % of the greenhouse gas emissions from Swiss pumped storage hydropower stations and for 0.2 % from the European ones. The greenhouse gas emissions of 1 kWh electricity produced in run-of-river hydropower stations are dominated by the infrastructure (92 %). The rest stems from the emissions from the reservoirs. The electricity from small hydropower stations causes greenhouse gas emissions of 4.9 g CO2-eq/kWh and 1.9 g CO2-eq/kWh for stand-alone and integrated small hydropower, respectively (Tab. 7.4). All emissions derive from the infrastructure. Consequently, the electricity from small hydropower stations integrated in existing waterworks infrastructures causes fewer emissions than the electricity from standalone small hydropower stations.
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Fig. 7.2:
Greenhouse gas emissions of the electricity generated in Swiss and European storage and run-of-river hydropower stations. The emissions of pumped storage hydroelectricity are not shown due to the relatively high values and for a better readability. CH net: electricity consumption of pumps is subtracted from gross electricity production. Greenhouse gas emissions and other impact category indicator results of the storage, pumped storage and run-of-river hydroelectricity generated in Switzerland and Europe. In comparison, the total cumulated energy demand of the ecoinvent v2.2 datasets (Bolliger & Bauer 2007). CH net: electricity consumption of pumps is subtracted from gross electricity production.
Storage Europe alpine 0.020 0.015 0.006 5.858 0.000 8.138 1.963 3.203 0.023 0.001 Europe nonalpine 0.020 0.015 0.006 16.64 0.000 8.138 1.963 3.203 0.023 0.001 Pumped storage CH 1.111 0.555 0.373 155.1 0.020 140.9 73.6 152.9 0.531 0.024 Europe 4.485 2.295 1.685 609.2 0.024 265.5 276.4 591.1 1.182 0.096 Run-of-river
Tab. 7.3:
CH Abiotic depletion Acidification Eutrophication Global warming Ozone layer depletion Human toxicity Fresh water aq. ecotox. Marine aq. Ecotoxicity Terrestrial Ecotoxicity Photochem. Oxidation Global warming ecoinvent v2.2 Change g Sb eq g SO2 eq g PO4 eq g CO2 eq g CFC-11 eq g 1,4-DB eq g 1,4-DB eq kg 1,4-DB eq g 1,4-DB eq g C2 H 4
3-
CH net 0.017 0.013 0.005 5.513 0.000 8.044 1.806 2.863 0.023 0.001
CH 0.018 0.013 0.006 3.617 0.000 7.524 1.964 3.108 0.029 0.001
Europe 0.019 0.014 0.006 3.793 0.000 7.573 2.047 3.287 0.029 0.001
0.056 0.032 0.018 10.78 0.001 12.72 4.332 8.145 0.041 0.001
g CO2 eq.
5.23 +106%
5.68 +3 %
11.6 +43 %
189 -18 %
3.51 +3 %
3.70 +3 %
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7. Cumulative results and interpretation Tab. 7.4: Greenhouse gas emissions and other impact category indicator results of the hydroelectricity generated in small hydropower stations in Switzerland and Europe.
Small standalones CH Abiotic depletion Acidification Eutrophication Global warming Ozone layer depletion Human toxicity Fresh water aq. ecotox. Marine aq. Ecotoxicity Terrestrial Ecotoxicity Photochem. Oxidation g Sb eq g SO2 eq g PO4 eq g CO2 eq g CFC-11 eq g 1,4-DB eq g 1,4-DB eq kg 1,4-DB eq g 1,4-DB eq g C2 H 4
3-
Small integrated CH 0.015 0.006 0.003 1.918 0.000 2.525 1.538 2.074 0.043 0.001 Europe 0.015 0.006 0.003 1.928 0.000 2.529 1.548 2.094 0.043 0.001
Europe 0.027 0.014 0.006 4.876 0.000 2.952 1.969 2.802 0.048 0.001
0.027 0.014 0.006 4.888 0.000 2.950 1.957 2.777 0.048 0.001
While the greenhouse gas emissions of the electricity produced in storage hydropower stations in Switzerland is dominated by the electricity consumption, the emissions from the reservoirs contribute 99 % to the total greenhouse gas emissions of electricity produced in Brazilian storage hydropower stations (43 g CO2-eq/kWh). The infrastructure contributes 1 %. A comparison with the current ecoinvent data sets (Bolliger & Bauer 2007) shows an increase in greenhouse gas emissions of the electricity produced in Swiss storage hydropower stations. This increase is based on the implementation of the electricity consumption during the operation of the power stations. Otherwise the greenhouse gas emissions remain constant. The significant increase in the greenhouse gas emissions of the European non-alpine electricity production from storage hydropower plants is due to the implementation of CO2- and N2Oemissions from the reservoir. The level of greenhouse gas emissions from pumped storage hydropower stations is slightly lower. The greenhouse gas emissions of the electricity generated in run-of-river hydropower stations increase slightly. This is due to the consideration of greenhouse gas emissions from reservoirs. Environmental impacts caused by electricity generation in small hydropower stations cannot be compared to respective ecoinvent datasets as there are no data are about the electricity generation in small hydropower stations available.
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References
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Appendix
Appendix
Tab. 0.1 Some data of the storage power stations considered (Aegina 1965; Bguin & Jeanneret 1963; Bertschinger 1959; BFE 1992; Biedermann et al. 1985; Blenio Kraftwerke 1968; BWW 1973; Condrau 1962; DesMeules 1961; Gicot 1956; KVR 1963, 1968; Link 1970; Meyer 1960; Morf 1962; Salanfe 1951; Schnitter 1961, 1971; Stucky 1962; Tndury 1956, 1964; Walther & Fetz 1963, 1971; Weber et al. 1965, 1970; Zingg 1961).
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Appendix
Length of da mm m 759 Ca tchment a rea km2 20.5 Length of res ervoi r km Vol ume of Surfa ce a rea res ervoi r ha mi o m3 2 126 Net drop Hei ght of da m hei ght m m 71 115 Ins ta l l ed ca pa ci ty MW 271 711 345 662 543 Net Cement for producti on i njecti on etc. GWh 1000 kg 6.7 19.06 3700
Na me of da m Al bi gna
Na me of s ta ti on Bondo
Na me of group Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bi ts ch Bl eni o Bl eni o Bl eni o Ca l a nca s ca Dra nce d'E. Dra nce d'E. Dra nce d'E. Emos s on Emos s on Emos s on Emos s on Enga di n Enga di n Enga di n Enga di n Gui ma gl i o Gs chenen Gs chenen Gougra Gougra Gougra Gougra Gougra Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Grono Ha uteri ve Hi nterrhei n Hi nterrhei n Hi nterrhei n Hi nterrhei n Hi nterrhei n Hongri n Le Ch tel ot Les Cl es Li enne Li enne Li enne Li nth-Li mmern Li nth-Li mmern Li nth-Li mmern Lucendro Lucendro Lucendro Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Mes ol ci na Mes ol ci na Morobbi a Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Sa l a nfe Sa l a nfe Sa l a nfe Sa nets ch Schi ffenen Verza s ca Verza s ca Vorderrhei n Vorderrhei n Vorderrhei n Vorderrhei n Zervrei l a Zervrei l a Zervrei l a Zervrei l a
Gebi dem Ma l va gl i a Ca ra s s i na Luzzone Mol i na Les Toul es
Vi eux Emos s on Emos s on
Punt da l Ga l l Ova Spi n Va s a s ca Gs chenenreus s
Moi ry Turtma nn
Cl eus on Gra nde Di xence Ma uvoi s i n
Z'Mutt
Roggi a s ca Ros s ens Sufers Va l l e di Lei B renburg Hongri n Ch tel ot Les Cl es Zeuzi er
Li mmern Lucendro Sel l a Gri es Robi ei Zt Sa mbuco Ca va gnol i Na ret I+II Pa l a gnedra
Is ol a Ca rmena Obera a r R teri chs boden
Sa l a nfe Sa nets ch Schi ffenen Contra Curnera Na l ps Sta . Ma ri a Runca hez
Zervrei l a Egs chi Tota l
Bi ts ch (Bi el Bi a s ca Luzzone Ol i vone Sa s s el l o Ori res Pa l l a zui t Ts i Ch tel a rd-Ba rberi ne I+II Ch tel a rd-Va l l orci ne La B ti a z us w. Ova s pi n Ova Spi n-Doti erzentra l e Pra del l a Punt da l Ga l l Gui ma gl i o Pa ffens prung us w. Chi ppi s (Na vi s ence) Mottec Mottec Vi s s oi e Vi s s oi e Cha ndol i ne Cha ndol i ne Fi onna y Fi onna y Bi eudron Nenda z Cha nri on Ri ddes Z'Mutt Cl eus on Sta fel Ferpercl e Arol l a Grono Ha uteri ve B renburg B renburg Ferrera I Ferrera II Si l s (KHR) Veyta ux Le Ch tel ot Les Cl es Cha ma ri n Croi x St. Lona rd Li ntha l (Li mmern) Ti erfehd (Hi nters a nd) Ti erfehd (Li mmern) Ai rol o Ai rol o Tremol a /Sel l a Al ts ta fel Ba vona Ba vona Ca vergno Pecci a (Sa mbuco) Robi ei Robi ei Verba no I Verba no II Soa zza Spi na (Is ol a ) Morobbi a Gri ms el I (Obera rr) Ha ndeck II Ha ndeck III Ha ndeck I Innerki rchen I Hopfl a uenen us w. Cl us a nfe Gi troz du Fond Mi vi l l e Innergs tei g Schi ffenen Gordol a Tenero Sedrun Sedrun Sedrun Ta va na s a Rothenbrunnen Sa fi en Pl a tz Zervrei l a Rea l ta
327 292 115 600 93 460
150.3 61.3 16.5 36.74 135 37.6
1.4 1.1 0.6 3.1 0.5 2
21 19 3 144 7 61
9.2 4.6 0.31 108 0.81 20.15
122 92 39 225 54 86
683 644 141 479 389 364 432
340 324 20 102 20.8 33.4 112 260.5 170
556 688 26.8 210.1 89.4 107 148 410 415 87.4 1.57 1020 5.45 25.3 290 431.8 553 135 210 0 115 370 275.8 1235 455 72 667.8
2724 210
1850
125 555
34.91
0.2 4
2.2 327
0.25 227
33 180
11465
540 130 107 70
295 385 14 49.8
9 4 0.4 0.2
471 36 1.5
164.6 7.4 0.4 0.1
130 73 69 36
120 40 463 59 340
610 110
29 28.1
2.4 0.2
140 10
78 0.8
148 32
569 607 426 426
54 0.47 300 2.8 8.94 58 164.8 99.84 71 50 0.68 150 306 140 1285 392 30 258
8600 725 1050
4854
420 695 520
16 43.6 113.5
1.4 5.3 4.9
50 430 208
20 401 211.5
87 285 250
9600
144
56.4
0.6
0.85
74
177 320 125 690 110 325 150 100 256
11.7 954 194 46.5 460 45.6 911 288 18.7
0.3 13.5 2.2 7.7 0.8 2.7 3.3 1.4 1.3
3 960 94 410 7.5 160 69 8 85
0.52 220 17.5 197 1 53.2 20.6 0.74 51
68 83 58 141 64 125 74 32 156
375 269 334 400 360 145 363 320 700 207
17.8 7.05 6.7 10.6 1.52 9.5 29.75 5.05 4.05 137.7
3 1.4 1.4 0.9 0.5 0.5 3 0.9 1.1 2.2
136 54 45 55.5 24 13 111 46 73 25
93 25 9.2 18.6 6.7 1.65 63 29 31.6 4.26
146 73 36 60 68 36 130 111 125 72
602 83 306 40 460 45 383 823 75 141 320 766 393 125 470 963 938
37.5 60 220 0.76 180 4.4 247 240 32.6 30 1.9 66 36 34.4 42 261 60 1.93 9.67 140 114 54 173 119 62 83 20.9 15.5 35.3 136 55 100 239.5 91.4
93.96 205 491 2.8 308 2.5 646 186 106.35 103 0.6 147 93 81.1 83 283.7 102.3 2.9 21.6 324.3 397.7 85.4 37.4 346.3 160.4 245.1 62.8 42.4 48.2 370 55.4 51 784.1 276.1
948 3930 368
1860
16000 242 309
371 854 482 359 352 253 272 698 392 351
290 100 526 456
43 23 19.4 130.2
2 0.4 2.8 1.7
39 2.4 146 67
6.5 0.3 61 27
45 40 100 94
145
616 215 417 380 350 480 560 182
18.4 10.7 1400 233 24.1 22.3 27.1 54.8
2 0.9 12.7 5.5 2 2 3 0.5
185 29 425 168 81 91 177 5
40 2.8 65 105 41.1 45 67.3 0.48
52 42 47 220 153 127 117 33
1332 825 43 227 247
60 19.6 71 132.5 4.25 150 0.75 180 44 90 22 26 8565
110.4 38.1 139 215 12 261.4 2.9 563.4 204.57 162.3 25.7 38.8 16639
504 80 17554
63.9 107.7 6860.07
4 0.6 131.5
161 7 6023.1
100.5 0.4 2731.92
151 40 5049
539 453 631 399 79 510 25316
1092 707 547
3799 74725
- 49 -
ESU-services Ltd.
Appendix
Na me of da m Al bi gna Na me of s ta ti on Bondo Na me of group Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bi ts ch Bl eni o Bl eni o Bl eni o Ca l a nca s ca Dra nce d'E. Dra nce d'E. Dra nce d'E. Emos s on Emos s on Emos s on Emos s on Enga di n Enga di n Enga di n Enga di n Gui ma gl i o Gs chenen Gs chenen Gougra Gougra Gougra Gougra Gougra Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Grono Ha uteri ve Hi nterrhei n Hi nterrhei n Hi nterrhei n Hi nterrhei n Hi nterrhei n Hongri n Le Ch tel ot Les Cl es Li enne Li enne Li enne Li nth-Li mmern Li nth-Li mmern Li nth-Li mmern Lucendro Lucendro Lucendro Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Mes ol ci na Mes ol ci na Morobbi a Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Sa l a nfe Sa l a nfe Sa l a nfe Sa nets ch Schi ffenen Verza s ca Verza s ca Vorderrhei n Vorderrhei n Vorderrhei n Vorderrhei n Zervrei l a Zervrei l a Zervrei l a Zervrei l a Injecti on/ Cement i n Cement i n Cement i n Cement for Zement da m + Cement f. da m Cement tot. Cement Remei ni ng Vol ume da m vol ume da m concrete mi n concrete ma x concrete a vg da m i njecti on + i nj. of group i ncl . tunnel s da m/tota l cement 1000m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 kg/m3 Mi o kg Mi o kg Mi o kg Mi o. kg Mi o kg 926 3.996 140 250 172 159.272 162.972 162.972 220 74% 57.028
Bi ts ch (Bi el Bi a s ca Luzzone Ol i vone Sa s s el l o Ori res Pa l l a zui t Ts i Vi eux Emos s on Ch tel a rd-Ba rberi ne I+II Emos s on Ch tel a rd-Va l l orci ne La B ti a z us w. Punt da l Ga l l Ova s pi n Ova Spi n-Doti erzentra l e Ova Spi n Pra del l a Punt da l Ga l l Va s a s ca Gui ma gl i o Gs chenenreus s Pa ffens prung us w. Chi ppi s (Na vi s ence) Moi ry Mottec Turtma nn Mottec Vi s s oi e Vi s s oi e Cl eus on Cha ndol i ne Gra nde Di xence Cha ndol i ne Fi onna y Ma uvoi s i n Fi onna y Bi eudron Nenda z Cha nri on Ri ddes Z'Mutt Z'Mutt Cl eus on Sta fel Ferpercl e Arol l a Roggi a s ca Grono Ros s ens Ha uteri ve Sufers B renburg B renburg Va l l e di Lei Ferrera I Ferrera II B renburg Si l s (KHR) Hongri n Veyta ux Ch tel ot Le Ch tel ot Les Cl es Les Cl es Cha ma ri n Zeuzi er Croi x St. Lona rd Li ntha l (Li mmern) Ti erfehd (Hi nters a nd) Li mmern Ti erfehd (Li mmern) Lucendro Ai rol o Sel l a Ai rol o Tremol a /Sel l a Gri es Al ts ta fel Robi ei Ba vona Zt Ba vona Ca vergno Sa mbuco Pecci a (Sa mbuco) Ca va gnol i Robi ei Na ret I+II Robi ei Pa l a gnedra Verba no I Verba no II Soa zza Is ol a Spi na (Is ol a ) Ca rmena Morobbi a Obera a r Gri ms el I (Obera rr) R teri chs boden Ha ndeck II Ha ndeck III Ha ndeck I Innerki rchen I Hopfl a uenen us w. Cl us a nfe Gi troz du Fond Sa l a nfe Mi vi l l e Sa nets ch Innergs tei g Schi ffenen Schi ffenen Contra Gordol a Tenero Curnera Sedrun Na l ps Sedrun Sta . Ma ri a Sedrun Runca hez Ta va na s a Rothenbrunnen Sa fi en Pl a tz Zervrei l a Zervrei l a Egs chi Rea l ta Summe
228 162 9 1330 14 235
11.947 1.296
200 200 200
250 250 250 300
233 233 233 250
7.872
250
53.124 37.746 2 309.89 3 58.75
55.848 37.956 2 309.89 3 60.6
55.848 349.846
79 440
71% 80%
23.152 90.154
3 60.6
5 85
60% 71%
2 24.4
1090
10.518
160
250
198
215.82
227.285
776 27 21 11
11.082 26.852 50.000
180 250 250
250 250 250
227 250 257
176.152 6.75 5.397 3
184.752 7.475 6.447 3
192.227
320
60%
127.773
6.447 3 180.961
9 4 255
72% 75% 71%
2.553 1 74.039
815 3
5.956
160 250
260 300
215 294
175.225 0.882
180.079 0.882
400 6000 2030 4.729
140 175
250 250
178 207
92 1068 420.21
92 1068 429.81
1596.81
2251
71%
654.19
32
32 255 22 862 55 235 48 21 300
43.091 4.559 6.691
250 250 230 170 250 270
250 250 275 280 250 300
250 250 250 207 250 280
7 63.75 5.5 212.5 11.385 58.75 13.44 5 66.9
7 63.75 6.448 216.43 11.753 58.75 13.44 5 68.76
7 63.75 234.631
10 90 359
70% 71% 65%
3 26.25 124.369
58.75 13.44 5 68.76
83 19 7 97
71% 71% 71% 71%
24.25 5.56 2 28.24
6.200
170
250
223
144.849 553 154 74 251 180 16 775 223 372 73 28.933 1.571 4.176 200 230 250 270 233 258 226 220 128.849 39.732 16.724 55.22 41 4 178.25 48.391 85 17 144.849 39.974 17.033 55.22 41 4 178.25 48.391 85 17 17.395 75 9 453 279 1.933 190 160 180 250 280 280 230 200 213 17.25 2 90.6 59.427 17.395 2 90.6 59.427 2 150.027
240
60%
95.151
57.007
63
90%
5.993
200
280
428.861
1203
36%
774.139
170 200
260 250
230 217
25 3 212
70% 67% 71%
7.605 1 61.973
42.09 230 37 185 660 562 594 654 33 1.943 1.190 0.836 150 250 200 200 180 200 250 250 250 250 250 270 183 250 233 233 227 242 42.09 9 46.25 153.78 130.946 134.838 158.268 8 42.09 9 46.25 153.78 132.038 135.545 158.815 8
59
71%
16.91
9 46.25 153.78 434.398
12 65 217 600
75% 71% 71% 72%
3 18.75 63.22 165.602
147.893 626 30 23037 6.069 241.4421429 200 7055 280 9135 219 8271 137.094 7 4849.152 140.893 7 4923.877 4696.592
230
64%
82.107
7262
2565.408
- 50 -
ESU-services Ltd.
Appendix
Na me of da m Al bi gna Na me of s ta ti on Bondo Na me of group Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bergel l Bi ts ch Bl eni o Bl eni o Bl eni o Ca l a nca s ca Dra nce d'E. Dra nce d'E. Dra nce d'E. Emos s on Emos s on Emos s on Emos s on Enga di n Enga di n Enga di n Enga di n Gui ma gl i o Gs chenen Gs chenen Gougra Gougra Gougra Gougra Gougra Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Gra nde Di xence Grono Ha uteri ve Hi nterrhei n Hi nterrhei n Hi nterrhei n Hi nterrhei n Hi nterrhei n Hongri n Le Ch tel ot Les Cl es Li enne Li enne Li enne Li nth-Li mmern Li nth-Li mmern Li nth-Li mmern Lucendro Lucendro Lucendro Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Ma ggi a Mes ol ci na Mes ol ci na Morobbi a Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Oberha s l i Sa l a nfe Sa l a nfe Sa l a nfe Sa nets ch Schi ffenen Verza s ca Verza s ca Vorderrhei n Vorderrhei n Vorderrhei n Vorderrhei n Zervrei l a Zervrei l a Zervrei l a Zervrei l a Steel for tunnel s kg Steel for ma chi nes kg Rei nforci ng s teel kg Steel tota l kg Turbi ned wa ter Mi o. m3/a 31 170 27 88 26 Cons tructi on energy GWh
Bi ts ch (Bi el Bi a s ca Luzzone Ol i vone Sa s s el l o Ori res Pa l l a zui t Ts i Vi eux Emos s on Ch tel a rd-Ba rberi ne I+II Emos s on Ch tel a rd-Va l l orci ne La B ti a z us w. Punt da l Ga l l Ova s pi n Ova Spi n-Doti erzentra l e Ova Spi n Pra del l a Punt da l Ga l l Va s a s ca Gui ma gl i o Gs chenenreus s Pa ffens prung us w. Chi ppi s (Na vi s ence) Moi ry Mottec Turtma nn Mottec Vi s s oi e Vi s s oi e Cl eus on Cha ndol i ne Gra nde Di xence Cha ndol i ne Fi onna y Ma uvoi s i n Fi onna y Bi eudron Nenda z Cha nri on Ri ddes Z'Mutt Z'Mutt Cl eus on Sta fel Ferpercl e Arol l a Roggi a s ca Grono Ros s ens Ha uteri ve Sufers B renburg B renburg Va l l e di Lei Ferrera I Ferrera II B renburg Si l s (KHR) Hongri n Veyta ux Ch tel ot Le Ch tel ot Les Cl es Les Cl es Cha ma ri n Zeuzi er Croi x St. Lona rd Li ntha l (Li mmern) Ti erfehd (Hi nters a nd) Li mmern Ti erfehd (Li mmern) Lucendro Ai rol o Sel l a Ai rol o Tremol a /Sel l a Gri es Al ts ta fel Robi ei Ba vona Zt Ba vona Ca vergno Sa mbuco Pecci a (Sa mbuco) Ca va gnol i Robi ei Na ret I+II Robi ei Pa l a gnedra Verba no I Verba no II Soa zza Is ol a Spi na (Is ol a ) Ca rmena Morobbi a Obera a r Gri ms el I (Obera rr) R teri chs boden Ha ndeck II Ha ndeck III Ha ndeck I Innerki rchen I Hopfl a uenen us w. Cl us a nfe Gi troz du Fond Sa l a nfe Mi vi l l e Sa nets ch Innergs tei g Schi ffenen Schi ffenen Contra Gordol a Tenero Curnera Sedrun Na l ps Sedrun Sta . Ma ri a Sedrun Runca hez Ta va na s a Rothenbrunnen Sa fi en Pl a tz Zervrei l a Zervrei l a Egs chi Rea l ta Summe
334 481 120 212 102 168 87
100
5710000
5710000
320 17 985 43 43
134 103 208 4
2670000
2670000
1660000
3102000
4100000
8862000
74 1140 754 31 317 31 772 113 612 325 1 78 97 220 71 122 48
88
21 148 378 110 61 845 196 163 70 57
3000000
3000000 44 22 1481 434 22
30000000
3100000
7000000
40100000 215 538 241 178 138 36
43040000
6202000
11100000
60342000
13907
188
- 51 -
ESU-services Ltd.

Flury 2012 Hydroelectric Power Generation

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Flury 2012 Hydroelectric Power Generation

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Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

Karin Flury, Rolf Frischknecht

commissioned by ko-Institute e.V.

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

CHARACTERISATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM

CONSTRUCTION OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATIONS

OPERATION OF THE HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATIONS

DECONSTRUCTION OF THE HYDROPOWER STATIONS

6 LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY DATA OF HYDROPOWER STATIONS IN OTHER COUNTRIES

CUMULATIVE RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

State of the hydropower production

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

Bundesamt fr Energie, April 2011: http://www.bfe.admin.ch/themen/00490/00491/00493/index.html?lang=de

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

International Energy Agency, IEA, April 2011: http://www.iea.org/stats/prodresult.asp?PRODUCT=Electricity/Heat

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

2. Characterisation and description of the system

Characterisation and description of the system

100% Pumped storage hydropower station

Storage hydropower station

2. Characterisation and description of the system

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

2. Characterisation and description of the system

Small hydropower stations

Specific properties of the alpine storage hydropower stations

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

2. Characterisation and description of the system

Expected useful life

60-80 40-50 40-50

80-150 50-80 40-60

30-40 40-50 25-33 25-33 25-40 20-40 25-40 20-25 10-20

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

2. Characterisation and description of the system

Run-of-river power station 80 80 40 80

250 150 150

http://www.stadt-zuerich.ch/solis, access on November 9, 2011 Own assumption

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

95 8.6 0.19 0.18

Hydrological and biological aspects

2. Characterisation and description of the system

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

3. Construction of hydroelectric power stations

Construction of hydroelectric power stations

Storage power station

3. Construction of hydroelectric power stations

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

3. Construction of hydroelectric power stations

tkm/kWh tkm/kWh tkm/kWh tkm/kWh tkm/kWh tkm/kWh tkm/kWh

tkm/plant tkm/plant tkm/plant tkm/plant tkm/plant tkm/plant tkm/plant

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

3. Construction of hydroelectric power stations

Run-of-river power station

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

3. Construction of hydroelectric power stations

Small hydropower stations

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

3. Construction of hydroelectric power stations

Life Cycle Inventories of Hydroelectric Power Generation

0.14 0.08 0.44 0.003 0.03