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HLTHMAN, volume 20 part 8

CHAPTER 3

SOLID WASTE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL

General

3.1

3.1 This chapter is concerned with solid wastes as found at permanent locations. Although field-type wastes are mentioned in this chapter, they are discussed in more detail in section 2. Australian Defence Force health staff should coordinate with the appropriate overseas or domestic health authorities to ensure compliance with applicable health and environmental regulations. 3.2 The collection and disposal of solid waste is one of the major problems of sanitation. Solid waste handling must be analysed in terms of sound engineering management. Because volumes of material, types of material, salvage requirements, and methods of disposal vary, all locations cannot operate identical collection systems. Classification of waste
3.3

3.3 Waste is a general term covering all types of refuse resulting from living activities of humans and other animals. The methods for handling and disposing of waste differ considerably. The different types of solid waste are subdivided as follows: a. Garbage. Garbage is the solid or semi-solid waste incidental to preparing, cooking, and serving food, and cleaning of food service items. It does not include rubbish. Garbage is classified as edible or non-edible. Edible garbage is that part of the garbage which is suitable for animal food such as scrap meat and vegetables. Non-edible garbage is that garbage which cannot be used for animal food, such as tea leaves, bones, and egg shells. Rubbish. Rubbish consists of wastes which originate in food service facilities, barracks, wards, quarters, and offices. It includes items such as wastepaper, plastics, wood, metal, glass, ashes, and broken or damaged crockery. Rubbish may be classified as combustible or non-combustible depending upon whether or not it can be burned.
3.4

b.

Waste-disease relationship

3.4 Improper treatment and disposal of waste is conducive to the spread of diseases. The more important diseases in this category are dysentery (amoebic and bacillary), typhoid fever, leptospirosis, cholera, plague, endemic typhus, and infectious hepatitis. These diseases are contracted through the ingestion of food or water that has become contaminated with infected human or animal waste, or they can be spread by insect vectors whose principal hosts are rodents and vermin. Conditions created by improper waste disposal provide food and harbourage for these hosts. Proper treatment and disposal of wastes will aid in the control of these diseases. The major cause of disease outbreaks is contamination of potable water distribution systems primarily via cross-connections and back siphonage. Maintenance of multiple containers (dumpsters)
3.5

3.5 Food service personnel should not be used to clean multiple containers. A multiple container cleaning facility should be centrally located on the route between the disposal facility and the source of refuse materials. It is located where water and sanitary sewer systems are available. It may be more convenient to locate the cleaning facility at the disposal facility. In any case, the facility must have hot water under pressure, and it is desirable to have a steam cleaning system. 3.6 The cleaning facility should be provided with a concrete slab with proper drainage and of adequate size, a booster pump on the hot water line, and if practical, fittings to introduce liquid soap or detergent into the hose stream. 3.7 Containers used for collection of putrescent materials must be cleaned after each emptying. Other containers should be cleaned on an as-required basis. 3.8 The same washing facility may also be used at the end of the day for washing the collection vehicles.

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32 Garbage and rubbish collection truck requirements

3.9

3.9 Frequency of pickup of garbage and other refuse will have a significant impact on the number of vehicles employed in the operation. As a general rule, refuse pickup should be executed twice a week. Twice a week pickup will reduce the fly population by breaking the flys life cycle. Collection of garbage from all food service facilities and similar facilities is on a daily basis. All other facilities are on a twice a week basis. 3.10 At almost all locations, refuse is collected in trucks and other equipment that are designed specially for this purpose. This specialised equipment has many advantages over equipment which is not designed for refuse collection purposes. Such advantages include low loading height, large refuse capacity, complete load envelopment, built-in compaction mechanism, rapid unloading of refuse, and water proofing. 3.11 In the event that it is necessary to alter other trucks to meet collection requirements, the following alterations should be made: a. b. c. d. truck beds must be made as watertight as possible; a suitable cover such as canvas or chicken wire must be provided to keep refuse from blowing off; if desired, the sides of the truck may be built up to increase capacity; and if the truck is converted back for other use, it must be steam-cleaned or cleaned with hot soapy water, and if it is to be used for transporting any food products, it must be disinfected with a 100 mg/L chlorine solution.

3.12 Length of hauls. Trucks should begin collecting materials at points farthest from disposal facilities, so there is a minimum of travel with a full load. The quantity of refuse accumulated daily within any one collection area can vary. The truck crew may change the length of each route from day-to-day to allow for variations in quantities and still cover the route adequately.

SANITARY LANDFILLS OVERVIEW

3.13

3.13 The principle of the sanitary landfill (see figure 31) method of refuse disposal is simple: refuse is dumped into a trench or in small rows (area method), compacted, and covered each day. Sanitary landfills are not used to dispose of infectious wastes except under unusual circumstances that require prior approval and should conform to state and local environmental regulations. 3.14 There should be at least 1.25 hectares per year for each 4000 personnel when the fill is to be 1.8 metre (m) deep. 3.15 Sites should be selected where the soil can be excavated to a minimum depth of 1.8 m. Clay-like soils are preferable, but any soil which will form a seal over the compacted refuse is acceptable. Sites which have surface or subsurface drainage that pollute a water supply should not be selected. 3.16 In order for the sanitary landfill to be operated properly, there should be one equipment operator in charge of the entire operation, and it should be planned and supervised by an engineer. This operator prevents unauthorised entry and scavenging, directs trucks to the unloading place, moves bumper logs, places portable fences for control of blowing paper, and directs policing of the fill site. An assistant may be necessary to direct unloading of collection trucks and to police the operating area. 3.17 Under average operating conditions, a sanitary landfill for 10 000 people can be operated with one bulldozer and the occasional use of a dragline for digging trenches ahead of operations. For installations over 10 000 people, additional equipment should be provided as required; this equipment should be assigned full time to the sanitary landfill.

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Figure 31: Diagram of a sanitary landfill 3.18 The sanitary landfill is ready for operation when the original trench is dug, the ramp is constructed, and the access road is usable. At the end of each day when a section of trench has been filled and compacted with the bulldozer, the top, side, and end of the section is covered with earth. The top is covered with 100 cm of compacted earth, and the end is covered with just enough compacted fill to contain the refuse and form a seal. 3.19 At least once each week the compacted refuse must be thoroughly sealed with the final compacted cover. This is done by covering the working face of the trench with at least 30 cm of well compacted earth. The necessity for complete sealing and compacting cannot be over-emphasised. Sealing and compacting reduces future settlement, prevents spread of fires, eliminates odours, and precludes insect and rodent problems. 3.20 It is important to operate a sanitary landfill without scattering paper. The best methods to prevent this are to unload trucks on the windward side of the fill and to erect portable fences on the leeward side. The fences are easily moved to the location where they are needed most.

LANDFILLING METHODS AND OPERATIONS

Conventional methods for dry areas

3.21

3.21

3.21 The principal methods used for landfilling dry areas may be classified as area, trench, and depression. In addition to these methods, which usually are used for unprocessed municipal solid wastes, landfilling using milled (shredded or compressed and baled) solid wastes is also detailed. Area method
3.22

3.22 The area method is used when the terrain is unsuitable for the excavation of trenches in which to place the solid wastes. Operationally (see figure 32) the wastes are unloaded and spread in long, narrow strips on the surface of the land in a series of layers that vary in depth from 4075 cm. Each layer is compacted as the filling progresses during the course of the day until the thickness of the compacted wastes reaches a height varying from 23 m. At that time, and at the end of each days operation, a 30 cm layer of cover material is placed over the completed fill. The cover material must be hauled in by truck or earthmoving equipment from adjacent land or from borrow-pit areas.

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Figure 32: Diagram of an area method sanitary landfill 3.23 The filling operation usually is started by building an earthen levee against which wastes are placed in thin layers and compacted. The length of the unloading area varies with the site conditions and the size of the operation. The width over which the wastes are compacted varies from 2.56 m, again depending on the terrain. A completed lift, including the cover material, is called a cell (see figure 32. Successive lifts are placed on top of one another until the final grade called for in the ultimate development plan is reached. The length of the unloading area used each day shall be such that the final height of the fill is reached at the end of each days operation. 3.24 If a small amount of usable cover material is available at the disposal site, the ramp variation of the area method is often used. In this method, solid wastes are placed and compacted as described for the area method and are partially or wholly covered with earth scraped from the base of the ramp. Additional soil must be hauled in, as in the area method. Because of increasing costs and the problems associated with obtaining usable cover material, the use of the ramp method must be based on a detailed economic feasibility study. Balefill method
3.25

3.25 Operation is similar to the area method except refuse is compressed and baled then stacked in the area prior to covering. Trench method
3.26

3.26 The trench (or ditch) method is used in flat regions and consists of periodically digging trenches 2 or 3 m depth with an excavator or tracked dozers. The soil taken out is stockpiled for later use as covering material for a subsequent trench. Wastes are placed in the trench, and then they are spread, compacted and covered with soil. 3.27 The trench method of landfilling is ideally suited to areas where an adequate depth of cover material is available at the site and where the water table is not near the surface. Typically, as shown in figure 33, solid wastes are placed in trenches varying from 30120 m in length, 12 m in depth, and 4.57.5 m in width. To start the process, a portion of the trench is dug and the dirt is stockpiled to form an embankment behind the first trench. Wastes are then placed in the trench, spread into thin layers (usually 4560 cm), and compacted.

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Figure 33: Diagram of a trench method sanitary landfill 3.28 The operation continues until the desired height is reached. The length of trench used each day shall be such that the final height of fill is reached at the end of each days operation. The length also shall be sufficient to avoid costly delays for collection vehicles waiting to unload. Cover material is obtained by excavating an adjacent trench or continuing the trench that is being filled. The trench method, however, is not readily amenable to the proposed requirements for installation of liners and leachate collection and treatment systems. 3.29 Care must be taken when it rains because the water may flood the trenches. Therefore, canals must be built on the perimeter to collect and divert the water and to provide internal drainage. In extreme cases, it may be necessary to pump out the accumulated water. The sidewall of the ditches have to keep the slope of the excavated soil. Trench excavation requires favourable conditions regarding water table depth and adequate soil. Lands with a high water table or very close to the surface are not suitable because groundwater would be contaminated. Rocky soil is not adequate since excavation is very difficult. Depression method
3.30

3.30 At locations where natural or artificial depressions exist, it is often possible to use them effectively for landfilling operations (see figure 34). Gullies, ravines, dry borrow pits, and quarries have all been used for this purpose. The techniques to place and compact solid wastes in depression landfills vary with the geometry of the site, the characteristics of the cover material, the hydrology and geology of the site, and the access to the site. 3.31 If a gully floor is reasonably flat, the first fill in a gully site may be carried out using the trench method operation discussed previously. Once filling in the flat area has been completed, filling starts at the head end of the canyon and ends at the mouth. An important consideration is that since the gullies and ravines are formed by water erosion, landfilling may involve a water course. This practice prevents the accumulation of water behind the landfill. Wastes usually are deposited on the gully floor and from there are pushed up against the gully face at a slope of about two to one. In this way, a high degree of compaction can be achieved. 3.32 Pit and quarry landfill sites are always lower than the surrounding terrain, so control of surface drainage is often the critical factor in the development of such sites. Also, borrow pits and quarries usually do not have adequate soil or geological properties for landfilling because they display high permeability and fracturing. As with gully sites, pit and quarry sites are filled in multiple lifts, and the method of operation is essentially the same. A key to the successful use of pits or quarries is the availability of adequate cover material to cover the individual lifts as they are completed and to provide a final cover over the entire landfill when the final height is reached. Because of settlement, it is usually desirable to fill pit and quarry sites to a level slightly above that of the surrounding terrain. The depression method is also not readily amenable to liners and leachate collection system.

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Figure 34: Diagram of a depression method sanitary landfill Conventional methods for wet areas
3.33

3.33 Because of concern over the possibility of groundwater contamination by leachate and gases from landfills and the development of odours, the direct filling of wet areas is no longer considered acceptable. Installation personnel need to consult with the regulatory agency before considering disposal in wet areas because it may be illegal. If wet areas are to be used as landfill sites, special provisions must be made to contain or eliminate the movement of leachate and gases from completed cells. Usually this is accomplished by first draining the site and then lining the bottom with a clay liner or other appropriate sealants. If a clay liner is used, it is important to continue operation of the drainage facility until the site is filled in order to avoid the creation of uplift pressures that could cause the liner to rupture from heaving.