Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Log in
Article Talk
Read Edit
Search
Nondestructive testing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikimedia Shop Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools Print/export Languages
Catal esky Dansk Deutsch Espaol Franais
Nondestructive testing or Non-destructive testing (NDT) is a wide group of analysis techniques used in science and industry to evaluate the properties of a material, component or system without causing damage.[1] The terms Nondestructive examination (NDE), Nondestructive inspection (NDI), and Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) are also commonly used to describe this technology.[2] Because NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a highly valuable technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. Common NDT methods include ultrasonic, magneticparticle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, remote visual inspection (RVI), eddy-current testing,[1] and low coherence interferometry.[3][4] NDT is commonly used in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, systems engineering, aeronautical engineering, medicine, and art.[1]
Contents [hide] 1 Methods 2 Applications 2.1 Weld verification 2.2 Structural mechanics 2.3 Radiography in medicine 3 Notable events in early industrial NDT 4 Applications 5 Methods and techniques 6 Personnel training, qualification and certification 6.1 Definitions 6.2 Training 6.3 Certification schemes 6.4 Levels of certification 7 Terminology 8 Reliability and statistics 9 See also 10 References 10.1 Bibliography 11 External links
Methods
[edit]
Edit links
NDT methods may rely upon use of electromagnetic radiation, sound, and inherent properties of materials to examine samples. This includes some kinds of microscopy to examine external surfaces in detail, although sample preparation techniques for metallography, optical microscopy and electron microscopy are generally destructive as the surfaces must be made smooth through polishing or the sample must be electron transparent in thickness. The inside of a sample can be examined with penetrating electromagnetic radiation, such as X-rays or 3D X-rays for volumetric inspection. Sound waves are utilized in the case of ultrasonic testing. Contrast between a defect and the bulk of the sample may be enhanced for visual examination by the unaided eye by using liquids to penetrate fatigue cracks. One method (liquid penetrant testing) involves using dyes, fluorescent or non-fluorescent, in fluids for non-magnetic materials, usually metals. Another commonly used method for magnetic materials involves using a liquid suspension of fine iron particles applied to a part while it is in an externally applied magnetic field (magnetic-particle testing). Thermoelectric effect (or use of the Seebeck effect) uses thermal properties of an alloy to quickly and easily characterize many alloys. The chemical test, or chemical spot test method, utilizes application of sensitive chemicals that can indicate the presence of individual alloying elements. Electrochemical methods, such as electrochemical fatigue crack sensors, utilize the tendency of metal structural material to oxidize readily in order to detect progressive damage.
Applications
[edit]
converted by Web2PDFConvert.com
sound through the weld and back, or indicate a clear surface without penetrant captured in cracks.
Welding techniques may also be actively monitored with acoustic emission techniques before production to design the best set of parameters to use to properly join two materials.[5] In the case of high stress or safety critical welds, weld monitoring will be employed to confirm the specified welding parameters (arc current,arc voltage, travel speed, heat input etc.) are being adhered to those stated in the welding procedure. This verifies the weld as correct to procedure prior to nondestructive evaluation and metallurgy tests.
1. Section of material with a surface-breaking crack that is not visible to the naked eye. 2. Penetrant is applied to the surface. 3. Excess penetrant is removed. 4. Developer is applied, rendering the crack visible.
[edit]
1854 Hartford, Connecticut: a boiler at the Fales and Gray Car works explodes, killing 21 people and seriously injuring 50. Within a decade, the State of Connecticut passes a law requiring annual inspection (in this case visual) of boilers. 1880 - 1920 The "Oil and Whiting " method of crack detection is used in the railroad industry to find cracks in heavy steel parts. (A part is soaked in thinned oil, then painted with a white coating that dries to a powder. Oil seeping out from cracks turns the white powder brown, allowing the cracks to be detected.) This was the precursor to modern liquid penetrant tests. 1895 Wilhelm Conrad Rntgen discovers what are now known as X-rays. In his first paper he discusses the possibility of flaw detection. 1920 Dr. H. H. Lester begins development of industrial radiography for metals. 1924 Lester uses radiography to examine castings to be installed in a Boston Edison Company steam pressure power plant [1] . 1926 The first electromagnetic eddy current instrument is available to measure material thicknesses. 1927 - 1928 Magnetic induction system to detect flaws in railroad track developed by Dr. Elmer Sperry and H.C. Drake. 1929 Magnetic particle methods and equipment pioneered (A.V. DeForest and F.B. Doane.) 1930s Robert F. Mehl demonstrates radiographic imaging using gamma radiation from Radium, which can examine thicker components than the low-energy X-ray machines available at the time. 1935 - 1940 Liquid penetrant tests developed (Betz, Doane, and DeForest) 1935 - 1940s Eddy current instruments developed (H.C. Knerr, C. Farrow, Theo Zuschlag, and Fr. F. Foerster). 1940 - 1944 Ultrasonic test method developed in USA by Dr. Floyd Firestone, who applies for a U.S. invention patent for same on May 27, 1940 and is issued the U.S. patent as grant no. 2,280,226 on April 21, 1942. Extracts from the first two paragraphs of this seminal patent for a nondestructive testing method succinctly describe the basics of ultrasonic testing. "My invention pertains to a device for detecting the presence of inhomogeneities of density or elasticity in materials. For instance if a casting has a whole or a crack within it, my device allows the presence of the flaw to be detected and its position located, even though the flaw lies entirely within the casting and no portion of it extends out to the surface. ... The general principle of my device consists of sending high frequency vibrations into the part to be inspected, and the determination of the time intervals of arrival of the direct and reflected vibrations at one or more stations on the surface of the part." 1950 The Schmidt Hammer (also known as "Swiss Hammer") is invented. The instrument uses the worlds first patented nondestructive testing method for concrete. 1950 J. Kaiser introduces acoustic emission as an NDT method. (Basic Source for above: Hellier, 2001) Note the number of advancements made during the WWII era, a time when industrial quality control was growing in importance. 1963 Frederick G. Weighart's[6] and James F. McNultys[7] co-invention of Digital radiography is an off shoot of the pairs development of nondestructive test equipment at Automation Industries, Inc., then, in El Segundo, California. See James F. McNulty also at article Ultrasonic testing.
Applications
[edit]
NDT is used in a variety of settings that covers a wide range of industrial activity, with new NDT methods and applications, being continuously developed. NDT services [8] are not only integrated with Asset Integrity Management (AIM) solutions, but also with
converted by Web2PDFConvert.com
Material Testing laboratories and seamlessly fit into Supply Chain services. Rehabilitation[disambiguation needed] Automotive Engine parts Frame Aviation maintenance companies use Nondestructive Testing (NDT) to inspect or detect cracks, flaws or imperfections in engine parts. Aerospace Airframes Spaceframes Powerplants Propellers Reciprocating Engines Gas turbine engines Rocketry Construction Structures Bridges Cover Meter Maintenance, repair and operations Bridges Manufacturing Machine parts Castings and Forgings Fabrication Inspection Industrial plants such as Nuclear, Petrochemical, Power, Refineries, Pulp and Paper, Fabrication shops, Mine processing and their Risk Based Inspection programmes. Pressure vessels Storage tanks Welds Boilers Heat exchangers Turbine bores In-plant Piping Full Storage tank Assessment Shutdown Inspections In-service Equipment Inspections Miscellaneous Pipelines In-line Inspection using "pigs" Pipeline integrity management Leak Detection Pipeline Open Data Standard ASME Pressure Vessel and Piping as-built Inspections Piping and Pressure Vessel Corrosion Monitoring Railways Rail Inspection Wheel Inspection Tubular NDT, for Tubing material Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI) Amusement park rides Submarines and other Naval warships Wire Rope Testing for, Crane Wires, Mooring Wires, Rope-way Wires Medical imaging applications (see also Medical physics)
[edit]
NDT is divided into various methods of nondestructive testing, each based on a particular scientific principle. These methods may be further subdivided into various techniques. The various methods and techniques, due to their particular natures, may lend themselves especially well to certain applications and be of little or no value at all in other applications. Therefore choosing the right method and technique is an important part of the performance of NDT. Acoustic emission testing (AE or AT) Blue Etch Anodize (BEA) Dye penetrant inspection Liquid penetrant testing (PT or LPI) Electromagnetic testing (ET) Alternating current field measurement (ACFM)
converted by Web2PDFConvert.com
Alternating current potential drop measurement (ACPD) Barkhausen testing Direct current potential drop measurement (DCPD) Eddy-current testing (ECT) Magnetic flux leakage testing (MFL) for pipelines, tank floors, and wire rope Magnetic-particle inspection (MT or MPI) Remote field testing (RFT) Ellipsometry Guided wave testing (GWT) Hardness testing Impulse excitation technique (IET) Infrared and thermal testing (IR) Thermographic inspection Infrared thermal microscopy Laser testing Electronic speckle pattern interferometry Holographic interferometry Low coherence interferometry Profilometry Shearography Leak testing (LT) or Leak detection Absolute pressure leak testing (pressure change) Bubble testing Halogen diode leak testing Hydrogen leak testing Mass spectrometer leak testing Tracer-gas leak testing method Helium, Hydrogen and refrigerant gases Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and NMR spectroscopy Metallographic replicas [9][10] Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) Optical microscopy Positive Material Identification (PMI) Radiographic testing (RT) (see also Industrial radiography and Radiography) Computed radiography Digital radiography (real-time) Neutron radiographic testing (NR) SCAR (Small Controlled Area Radiography) X-ray computed tomography (CT) Scanning electron microscopy Surface Temper Etch (Nital Etch) Ultrasonic testing (UT) ART (Acoustic Resonance Technology) Electro Magnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) (non-contact) Laser ultrasonics (LUT) Internal rotary inspection system (IRIS) ultrasonics for tubes Phased array ultrasonics Time of flight diffraction ultrasonics (TOFD) Time of Flight Ultrasonic Determination of 3D Elastic Constants (TOF) Vibration Analysis Visual inspection (VT) Pipeline video inspection Corroscan/C-scan IRIS - Internal Rotary Inspection System 3D Computed Tomography Industrial CT Scanning Heat Exchanger Life Assessment System RTJ Flange Special Ultrasonic Testing
An example of a 3D replicating technique. The flexible high-resolution replicas allow surfaces to be examined and measured under laboratory conditions. A replica can be taken from all solid materials.
[edit]
Successful and consistent application of nondestructive testing techniques depends heavily on personnel training, experience and integrity. Personnel involved in application of industrial NDT methods and interpretation of results should be certified, and in some industrial sectors certification is enforced by law or by the applied codes and standards.[11]
Definitions [edit]
The following definitions for qualification and certification are given in ISO 9712:[12] Certification: "Procedure, used by the certification body to confirm that the qualification requirements for a method, level and sector have been fulfilled, leading to the issuing of a certificate".
converted by Web2PDFConvert.com
Qualification: "Demonstration of physical attributes, knowledge, skill, training and experience required to properly perform NDT tasks". In US standards and codes, while a very similar definition of qualification is included in ASNT SNT-TC-1A, certification is simply defined as: "Written testimony of qualification". In the aerospace sector, EN 4179:2009 contains the following definitions:[13] Certification: Written statement by an employer that an individual has met the applicable requirements of this standard. Qualification: The skills, training, knowledge, examinations, experience and visual capability required for personnel to properly perform to a particular level.
Training [edit]
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) training is provided for people working in many industries. It is generally necessary that the candidate successfully completes a theoretical and practical training program, as well as have performed several hundred hours of practical application of the particular method they wish to be trained in. At this point, they may pass a certification examination. While online training has become more popular, many certifying bodys will require additional practical training.
Terminology
[edit]
The standard US terminology for Nondestructive testing is defined in standard ASTM E-1316. [29] Some definitions may be different in European standard EN 1330. Indication The response or evidence from an examination, such as a blip on the screen of an instrument. Indications are classified as true or false. False indications are those caused by factors not related to the principles of the testing method or by improper implementation of the method, like film damage in radiography, electrical interference in ultrasonic testing etc. True indications are
converted by Web2PDFConvert.com
further classified as relevant and non relevant. Relevant indications are those caused by flaws. Non relevant indications are those caused by known features of the tested object, like gaps, threads, case hardening etc. Interpretation Determining if an indication is of a type to be investigated. For example, in electromagnetic testing, indications from metal loss are considered flaws because they should usually be investigated, but indications due to variations in the material properties may be harmless and nonrelevant. Flaw A type of discontinuity that must be investigated to see if it is rejectable. For example, porosity in a weld or metal loss. Evaluation Determining if a flaw is rejectable. For example, is porosity in a weld larger than acceptable by code? Defect A flaw that is rejectable i.e. does not meet acceptance criteria. Defects are generally removed or repaired. [29] Penetrant testing Non-destructive test typically comprising a penetrant, a method of excess removal and a developer to produce a visible indication of surface-breaking discontinuities.[30]
[edit]
Probability of detection (POD) tests are a standard way to evaluate a nondestructive testing technique in a given set of circumstances, for example "What is the POD of lack of fusion flaws in pipe welds using manual ultrasonic testing?" The POD will usually increase with flaw size. A common error in POD tests is to assume that the percentage of flaws detected is the POD, whereas the percentage of flaws detected is merely the first step in the analysis. Since the number of flaws tested is necessarily a limited number (non-infinite), statistical methods must be used to determine the POD for all possible defects, beyond the limited number tested. Another common error in POD tests is to define the statistical sampling units (test items) as flaws, whereas a true sampling unit is an item that may or may not contain a flaw.[31][32] Guidelines for correct application of statistical methods to POD tests can be found in ASTM E2862 Standard Practice for Probability of Detection Analysis for Hit/Miss Data and MIL-HDBK-1823A Nondestructive Evaluation System Reliability Assessment, from the U.S. Department of Defense Handbook.
See also
[edit]
Underwater diving portal
Destructive testing Inspection Maintenance testing Product certification Quality control Risk-based inspection Failure analysis Forensic engineering Materials science Predictive maintenance Reliability engineering Stress testing Terahertz nondestructive evaluation
References
^a b c
[edit]
1. Cartz, Louis (1995). Nondestructive Testing. AS M International. ISBN 978-0-87170-517-4. 2. ^ Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation. McGraw-Hill. p. 1.1. ISBN 0-07-028121-1. 3. ^ Dufour, M. L.; Lamouche, G.; Detalle, V.; Gauthier, B.; Sammut, P. (April 2005). "Low-Coherence Interferometry, an Advanced Technique for Optical Metrology in Industry" . Insight - Non-Destructive Testing and Condition Monitoring 47 (4): 216219. doi:10.1784/insi.47.4.216.63149 . ISSN 1354-2575 . edit 4. ^ Losert, Robert. (March 31, 2009). "Solution for NDT Inspection" . NDT Magazine . Retrieved December 15, 2010. 5. ^ Blitz, Jack; G. Simpson (1991). Ultrasonic Methods of Non-Destructive Testing. Springer-Verlag New York, LLC. ISBN 978-0-41260470-6. 6. ^ U.S. Patent 3,277,302, titled X-RayApparatus Having Means for Supplying An Alternating Square Wave Voltage to the X-Ray Tube, granted to Weighart on October 4, 1964, showing its patent application date as May 10, 1963 and at lines 1-6 of its column 4, also, noting James F. McNultys earlier filed co-pending application for an essential component of invention 7. ^ U.S. Patent 3,289,000, titled Means for Separately Controlling the Filament Current and Voltage on a X-Ray Tube, granted to McNulty on November 29, 1966 and showing its patent application date as March 5, 1963 8. ^ SGS S.A, Non-Destructive Testing 9. ^ ASTM E1351: "Standard Practice for Production and Evaluation of Field Metallographic Replicas" (2006) 10. ^ BS ISO 3057 "Non-destructive testing - Metallographic replica techniques of surface examination" (1998) 11. ^ "ICNDT Guide to Qualification and Certification of Personnel for NDT" (pdf). International Committee for NDT. 2012. 12. ^ a b c ISO 9712: Non-destructive testing -- Qualification and certification of NDT personnel (2012) 13. ^ a b c EN 4179: "Aerospace series. Qualification and approval of personnel for non-destructive testing" (2009) 14. ^ John Thompson (November 2006). "Global review of qualification and certification of personnel for NDT and condition monitoring". 12th A-PCNDT 2006 Asia-Pacific Conference on NDT. Auckland, New Zealand. 15. ^ Recommended Practice No. SNT-TC-1A: Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing, (2006) 16. ^ ANSI/ASNT CP-189: ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel, (2006) 17. ^ ANSI/ASNT CP-106: "ASNT Standard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel" (2008) 18. ^ "ASNT Central Certification Program", ASNT Document ACCP-CP-1, Rev. 7 (2010) 19. ^ EN 473: Non-destructive testing. Qualification and certification of NDT personnel. General principles, (2008) 20. ^ Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation. McGraw-Hill. p. 1.25. ISBN 0-07-028121-1.
converted by Web2PDFConvert.com
21. ^ Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation. McGraw-Hill. p. 1.26. ISBN 0-07-028121-1. 22. ^ Directive 97/23/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 May 1997 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning pressure equipment, Annex I, paragraph 3.1.3 23. ^ EFNDT/SEC/P/05-006: Agreement for EFNDT multilateral recognition of NDT personnel certification schemes (2005) 24. ^ http://www.nrcan-rncan.gc.ca/smm-mms/ndt-end/index-eng.htm : The NDT Certifying Agency (CANMET-MTL) 25. ^ The relevant national standard for Canada is CAN/CGSB-48.9712-2006 "Qualification and Certification of Non-Destructive Testing Personnel.", which complies with the requirements of ISO 9712:2005 and EN 473:2000. 26. ^ Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation. McGraw-Hill. p. 1.27. ISBN 0-07-028121-1. 27. ^ R. Marini and P. Ranos: "Current Issues in Qualification and Certification of Non-Destructive Testing Personnel in the Aerospace Industry ", ECNDT 2006 - Th.3.6.5 28. ^ AIA-NAS-410: "Aerospace Industries Association, National Aerospace Standard, NAS Certification and Qualification of Nondestructive Test Personnel" 29. ^ a b ASTM E-1316: "Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations", The American Society for Testing and Materials, in Volume 03.03 NDT, 1997 30. ^ ISO 12706: "Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing. Vocabulary", (2009) 31. ^ T. Oldberg and R. Christensen (1999). Erratic Measure 4 (5). NDT.net. 32. ^ T. Oldberg (2005). An Ethical Problem in the Statistics of Defect Detection Test Reliability 10 (5). NDT.net.
Bibliography [edit]
ASTM International, ASTM Volume 03.03 Nondestructive Testing ASTM E1316-13a: "Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations" (2013) ASNT, Nondestructive Testing Handbook Bray, D.E. and R.K. Stanley, 1997, Nondestructive Evaluation: A Tool for Design, Manufacturing and Service; CRC Press, 1996. Charles Hellier (2003). Handbook of Nondestructive Evaluation. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-028121-1. Shull, P.J., Nondestructive Evaluation: Theory, Techniques, and Applications, Marcel Dekker Inc., 2002. EN 1330: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Nine parts. Parts 5 and 6 replaced by equivalent ISO standards. EN 1330-1: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. List of general terms (1998) EN 1330-2: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms common to the non-destructive testing methods (1998) EN 1330-3: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in industrial radiographic testing (1997) EN 1330-4: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in ultrasonic testing (2010) EN 1330-7: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in magnetic particle testing (2005) EN 1330-8: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in leak tightness testing (1998) EN 1330-9: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in acoustic emission testing (2009) EN 1330-10: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in visual testing (2003) EN 1330-11: Non-destructive testing. Terminology. Terms used in X-ray diffraction from polycrystalline and amorphous materials (2007) ISO 12706: Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing. Vocabulary (2009) ISO 12718: Non-destructive testing. Eddy current testing. Vocabulary (2008)
External links
[edit]
The International Committee for Non-Destructive Testing (ICNDT) Wikimedia Commons has media European Federation for Non-Destructive Testing (EFNDT) related to Nondestructive testing. American Society for Nondestructive Testing Inspectioneering Journal, Trade Journal that publishes NDT news in the oil and gas and chemical industries NDT Education, University of Iowa Repository for Nondestructive Education Material NDT.net, Nondestructive Online Journal NDT.org NDT Jobs, News, and Social Network NDTWiki.com, NonDestructive Testing wiki for professionals SimplyNDT.com, NDT Employment, News, Blog Website "MIL-STD-271, Requirements for Nondestructive Testing Methods" . United States Department of Defense. 27 June 1986. "TO 3B-1-1, Nondestructive Test Methods, Basic Theory, Technical Manual" . United States Army. 15 June 2007. NDTAeroTech.com, The Online Community for Aerospace NDT Professionals Topaz Zetec
v t e Occupations
Underwater work
Army engineer diver Clearance diver Commercial diver Divemaster Diving instructor Engineer diver Frogman Military diving Police diving Professional diving Public safety diving Scientific diving Underwater archaeology Commercial offshore diving Dive guide Diver training Hyperbaric welding Nondestructive testing Pearl diving Recreational diver training Salvage diving Sponge diving Underwater archaeology Underwater demolition Underwater photography Underwater search and recovery Underwater videography Airlift (dredging device) High pressure water jetting Lifting bag Remotely operated vehicle Tremie Portal:Underwater diving Dive planning Diving activities Oceanography Marine biology Glossary of underwater diving terminology
[hide]
Categories: Nondestructive testing Maintenance Quality control Production and manufacturing Product certification Evaluation methods Materials science Materials testing Tests
This page was last modified on 7 November 2013 at 08:27. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy.
converted by Web2PDFConvert.com
Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Developers Mobile view
converted by Web2PDFConvert.com