,ffim

Chapter 4
i@hnqii

The Loploce Tronsform

4.1 INTRODUCTION

I
t,
I

i
I

effort.

Several techniques used in solving engineering problems are based on the replacement - functions of of a real variable (usually ti*" o" aisiance; by certain frequency dependent representations, or by functions of a complex variable dependent ,po^r, fr"qu"rr"y. A typical example is the use of Fourier series to solve certain electrieal problems. one such problem consists of finding the current in some part of a linear electrical network in which the input voltage is a periodic or repeating waveform. The periodic voltage ,rruy n* replaced by its Fourier series representation, and the current produced by each term of the series can then be determined. The total current is the sum of the individual currenh (zuperposition). This technique often results in a substantial savings in computational

rHl

The. :t!mI
don
gmtet

A transformation technique relatin8 time functions to frequency dependent of a complex variable is presented in the next few sections of tt is- chapter. rt functions is calletl !\" Lo'ptore transform. The application of this mathematical transformation to solving:
chapters.

linear constant coefficient differential equations is discussed i"-;h;-;;;;;ing and provides the basis for the analysis and design techniques developed in

sections" subsequent

4.2 THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

The Laplace transform is defined in the foilowing manner:

Il
Then

is

sr

Definition

4.Iz Letf(t)bearealfunctionof arealvariabletdefinedfort)0.

llt t.d. ,mffrrrple

@esentr

4-V0l =

r(s)

tj..fi

I,''ttl"-"tdt. : f,ir{D"-"0t,
i =r1_1.

o<.< r

SO}TI
m*ed ad

is called the Laplace transform of f (t). s is a complex variable deflned s = o*X,, wher o afld o are real variables* and

5he La
are:

in the integral on the

The real variable

. Note that the lower limit on the integral is f = e ) 0. This definition of the lower u is sometimes useful in dealing with functions which are discontinuous at erplicit use is made of this limit, it will be abbreviated f lim e 0+, as t=0. W shown = = right.
+o

domai Laplace :nansfor

The La

f always denotes time.

part of s) and tr*. lr**i"ro s). Parentheses u"u piu""d around s only when there is r

Tne invr

part

The real part o of a complex variable s is often written as Re(s) (the real
<o

fresdo
'rrFgrsg

possibility

as Im(s) (the imaginary part of

of

confusion.

tbe inve
ennstant

56

=--/
-<\

rLdP.4l
Mcfr.nition 4"2:

THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

57

It f(t) is defined and single-valued for f )0 and rv'(") is absolutely vergent for some real number oo, that is,
uo* ttoY e-oot d't

con_

)ter 4
thnple
4.1.

/t@

7tT

*@,

,0(u(?

then f (t) is Laplace transformable

f-he function

for

Re(s)

oo.

e-r

is Laplace transformable since

f,i'"-'t
4 --ao)U
a-

e-cot dt

JL

^6

or oo) -1.

0'

e-{l+ofit 47 =

r+;;

'-<r+oort/*

l+on - -*

re replacement ncy dependent

Srmmple 4.2. ihe Laplace transform

of e-r

is

frequency. A

< [r-r]

ms.

I "- 'e-st dt = uo*

One such

lo -1 GTT e-r"+t)tfo+

= s.h

for

Re(s)

> -1

work in which ,ltage may be each term of idual currents

computational

4.T TEE INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

lent functions

,o "inverti ii,i.'i*""torm in ord"" to obtain the ffi*",T3'*;:;i::":;,"'!;,,;y";;^tion rrom ir'.^"i"*"in into the r dornain is carred

The Laplace transform transforms a problem from the.real variable time domain into d";;i;."^;;"" a sorution oi-tr,.-t""rrsformed probrem dnu;aed in terms o.1 s'-i,ris " has been t"t"r*"u
rffie eomprex variabre

. It is called
on to solving ning sections,

in

subsequent

0.

Then

0(e(?
rle defined e lower limi When shown

t=0.

the imaginarp
Len

there is

nm::r

The Laplace transform is a linear transformation between r domain and function. a"nnJ ir,'d;', defined in the -functions domain. T;;l ;, if F,(s) and F,o(s) are the I;place transforms /, (t) unA f, ia, th;;, r,1r; + ar1r(s) i. tir" Laplace .?f 'ilii;;'r, "".o"ctively, =ansform of arf 1(t) +'ir'f ,e), and. a, uru u*6it"ury constants. The inverse Laplace transform is a lineur transform,ation between lres domain and functionsa"n*ji"'ilrg functions r a#"ir."-tir"ii*, it fr(t) and defined in "Fr-erse Laprace r"un:l:"ry f,(t)are the q,r,, g,f_,(t) Laprace transrorm oi'-'a,1",1r)it,;;(;";;"J"" +.oi,f ,(t) is "urp."]ii.rJ,, fhen

;;;riri;iq

b, and

b, arearbitrary

58

TIIE LAPLACE
The Laplace transform of the d'eri'uatiue form is F(s) is

TRANSFORM
ctf /d't

ICIIA?

3.

af a function /(t) whose Laplace tran'

{.vlf /d,t1

= sr(s) -

where l(0+) is the initial value of /(t), approaches zero from positive values.

l(0+) evaluatecl as the one-sided

limit of /(f)

as

'

f{,)U, of a function l(t) A. The Laplace transform of the i,ntegral rft s

whose Lapla''

it""ti"t*

is F(s)

is

<[J'rt'lo'] : ry

The initial value l(0+) of the function /(t) rvhose Laplace transform is F(s) is l(0*) = t,tU fiil : lim sr'(s) t > 0

This relation is called the Initi'al Value Thearem'

b.

The final value l("o1 of the function /(f) whose Laplace transform is F(s) is /(*) : lim /(t) = lim s F(.s)

it ]g l(f) exists.
7.

This relation is called

Lhe

Finit'I VaLwe TheaTe'm.

The Laplace transforrn of a functian f (tla) (Ti'me Scali'ng) is Alf(t/a)) = aF(as)

where F(s)

= {tl(f)1.

The inverse Laplace transfornn of the function F(s/u) (Frequency Scali'ng) is

where "(-'[F(s)] = l(f).

9.

"t*1[F(sic')]

af(at\
a:i
i,,,llti;.n

The Laplaee transform

f(t-T) = 0 for t<T,

-"vhere F(s)

of the function f(t-ry {Tima Delag) where T>0

is

I r l-!. j

[/(f

{tf(r)1.

- r)] = ,-"r P'(.e)

F(s+o)

ttttl;'":l -=j :

10.

The Laplace transform of the function e-* f (t) is given by

!,,,,,,i;ii.*

ui
,
rllili'

4le-*f{t)) =
where F(s) = 4 tl(41. (Compter Translati'onJ
11.

is given bJ The Laplaee transforrn of the prod,uct of two funct'ions lr(t) and lr(t) complen conu oluti.on i'nteg ral { [/,(4'1,(01 = * [""r,:** F,(') F,(s - u'] d'u' where F,(s) = "C [/,(t)], F2(s) = { llr(,)1.

:lr

'!o

Fr(s) and F The inverse Laplace transforrn of the prad,ztct of ihe two tra'nsforms is given by the conaoltttion i'ntegrals

tr-, ir,(s).F,(s)l

= {- t,,', l,(t*,) d", =

r,'* r,r, f,(t-

")

d''

IcIIA.
r Laplace ira:.,

THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

59

:ere "(-'[f',(s)] = fr(t), "(-'[F'r(s)] : fr(t).

'= Laplace transforms of the functions e-t and e-2t {.lBe-t

mit of l(f)

a.

- n-,tl =

3"(

l-l - {-le*zt1 = fr

are .(Le-'l =;+l , "(.le-zt1= 3 2s*5 1 s*1 st2 s2*3s*2

und

+r.

rhen

whose Lapia

.; :.::

I -- .nverse Laplace transforms of the functio"*

:. = 1.{,

-l=

ar"
s-Bt

F(s) is

'

: .' Property 2,

--' [#]

= -'I, *-'[rt. r] =

,-,f , -+=f d\ A{-tt_+l = r*-,[-rl_ '{ -Ls+1_.1 - e<'1"+"_, ls+1 s+B_.1

then

ze-t_Ae-Bt

l.;.::. :..

1,5,

f(s)

is

1".

Laplace transform of

e:d t*0 lim e-t = 1,

ftrc-'|

can be determined by application

of Property

3.

Since

le-t)

fa,..l = lr \ {[artr-'i1 "(r+17-t

determined

-1 =,+1 by application of Property 4.

Since

..-:= J.6. l-.= Laplace transform of f" e-'a, can be 1 ., ''/o t___l--;, then
= 5-rl

"U,'"-.0,1
iiiig) is
:.,;"n:,e
{.7.

= :("+-)

:
=
f

,G+T

l:= Laplace transform of e-st is 4.le-tt1 = #=.

The initial value of e-lt ean be determined

.

' :, initial Value Theorem as

'rere

jim l+0

fi- , 1-l-\ "-r, - s+@ \s+3/

1

T>0

e:

-*.r:-e

1.8.

l:.= Laplace transform of the function (1 -e-t1 is The final value of this function can ,r,,:::-..-*.ed from the Final Value Theorem as lim(1 "1raX. lim,j.. ,+6 -e-t)= s+0 s(s + l) =1.
4.9.

be

i,::r:le
r,.;r

l:--. Laplace transform

:
|

.;:-on of Property
1.10.
:.=

of e-ht can be determined by : -+-. ? (Time Scaling), where o=*: {.le-st1 = +[--1:1 Lt*"+r11 s*3'
The Laplace transform

of e-t i. j-. s+r

;t is given bY '-:

inverse transform

:rn of Property 8 (Frequency Scaling): "(-1

1.11.

"f #

is e-t. The

inverse transform

LF+l

gs-Bt

"f +*F 1 can be determined by

Laplace transform of the functi on

e-t ir

is F,(s) ancl

F.
rL:
,,. ietermined

=] . .

The Laplace transform of the function d.efined as

t-) d',

by Property

l"-tt-zt t>z L o t42 9, with ?=2: {ti(D] = 6*2s. <1"-tJ = #.

fft) :

THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Exarnple
4.12.

fcHAr

t ir s-+r., . The Laplace transform of =* s*2 s*2 * fromPropertyl0witha=2: 4le-ztcost] -- (s+Z;211 s2*4s*5'
The Lapiace transform of
cos

e-zt

cos

can be determir.
iNiu

Example

4.13. cos

The Laplace transform of the product e-2t (Complex Convolution). That

+" and { lcos rl : p+ 1, then

s2

can be determined by application

of

Propert-v

4 [e-zr

cos

- /'c+,*( ** : " \,1 1 \r,., 11 = J. I Zoj J,,;* \"2 -l- 1/\s - a * 2rt

s*2 * 4s *

for

The details of this contour integration are not carried out here because they are too complicated is.; example, Reference l5]) and unnecessaxy. The Laplace transform of e-2t cos f was very sim; fletermined in Example 4.12 using Property 10. There are, however, many instances in nlore advanc. treatments of automatic control in which complex convolution can be used effectively.
Example
4.14"

The inverse Laplace transform of the function cation of Property

F(s)

12. Since --'[#]

= e-t
dr

= GT|G4T can be determined by ap! and J : cos i, then

"-'[o-t.

*uu

.l

,-, [/ 1 \/ ' \l o-l\i*t/\i:+t/_l

ll:1"

f' o-,,-,,cosr = Jo*'

= n-,Jo+ ft e, cosr dr :

f(cos t

sin f

e-r)

4.5 SHORT TABI,E OF LAPLACE TRANSFORMS The following is a short table of Laplace transforms. It is not complete, but wh.: used in conjunction with the properties of the Laplace transform described in Section i and the partial fraction expansion techniques described in Section 4.7, it is adequate :
handle all of the problerns in this book. A more compleie table of Laplace transform pa-:i is found in the ApPendix.
TABTE 4.I Time Function
Laplace Transform
3(r)
't

Irnpulse Unit Step

Unit Unit

u'(t\

1/s

Ramp

t
tn

llsz
n!/8n+t
1

Polynomial Exponential
Sine

e-at
sin rol
cos

"+"
T+,r,
;t+
6

,., :_:

Wave Wave Wave Wave

Cosine

ol

d,

Damped Sine

e-ot sin ot e-ot

cos

C+8 + ",
G+aP +.F

Damped Cosine

of

s*o

CI{AF. I :

DNJ

Appendix
n
Exanlpl.

SOME TAPTACE TRANSFORNA PAIRS USEFUL FOR CONTROT SYSTEMS ANATYSIS

y?-

r r)/

r(s)
1

f(t)
6

,>0
unit impulse
?)
delayed impulse

(r)

e-T"
OS"VK_1
1

6('

s*o
1

e- at

(s

*
1

o)a

itJil

tn-r e-a'

n = 1,2,3,

G+ dG+-tt
s

fno-* - e-bt)
;\(ae-at - be-at)

ts+o)is+b)

value of
G

slz
+

"FTT'
1

f;f"
(b-al(c-a\'
e-ot _L

ale-at

(z

qe-at1

(s*a)(s*b)(s*c)
damping t optimalt
G+

(c-bXc-b)'

e-bt

- _

(a- cl(b(a

e-"t_

__ _

c't

s*z
")G+T)(8TA
6

(z - a)e-at (b-al(c-a\ +

(z::9t-"r* - c)(b -- c\

sr+o,

sin

cuf

;t+

c,t

cos rot

sr+6,
he point
s sin O +_o cos O

s*z

t.2rJ {:*sin

(of

* o)
(<ot

= 1a1-t (o/z)

s2*o2
1

sin

o)

(s*o)2arz
361

e-ot sin

orl

362

APPENDIX

f(t')

t>0
,o = tn\/TlP

!-s-lont sin oraf

tT;-

aY

!O

+ ",

e-aa gin

(ot*

6)

/=tan-l

/') \a - a/

]tt - r-t"1

u(tl

- u(t-

T)

1.

Zadeh

I /. ob\( + ao\ " b(z

be-at ae-bt\ b-a'b-"/ - a)e-at b-a

-L

McGr

o(z

- A)e-bs \ b-o /

Hartli the Li
Bliss,

Soc. A Reiehr
(o,t

!-7-.ot
sls, +

1Vq6t

c)

p :- tan-r

(olz)

(Germ
McLa<

2f";

+;il

e- ront sin (oat* -z- - 1-i. .nn@d %

11

6)

Unive:

,a= rnlTip

g = cos-rf

Churc.

New I

hrriV -

e-at

ate-at)
7.

Desoer

ze"at

on Cir
a.(a- z)te-atl
8.

Spiege

unit ramp

Krall,
Soeietl

$ur-t*
n = 1,2,8,

e-at) 10.

pp. 64,

.,,

#h

o!=

Elgerd Zero L
actions

8.2 TABLE OF Z-TRANSFORMS

f(s)
r.
Table B.2

is the Laplace transform of

/(t)

and F(z) is the z-transform of f (nT). Unless otherwise noted, f

(t):

0,,<0andtheregionofcon*rerglnceoff(z)isoutsideacircler<lzlsuchthatallpolesofF(z)areinside

N,r*b"" ,tG)

1234" 5" 678o10 11

12

f@T) 1, n:0; 0n I !,n:ki0nlk

I(nr)
nT

F(t)
0
1

z-k
z

I
1

s'

Ltn.r\'
2l'

1
.94

cm
1

lrr,.r)t DI \ .. (-1;--t u--' -anT aot'*le J'* -,-"-anT ny"-anT

1

GT*L) T(;8 *
Tz z(z
T3 z(22

"-1 Tz

JIt
z

a-l;ry.. (-l)*-1 a*-1

1t"
z
..---.-.-----=

4z

+ r)

- ry aa'"-;- -n

s*o
* o)' 1 .----= (s * a)"
(s
1

- e-ot

I 1ry1z"-onr 2' (-1)--t o*-'

0"
1

T;;aV 72
2"
,^-anT\
)

Tze-oT

1_11m-t

(s

*
a

o)m

Ln A6"'-t\e

s/.s -.- al

- "-anT

l- -

(z-e-"r12 5n-L z (rn-1)! \a*-rz-e-oT z(! - e-"'1:)

1 'r/

^z(z+e-"r\

: - F-oj

Number

F(")
s2(s

134
t4

f @f) I
o)

F(z\
zl(aT

b-a

;(anT-l+e-ant)
(e-"nr u-bnT:,

- I + e-ar)z + (I - e-"r - afe-"r)l

GlaG]D
s

(e-"r _ e-br)z

G_tfrW_"_q
z[z

l5
G
16
T7

+;P t
a(b

(I - anT)e-""r

e-"r (t +

aT)]

;G+;F
- a)s GTAGTE
s2+a2

t-

"-anr

(I * anT)

z[z(l

- e-"7 a)

e-ar1z

aTe-"T) +

"-2aT

e-oT + aTe-"l't

6"-bnT _ O"-anT

1ga

sinanT
cosanT
e-onT cosbnT

19 -+-s-+a.
20
2r

w 7=0"*6,
z[z(b

- (6s-"r - o"-u')]

z sinaT

s*a

(s+a)2+b2 (s+a)2+b2
a2 +b2

e-"nTsinbnT
1

22

s((s+a)2+b2)

- "-anr (cosbnT + f

sin

Anr)

t2 - 2"-aT (cosbT)z -'t, ze-"T sinbT "-2aT z2 - 2e-aT (cosbT)z 1 s-2aT z(Az + B) (z - 1)(22 - ,"-a7: (cosbT)z + "-zar) A : L -e-o?cos U, e-orsinbT

- cosaT) z2-(2cosaT)zIl z(z - e-"T cosbT)

z(z

+r

3 - r-2oT'

r-or ri,

bT

- e-or cosbT