Page 249: Petroleum Source and Potential Once petroleum has been discovered, a basic question is how much

is there. A simple question, to which the answer is not so simple. The first estimate is based on the amount of source rock present and its petroleum potential, which can then be refined to estimate the amount of petroleum that actually made it into traps. So the initial questions that this section deals with are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Is there a source rock? Is this source rock responsible for petroleum shows or accumulations? Will the source rock generate oil or gas? What are the expected yields of oil and gas? Can the original potential of a mature source rock be calculated? Can the TOC content be predicted?

249.1 Is There a Source Rock? A prerequisite of a potential source rock is that it must contain enough organic matter to generate hydrocarbons upon maturation in sufficient quantities to escape from the source rock. The amount of organic matter is determined from Total Organic Carbon (TOC) analysis. However, it does not follow that a sample with an adequate TOC contents is a potential source rock, as the organic carbon present may be largely inert. Thus the type of organic matter (kerogen quality) as well as TOC (kerogen quantity) must be considered before a definitive conclusion on source potential can be made. Among the techniques available for determining kerogen quality is visual kerogen analysis, in which individual components, with known petroleum potentials, can be determined in at least a semiquantitative way. This type of analysis is time consuming and so the relatively rapid pyrolysis method of Rock-Eval is often used to screen a greater number of samples. This technique measures the amount of petroleum-like material that can be generated from a potential source-rock sample. More useful information can be obtained if the composition of the pyrolysate is examined by pyrolysis GC, although at a commensurately greater price per sample. Information on kerogen type may also be gained from the bitumen present in a source-rock sample, via gas chromatographic analysis or even GC-MS analysis, although it must always be borne in mind that the relatively small amount of free bitumen present may not always accurately reflect the composition of the petroleum that can be generated by the kerogen. The interpretation of TOC values and all the other parameters above is affected by the maturity of the source rock. As hydrocarbon generation progresses TOC values and pyrolysate yields will decrease and the composition of the pyrolysate will change. The effects of maturity are considered in more detail in a subsequent page.

It is sometimes possible to make a basic assessment of source-rock characteristics using wireline logs. 249.2 Is This Source Rock Responsible for Oil Shows? Drilling may reveal the presence of a potential source rock, but is it the source of any oil shows encountered? There may be several potential source rocks, so it is useful to correlate any oils with their source rocks if an understanding of migration routes and the timing of oil generation and trap formation is to be achieved. Reliable correlation of oils with source rocks is only possible by GC-MS analysis of biomarkers, but great care should be taken when comparing biomarker distributions from immature source-rock samples (recovered from wells drilled on stratigraphic highs) with those from oils generated within the deeper parts of a basin, because all source-related indicators are affected by maturity. 249.3 Will The Source Rock Generate Oil or Gas? The ease with which this question can be answered is directly related to the maturity of the sample set. For immature samples assessing the likely products upon maturation is fairly easy. An initial estimation of the likely products may be obtained from Rock-Eval data (particularly the Hydrogen and Oxygen Indices) and substantiated by other analyses such as visual kerogen and pyrolysis gas chromatography. It is not possible to determine accurately the amount of oil and gas, or even the total amount of hydrocarbons that are likely to be generated and expelled from a source rock. The laboratory pyrolysis experiments do not necessarily cause the same amount of cracking to gas as occurs under the slower heating conditions in nature. In addition, some oil will be retained in the source rock and will be cracked to gas at higher temperatures, so expulsion efficiencies should be taken into consideration for a more accurate assessment of the oil to gas yield. The inferences of kerogen quality obtained from pyrolytic analyses are most accurate if the sample is just approaching the oil window (inferences are less reliable for less mature samples). For samples that have already generated hydrocarbons, the present Hydrogen Index will underestimate the original oil potential, so that a source rock may be wrongly considered to have mainly gas potential and, at higher maturity levels, little petroleum potential. It is vital, therefore, to determine the maturity of source-rock samples in order to estimate the original petroleum potential. For post mature samples gas chromatographic analysis of the free hydrocarbons combined with visual kerogen analysis can provide some information on the original kerogen quality. Kerogen quality is primarily a function of the original type of organic matter incorporated into the kerogen, which is in turn a function of the organisms from which the detritus is derived. The deposition environment has a major
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influence on the assemblage of organisms and on the diagenetic alteration of their detritus. Information on the depositional environment is, therefore, useful, and can be obtained from parameters such as pristane/phytane ratios and carbon preference indices derived from gas chromatographic analysis of extracted bitumen, or various biomarkers during GC-MS analysis. 249.4 What Are The Expected Yields of Oil and Gas? The ease with which this question can be answered is again dependent upon the maturity of the samples. If they are immature but on the verge of the oil window, the Rock-Eval pyrolysate yield with give a reasonable prediction of the generative potential. However, it must be remembered that the S 2 measurement of Rock-Eval does not necessarily represent the material that will be expelled; much of the polar material may be retained in the source rock. For source rocks that have started to generate hydrocarbons, the present-day generative potential will be lower than the original value. The original potential can however be estimated by predicting the extent of transformation (from maturity estimates and kinetic modelling) in order to correct the present-day potential. For example, if we consider a Type II, oil-prone kerogen that is currently close to the peak oil generation, kinetic modelling will generally predict that approximately 50% of the original hydrocarbon potential has already been spent. Click here for a more detailed example. Estimating the original petroleum potential is easier for moderately mature source rocks than for late to post mature source rocks, because there is potentially much more error in extrapolating pyrolysate yields to low maturity. Rock-Eval data are probably the best starting point for maturity assessment, in particular Tmax values and Production Indices: 1. Tmax values <435C and Production Indices <0.1 - suggests the source rock is immature and no hydrocarbon generation has occurred. If this is the case, then the kerogen type and generative potential (HI or S2) should be representative provided that the samples are not excessively immature (Tmax values <415C or so). 2. Tmax values 435-450C and Production Indices >0.1 - suggests a source rock that has generated hydrocarbons at some time. The present-day pyrolysate yields underestimate the original values. With an understanding of the maturity of the sample (vitrinite reflectance etc) and kerogen assemblage (visual kerogen, Py-GC etc.), the original potential and kerogen type can be estimated. Click here for an example. 3. Tmax values >450 C and Production Indices > 0.1 - suggests the source rock is post mature, and estimating the original petroleum potential is difficult, but an educated guestimation may be made using the same approach as in (2). Click here for an example.

The graphic in Fig. 249.1 is illustrating some of the decisions that must be made in establishing the petroleum potential, kerogen type and maturity. The various feedbacks (e.g. between maturity and original petroleum potential) are not included because a multidimensional decision tree (multivariate statistics) would be required to incorporate all possibilites.

Fig. 249.1: Flowchart showing some of the decision that need to be made establishing petroleum potential, kerogen type and maturity.

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