Paternalistic Leadership

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Exploring Paternalistic Leadership and its Application
to the Indonesian Context

A dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy
in
Cross-cultural Leadership

at Massey University, Palmerston North
New Zealand

Dodi Wirawan Irawanto

2011
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Abstract

Paternalistic Leadership (PL) is characterised by a patriarchal and hierarchical
authoritarian style of management. It is strongly characterised by absolute
guidance, the protection of subordinates, harmony building and moral
leadership. This thesis sets out a framework of enquiry that comprehensively
answers the following three important questions. First, to what extent is
Indonesian leadership paternalistic? Second, how is the leader-employee
relationship constructed in Indonesia? Finally, to what extent is this relationship
influenced by Javanese culture?
Javanese is Indonesias dominant ethnicity and culture in the socio-
political arena, colouring the socio-economic and political climate and affecting
the way people perceive leadership. Generally speaking, Indonesias
leadership and governmental style is paternalistic. For this study, the total
population of civil servants was invited to answer a survey about their
perceptions on leaders-leadership style, and eight hundred and seven (81%)
respondents responded.
The research study was based on the assumption that current top-
down leadership should be augmented by a more complex view of leadership
as relationship. The study was operationalised within the concept of
Paternalistic leadership described by Cheng et al.s (2004) 10 variables, which
were validated using explanatory factor analysis. Additionally, the construction
of relationship between leaders and employees was examined by relating
employee demographic characteristics to Paternalistic leadership.
Survey questionnaires were sent to civil servants in two provinces and
returned directly to the researcher. Data analysis methods included descriptive
statistics to examine how the respondents answered questions, explanatory
factor analysis to examine suitability of paternalistic leadership, and one- and
two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to examine how the respondents
demographic information correspondents to Paternalistic leadership
Study results show that civil servants agree that leaders demonstrate
Paternalistic leadership. Instead of Cheng et al s (2004)10 leadership factors,
this study confirms that seven leadership styles are important aspects,
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highlighting visible leadership as the most important. Further, the most
significant effect of employee demographic information to Paternalistic
leadership is found in Visible leadership. Two-way ANOVA analysis suggest
that Indonesian civil servants expect to ride on the coattails of their superiors.
These results, supplemented by the literature, suggest that there should
be an emphasis on the synergistic nature of the relationship between leaders
and employees. It is also strongly recommended that further research replicate
this study in other Indonesian provinces. Confirmation factor analysis and
others variable measuring leaders-employees relationship in similar future
research was also recommended.

Keywords: Paternalistic leadership, Javanese, Indonesia, Factor analysis

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Papers

The following papers and publications have been produced from the research
reported in this thesis:
1. Irawanto, D. W. (2007). National Culture and Leadership: Lesson from
Indonesia. Journal of Business and Management Executives, Vol. 4 No.
3
2. Irawanto, D. W. (2009). An Analysis of National Culture and Leadership
Practices in Indonesia. Journal of Diversity Management, Vol. 4 No. 2,
p.41-48.
3. Irawanto, D. W., Ramsey, P., and Ryan, J. (2011). Challenge of Leading
in Javanese Culture. Journal of Asian Ethnicity, in print.
4. Irawanto, D. W., Ramsey, P., and Ryan, J. (2011). Tailoring Leadership
Theory to Indonesian Culture. Global Business Review, Vol. 12 No. 3, in
print.
5. Irawanto, D. W., Ramsey, P., and Tweed, D. (2010). Exploring
Paternalistic Leadership and its Application to the Indonesian Public
Sector. Unpublished manuscript. Palmerston North, New Zealand:
Massey University
now in the peer-review process in Human Resource Development
International
6. Irawanto, D. W., Ramsey, P., and Tweed, D. (2010). The Paternalistic
Relationship: Authenticity and credibility as a source of healthy
relationships. Paper presented at the 2010 International Conference of
Organizational Innovation, Bangkok, August 4-6.

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Acknowledgements

I wish to express my deepest appreciation and gratitude to everyone who
contributed to the completion of this thesis. First of all, I had the great fortune to
study under the supervision of Dr. Phil L. Ramsey, Dr. David M. Tweed, and Dr.
James C. Ryan. I am very grateful to Dr. Phil L. Ramsey for his guidance and
encouragement. His expertise, experience, constructive critical comments and
generous availability of time are highly valued by me and allowed me to make
significant progress.

I am also very grateful to Dr. David M. Tweed for his friendly support and
enthusiasm. His broad knowledge in research methodology knowledge and
data analysis provided the opportunity to broaden my knowledge. To Dr. James
Ryan my thanks for his encouragement in the early stages of this research.

I am also very grateful to Dr. Alasdair Noble for his intensive support on the
data analysis. His knowledge on the data analysis process helped guide the
data analyses presented in this thesis. I also wish to thank to Lois Wilkinson for
her support in English writing; with her valuable support, my writing of this thesis
in English has been made much easier.

I also want to thank my former professors at the Brawijaya University, Djumilah
Zain and Bambang Subroto, for their guidance and advice throughout the
dissertation process.

I also wish to thank the Ministry of Education of Indonesia, which provided
scholarship assistance throughout the duration my PhD journey.

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Very special thanks goes to my wife, Nataria Yulaine, for encouraging and
supporting me. I cannot forget to thank my daughter, Zaira Rahayuputri, who
has understood and respected me without complaint. I also would like to thank
my father, mother, and brothers who have believed in my ability and patiently
waited for me.

Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my father, for the educational pathway he set
me on many years ago and for his interest and encouragement over the life of
this research.

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Table of Contents

Abstract ................................................................................................................ i
Paper ................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................. iv
Table of Contents .............................................................................................. vi
List of Tables ...................................................................................................... ix
List of Figures .................................................................................................... xi
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 1
1.1 Background to the Study ......................................................................... 1
1.2 Research Rationale ................................................................................. 2
1.3 Significance of the Study ......................................................................... 6
1.4 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................ 7
1.5 Research Objectives ............................................................................... 8
1.6 Structure of the Dissertation .................................................................... 8

CHAPTER 2. INDONESIAN CULTURE, JAVENESE CULTURE AND THE
JAVANESE VIEW OF LEADERSHIP ........................................ 11
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 11
2.2 Indonesia: Historical Background .......................................................... 12
2.2.1 The National Era (1945-1965) ......................................................... 13
2.2.2 New Order Era: (1965-1997) ........................................................... 14
2.2.3 The New Era (1998 present) ........................................................ 15
2.3 The People of Java: the Javanese ........................................................ 16
2.3.1 Javanese ......................................................................................... 17
2.3.2 Javanese Cultural Values ................................................................ 18
2.3.3 Javanese Cultural Values: Evidence over Time ............................. 22
2.4 Traditional Patterns of Leadership in Indonesia: Javanese Views ....... 26
2.5 Summary ............................................................................................... 31

CHAPTER 3. LEADERSHIP THEORY ............................................................. 32
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 32
3.2 Concepts of Leadership ........................................................................ 33
3.3 Leadership Theory ................................................................................ 34
3.3.1 Early Attempts at Leadership Theorization ..................................... 35
3.3.2 Leadership Schools of Thought ...................................................... 37
3.4 The Applicability of Western Leadership Models Across Cultures ....... 48
3.4.1 Supporting Evidence ....................................................................... 48
3.4.2 Evidence That Is Less Supporting .................................................. 51
3.5 The Culturally Based Leadership Model ............................................... 53
3.5.1 The Underlying Concept of Culture ................................................. 54
3.5.2 Bridging Culture and Leadership ..................................................... 56
3.5.3 A Collectivist Culture Based Leadership Model: Paternalistic
Leadership ....................................................................................... 58
3.5.4 Similarities between Confucian and Javanese Values ................... 61
3.6 Recent Leadership Research ................................................................ 64
3.7 Conclusion of Leadership Theory Review ............................................. 69
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CHAPTER 4. VIEWS OF INDONESIA: LESSON FROM GLOBE PROJECT 71
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 71
4.2 National Culture of Indonesia ................................................................ 72
4.3 Leadership of Indonesia ........................................................................ 78
4.4 Putting it together: The old and the challenge ...................................... 81

CHAPTER 5. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................. 84
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 84
5.2 Research Design ................................................................................... 85
5.3 Consideration of the Participating Organisations .................................. 86
5.4 Instrumentation ...................................................................................... 88
5.4.1 The Questionnaire ........................................................................... 88
5.4.2 Working with the Instrument ............................................................ 91
5.5 Ethical Issues and Data Collection ........................................................ 95
5.5.1 Ethical Issues .................................................................................. 96
5.5.2 Data Collection ................................................................................ 96
5.6 Data Analysis Method .........................................................................101
5.7 Conclusion ...........................................................................................107

CHAPTER 6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................110
6.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................110
6.2 Survey Responses ..............................................................................110
6.3 Internal Consistency Reliability of the Instrument ...............................113
6.4 Descriptive Statistics ...........................................................................115
6.5 Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) ......................................................123
6.5.1 The Elements of Paternalistic Leadership in Indonesia ................128
6.5.2 The Answers of Research Question Number One ........................136
6.6 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for the Adjusted Scale ...............137
6.7 Analysis of Variance (General Linear Model GLM) ..........................145
6.7.1 Step 1: General Linear Model (one-way ANOVA) for All
Paternalistic Leadership Components ..........................................146
6.7.2 Step 2: General Linear Model for Visible Leadership ...................161
6.7.3 Summary of Research Findings on How is the leader-employee
relationship constructed in the Indonesian context? ....................165
6.8 Summary .............................................................................................169

CHAPTER 7. STUDY CONCLUSIONS IMPLICATIONS AND FUTURE
DIRECTIONS ............................................................................171
7.1 Introduction ..........................................................................................171
7.2 Study Conclusion.................................................................................172
7.2.1 PL in the Eyes of Indonesians .......................................................175
7.3 Implications for Theory and Practices .................................................185
7.3.1 Implications for Theory ..................................................................188
7.3.2 Implications for Practice ................................................................190
7.3.3 Implications for Future Research ..................................................199
7.4 Concluding Remarks ...........................................................................203

REFERENCES .................................................................................................204
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APPENDICES...................................................................................................219
Appendix 1 : Challenge of Leading in Javanese Culture .................................219
Appendix 2 : Tailoring Leadership Theory to Indonesian Culture ....................238
Appendix 3 : Up-dated Paternalistic Leadership Questionnaires .....................258
Appendix 4 : Bahasa Indonesian Version of the Paternalistic Leadership
Questionnaire....................................................................................................260
Appendix 5 : Ethical Approval Letter ................................................................265
Appendix 6: Statement Regarding Ethics .........................................................266
Appendix 7: Permit for Conducting Research in Indonesia ..............................267
Appendix 8: Statistics for One-way ANOVA .....................................................268
Appendix 9: Statistics for Two-way ANOVA .....................................................275
Appendix 10: The Paternalistic Relationship: Authenticity and credibility as a
source of healthy relationships .........................................................................276
Appendix 11: National Culture and Leadership: Lesson from Indonesia .........290
Appendix 12: An Analysis of National Culture and Leadership Practices in
Indonesia ..........................................................................................................308
Appendix 13: Exploring Paternalistic Leadership and its Application to the
Indonesian Public Sector ..................................................................................317

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List of Tables

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Outlines of Javanese Values that Shape the Leader-Follower
Relationship. ..................................................................................................... 30
Table 4.1 National Cultural Dimensions and Definitions ................................... 71
Table 5.1 Descriptive Information on Paternalistic Leadership Scales ............. 88
Table 5.2 The Changes to the Questions ......................................................... 91
Table 5.3 Levenes Test for Equality of Variances .......................................... 102
Table 5.4 Data Analysis of Research Results ................................................. 104
Table 6.1 Respondent Demography ............................................................... 110
Table 6.2 Comparison of Sample to the Civil Servant Populations for
Gender and Position Status ............................................................................ 111
Table 6.3 Cronbachs Alpha Scores for Paternalistic Leadership Scales
(Original) ......................................................................................................... 112
Table 6.4 Descriptive Statistics for Authoritarian Leadership .......................... 114
Table 6.5 Descriptive Statistics for Authoritative Leadership .......................... 115
Table 6.6 Descriptive Statistics for Benevolent Leadership (person oriented
consideration) ................................................................................................. 116
Table 6.7 Descriptive Statistics for Benevolent Leadership (task oriented
consideration) ................................................................................................. 117
Table 6.8 Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (courage) ..................... 117
Table 6.9 Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (magnanimity) ............. 118
Table 6.10 Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (incorruptness) .......... 119
Table 6.11 Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership(responsibility) ............ 119
Table 6.12 Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (impartialness)........... 120
Table 6.13 Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (lead by example) ...... 121
Table 6.14 Item listings,factor loadings 1-3 for the seven-factor PCFsolution 123
Item listings, factor loadings 4-7 for the seven-factor PCF solutions ............. 124
Table 6.15 Framework of Visible Leadership .................................................. 129
Table 6.16 Sketch Map of Authoritarian Leadership ....................................... 131
Table 6.17 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Visible Leadership .......... 136
Table 6.18 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Authoritarian Leadership 137
Table 6.19 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Benevolent Leadership ... 138
Table 6.20 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Incorruptness (Moral
leadership) ...................................................................................................... 139
Table 6.21 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Courage (Moral
Leadership) ..................................................................................................... 140
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Outlines of Javanese Values that Shape the Leader-Follower
Relationship. ..................................................................................................... 31
Table 4.1 National Cultural Dimensions and Definitions ................................... 73
Table 5.1 Descriptive Information on Paternalistic Leadership Scales ............. 90
Table 5.2 The Changes to the Questions ......................................................... 93
Table 5.3 Levenes Test for Equality of Variances .......................................... 104
Table 5.4 Data Analysis of Research Results ................................................. 106
Table 6.1 Respondent Demography ............................................................... 112
Table 6.2 Comparison of Sample to the Civil Servant Populations for
Gender and Position Status ............................................................................ 113
Table 6.3 Cronbachs Alpha Scores for Paternalistic Leadership Scales
(Original) ......................................................................................................... 114
Table 6.4 Descriptive Statistics for Authoritarian Leadership .......................... 116
Table 6.5 Descriptive Statistics for Authoritative Leadership .......................... 117
Table 6.6 Descriptive Statistics for Benevolent Leadership (person oriented
consideration) ................................................................................................. 118
Table 6.7 Descriptive Statistics for Benevolent Leadership (task oriented
consideration) ................................................................................................. 119
Table 6.8 Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (courage) ..................... 119
Table 6.9 Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (magnanimity) ............. 120
Table 6.10 Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (incorruptness) .......... 121
Table 6.11 Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership(responsibility) ............ 121
Table 6.12 Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (impartialness)........... 122
Table 6.13 Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (lead by example) ...... 123
Table 6.14 Item listings,factor loadings 1-3 for the seven-factor PCFsolution 125
Item listings, factor loadings 4-7 for the seven-factor PCF solutions ............. 125
Table 6.15 Framework of Visible Leadership .................................................. 131
Table 6.16 Sketch Map of Authoritarian Leadership ....................................... 133
Table 6.17 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Visible Leadership .......... 138
Table 6.18 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Authoritarian Leadership 139
Table 6.19 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Benevolent Leadership ... 140
Table 6.20 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Incorruptness (Moral
leadership) ...................................................................................................... 141
Table 6.21 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Courage (Moral
Leadership) ..................................................................................................... 142
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Table 6.22 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Impartialness (Moral
leadership) ...................................................................................................... 141
Table 6.23 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Magnanimity ( Moral
leadership) ...................................................................................................... 142
Table 6.24 Summary of the Number of the Cases for Each Demographic
Variable .......................................................................................................... 145
Table 6.25 General Linear Model test for Benevolent leadership by
demographic variables .................................................................................... 146
Table 6.26 General Linear Model test for Incorruptness (Moral leadership) by
Table 6.27 General Linear Model test for Authoritarian leadership by
Table 6.28 General Linear Model test for Courage (Moral leadership) by
Table 6.29 General Linear Model test for Impartialness (Moral leadership) by
Table 6.30General Linear Model test for Magnanimity (Moral leadership) by
Table 6.31 General Linear Model test for Visible Leadership by Demographic
Variables ......................................................................................................... 154
Table 6.32 General Linear Model test for Visible Leadership by the interactions
of demographic variables ................................................................................ 160
Table 7.1 Findings Related to National Cultural Values .................................. 180
Table 6.22 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Impartialness (Moral
leadership) ...................................................................................................... 141
Table 6.23 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Magnanimity ( Moral
leadership) ...................................................................................................... 142
Table 6.24 Summary of the Number of the Cases for Each Demographic
Variable .......................................................................................................... 145
Table 6.24 General Linear Model test for Benevolent leadership by
Table 6.25 General Linear Model test for Incorruptness (Moral leadership) by
Table 6.26 General Linear Model test for Authoritarian leadership by
Table 6.27 General Linear Model test for Courage (Moral leadership) by
Table 6.28 General Linear Model test for Impartialness (Moral leadership) by
Table 6.29 General Linear Model test for Magnanimity (Moral leadership) by
Table 6.30 General Linear Model test for Visible Leadership by Demographic
Variables ......................................................................................................... 154
Table 6.31 General Linear Model test for Visible Leadership by the interactions
of demographic variables ................................................................................ 160
Table 7.1 Findings Related to National Cultural Values .................................. 180
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List of Figures
List of Figures

Figure 3. 1 Path-Goal Theory. .......................................................................... 40
Figure 3. 2 Normative Model Leadership Styles. .............................................. 41
Figure 3. 3 Comparison of Paternalistic Leadership Model between Chinese
values and Javanese values
Figure 3.4 Leadership CLT Definitions and Dimensions. .................................. 63
Figure 3.5 Polar Graph of Leadership Scores of the Confucian Cluster and the
Southern Asia Cluster. ...................................................................................... 65
Figure 4.1 Polar Graph of Indonesian National Culture Dimensions................. 72
Figure 4.2 The ratings of Indonesian managers on each of Globes leadership
dimensions ....................................................................................................... 77
Figure 5.1 Research design used in the study. ................................................. 83
Figure 5.2 The Selection of cities/regencies for the Study. ............................... 97
Figure 6.1 Estimated Marginal Means of Authoritarian Leadership (by gender)
........................................................................................................................ 148
Figure 6.2 Estimated Marginal Means of Courage( Moral leadership) (by
gender) ........................................................................................................... 149
Figure 6.3 Estimated Marginal Means of Impartialness (Moral leadership) (by
education) ....................................................................................................... 151
Figure 6.4 Estimated Marginal Means of Magnanimity (Moral leadership) (by
gender) ........................................................................................................... 152
position) .......................................................................................................... 153
Figure 6.6 Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by Gender) ...... 155
Figure 6.7 Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by position)...... 156
Figure 6.8 Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by education) .. 157
Figure 6.9 Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by training
attended). ....................................................................................................... 158
Figure 6.10 Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by frequency of
meeting with supervisors) ............................................................................... 159
Figure 6. 11 Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by position and
education) ....................................................................................................... 161
Figure 7.1 PL Re-visited: Comparison between Taiwan model and Indonesian
model. ............................................................................................................. 184

List of Figures

Figure 3. 1 Path-Goal Theory. .......................................................................... 41
Figure 3. 2 Normative Model Leadership Styles. .............................................. 42
Figure 3. 3 Comparison of Paternalistic Leadership Model between Chinese
values and Javanese values 62
Figure 3.4 Leadership CLT Definitions and Dimensions. .................................. 65
Figure 3.5 Polar Graph of Leadership Scores of the Confucian Cluster and the
Southern Asia Cluster. ...................................................................................... 67
Figure 4.1 Polar Graph of Indonesian National Culture Dimensions................. 74
Figure 4.2 The ratings of Indonesian managers on each of Globes leadership
dimensions ....................................................................................................... 79
Figure 5.1 Research design used in the study. ................................................. 85
Figure 5.2 The Selection of cities/regencies for the Study. ............................... 99
Figure 6.1 Estimated Marginal Means of Authoritarian Leadership (by gender)
........................................................................................................................ 150
Figure 6.2 Estimated Marginal Means of Courage( Moral leadership) (by gender)
........................................................................................................................ 151
Figure 6.3 Estimated Marginal Means of Impartialness (Moral leadership) (by
education) ....................................................................................................... 153
gender) ........................................................................................................... 154
position) .......................................................................................................... 155
Figure 6.6 Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by Gender) ...... 157
Figure 6.7 Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by position)...... 158
Figure 6.8 Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by education) .. 159
Figure 6.9 Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by training
attended). ....................................................................................................... 160
Figure 6.10 Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by frequency of
meeting with supervisors) ............................................................................... 161
Figure 6. 11 Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by position and
education) ....................................................................................................... 164
Figure 7.1 PL Re-visited: Comparison between Taiwan model and Indonesian
model. ............................................................................................................. 187

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the Study

Indonesia, like most of the developing countries in South East Asia is
challenged by the fact that economic development is hampered by a lack of
effective management practices (Jeffrey 1997; Budiman and Roan 2005).
Deep-rooted historical values and beliefs shape their management practices
and colour their systems from the government level to the societal level.
Although developing countries have imported management practices from
developed countries such as North America, these practices have not always
been successful (Swierczek and Hirsch 1994; Newman and Nollen 1996). Often
managers only adopt models at the surface level, while the rest of their
practices reflect traditional beliefs.

Indonesia, which is regarded as a developing country in the secondary big
emerging market category, is in the process of converting its management
practices from traditional to modern behaviours (Jeffrey 1997). Recent public
commentary regarding management practices in the Indonesian government
suggests that the Javanese cultural system is still applied in this sector (Vickers
2001; Boy 2004; Khouw 2004), the Javanese being the largest ethnicity in
Indonesia. This situation has sparked the current researchers curiosity about
the extent to which Javanese culture shapes management practices in
Indonesia.

Like many Western-educated young Indonesians, the researcher has also
experienced a high level of frustration in attempting to apply concepts of
effective management in Indonesia; the researcher worked for seven years as a
civil servant in a public university in Indonesia. On the other hand, as Indonesia
is now taking part in global trade, there is a fear in Indonesian society that the
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legacy of Javanese culture that is embedded in management practices will
undermine Indonesias international competitiveness.

Researchers are increasingly concerned that existing management practises in
Indonesia, especially in the government sector, will not meet the challenges
presented by global trade (Devas 1998; Marsdiasmo, Barnes et al. 2009); this is
because the current practices are rooted in both Dutch colonial and Javanese
aristocratic traditions. Although Western management concepts influence
several aspects of Indonesian management practices, the heritage of Javanese
culture seems to block initiatives to apply these concepts effectively. For
example, although there are merit-based performance evaluation systems that
are currently used in Indonesia that are largely comparable to those in the
West, in practice the determination of seniority is part of an unstated
requirement before any formal application can be made by the applicant.
Although it is clearly stated in national regulations that evaluations should be
solely based on personal performance, this unstated commitment from senior
levels to only encouraging applications from people who are old enough to be
promoted makes enforcing these regulations difficult. Therefore, there is a
paradox in Indonesian management practices that has been created by the
legacy of the Javanese cultural system, which remains pervasive in the
government sector.

1.2 Research Rationale

The effect of Javanese culture on Indonesian leadership styles has come to the
forefront of academic attention, particularly from anthropological (Mulders 1994;
Hughes-Freeland 2007), political (Magnis-Suseno 1999; Sarsito 2006), and
public administration points of view (Rokim 2007; Ubaidillah 2007). It has been
argued that the Javanese, as the largest ethnicity in Indonesia, are culturally
and politically dominant (Suryadinata, Ananta et al. 2000). The Javanese
culture itself is unique, emphasising harmony in the society. This culture has
developed over time and, it is argued, strongly affects the behaviour of
Indonesians. This also includes behaviour in organisational life.
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During the period of the Soeharto (the second Indonesian president) regime,
Javanese culture was allowed to strengthen its influence on Indonesia. Indeed,
when he served as Indonesian president, Soeharto was known throughout
Indonesia as the Javanese king. Due to the political climate at that time, many
local communities reflected the way in which Soeharto led the country (Cassing
2000). In Cassing (2000), Jenkins highlights this fact when describing
Soehartos involvement in the countrys activities :
Soeharto stood at the apex of the pyramid; his appointees sat in each
of the key executive, legislative, and judicial branches of
governmentHis writ extended into every department and into every
state-run corporation; it reached down, if he chose, to every villageIn
short, he had established himself as the paramount figure in a society
in which deference to authority is deeply rooted (p.162).

However, this is not to say that Indonesian leadership bears no resemblance to
Western leadership. As a part of the Global Leadership and Organisational
Behaviour Effectiveness (Globe) study, House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman and
Gupta (2004) found that Indonesian leadership is charismatic, indicating a
similarity to Transformational leadership as described by Bass (1996). Bass
suggests that Western models of leadership can work in non-Western cultures,
although they may require fine tuning or adjustment as they move across
cultures. The Globe project indicates that the leadership style that seems most
acceptable to Indonesians is one that reflects traditional Javanese cultural
values, and that the Javanese culture is a powerful influence on life in
Indonesian organisations. Javanese ethnicity is strongly respected and
represented in the Indonesia government sector (Mulders 1994).

This study explores the current nature of Javanese leadership in the Indonesian
government sector. Part of the legacy of Soeharto is that leadership is critical to
Indonesias future. Indonesia has struggled to recover from the political and
social turmoil following the 1997 Asian economic crisis that forced Soehartos
resignation; Indonesias need is for broadly distributed leadership rather than
reliance on one key figure.

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Schwartz (2000) highlights this challenge, saying:
The last thing Indonesia needs is a strong leadership figure. What is
more urgently required is a group of people who can help Indonesians
accept a more complex and even messy view of the state (Schwartz
2000).

Many commentators believe that current leadership practices in Indonesia are
not appropriate for the challenges that the country faces. Additionally, the
presence of korupsi (corruption), kolusi (collusion) and nepotisme (nepotism)
or KKN in the Indonesian government culture makes the application of
effective management even harder to achieve. Data from the 2001 Indonesian
National Survey show that KKN has become even more entrenched in
Indonesian society (Khouw 2004). Public concern can be seen from comments
such as these:
...there is public will in Indonesia to combat KKN. A recent debate on
Indonesian television produced agreement that KKN had a negative-
destructive impact on Indonesian society and needed to be urgently
addressed. (Budiman and Roan 2005).

Clearly there is a need for significant investment in leadership education if
Indonesia is to successfully overcome the many challenges that it will face.
However, exactly what the nature of this educational investment will be, and
what the most suitable leadership styles for an Indonesian context are, currently
remain unclear. Investment in leadership education that is based on Western
models of leadership will be wasted if those models are rejected by the culture
of Indonesian organisations.

In the leadership literature, there is one leadership theory that may be
applicable to non-western settings. This theory is called Paternalistic leadership
(PL). Historically, PL has referred to a concept of authoritarianism where
leaders provide absolute guidance, care and protection for their followers
(Redding, Norman et al. 1994).

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Research on PL, conducted in the late 1990s, found different perceptions in
the10 countries reviewed. In the West, PL is regarded as manipulative acts with
higher levels of authoritarianism than is found in most Western countries,
whereas in Eastern countries (Turkey, India and China), it is viewed as a
positive process in which leaders are caring and considerate (Aycan, Kanungo
et al. 2000).

Research conducted in Turkey by Aycan (2001) found that PL corresponds
positively to good HRM practice, and that the leaders who express generous
care toward their subordinates can increase subordinates motivation (Aycan
2001). As a framework, Aycan (2006) developed a PL instrument based on
research in Turkey, basing items on the roles within which leadership is rooted.
Leaders are expected to show parental consideration towards their
subordinates along with the dedication for self-sacrifice. The leaders role
resembles that of the father figure within the family environment. The ability for
leaders to maintain a healthy relationship also depends on the response of
subordinates. Aycans work on PL was significant in that it produced a workable
research instrument. The usefulness of the instrument is limited however,
because it is based on a one-off study based in Turkey and little further
research using his instrument has been reported in the scholarly literature to
date. He suggests that cross-cultural studies of PL should be undertaken,
particularly in countries characterised by a high power distance and collectivism
(Aycan 2006).

PL as a framework for leadership has been studied extensively in Taiwan. In
these studies PL is defined as a leadership style that uses full authority as well
as fatherly benevolence and moral integrity that is bounded in a personalistic
atmosphere (Farh and Cheng 2000; Cheng, Chou et al. 2004). Cheng et al.
believe that PL is rooted in Confucian cultural values that also emphasise the
importance of authoritarian leadership, benevolent leadership and moral
leadership within a collectivist society.

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Both Taiwanese and Indonesian cultures are considered to be examples of
collectivist cultures. This is particularly so for Javanese culture; anthropological
research has found that the Javanese goal of life harmony is similar in many
ways to that of Confucianism (Geertz 1961; Mulders 1994). For this reason PL
could be viewed as an alternative to Western models of leadership, and
potentially more compatible with Indonesian organisational culture.

The current research investigates whether or not Indonesian leadership is
paternalistic. This does not appear to have been considered in the literature to
date, and certainly not in empirical studies. This study is a step towards that
end, seeking to gain empirical evidence by undertaking leadership research in
Indonesian government agencies. The researcher considers Government
agencies are considered to be an appropriate starting point for this study,
because they are more likely than private companies to be strong influenced by
traditional cultural values (detailed discussion in Chapter two).

This research is also highly relevant to the needs of Indonesian government
organisations, which are currently being encouraged to make greater
investments in leadership development. Leadership development based on
models that are misaligned with cultural values is unlikely to be effective.

1.3 Significance of the Study

Research into the nature of the particular leadership styles practiced in
organisations is significant, as shown by numerous commentators who are
calling for better leadership in Indonesia. This will require increased research
into leadership development. Such development efforts need to be based on
leadership models that can be effective in the Indonesian context.

This study is limited to an examination of PL, which Cheng et al. (2004) predict
should work effectively in Asian countries. The model has also been used
successfully in China and Taiwan. Conducting the study in Indonesia will
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contribute to leadership research development in general, but more specifically
it explores the link between cultural differences and leadership styles. As
discussed earlier, understanding this link will be important for those seeking to
address Indonesias leadership development needs.

1.4 Statement of the Problem

A lack of clarity around appropriate leadership styles in Indonesian
organisations is a major concern at both macro and micro levels. Numerous
commentators have advocated the importance of greater investment in
leadership development for the future of Indonesia.

A review of the related management and cross-cultural literature shows that all
Asian cultures share similar values; what has been proved in one part of the
region may also apply in others. As this study is aimed at creating a model of
leadership that can be used as the basis for leadership development activities in
Indonesia, the conceptual framework for this research is based on literature in
the areas of PL, which has proved effective in Taiwan and China.

Exploring the nature of PL may provide a source of valuable information for
Indonesian leaders and organisations wanting to invest in leadership
development that benefits Indonesia as a nation. This study seeks to (1)
validate the use of PL in the Indonesian context, and (2) identify the
components of PL that are likely to be applicable to the Indonesian context.

While PL may be the leadership construct that is most applicable to the
Indonesian context, it is likely that leadership relationships in Indonesia will
differ in some ways from those in Taiwan and China. Confucian values underpin
the PL model, but Indonesia is a country where Confucianism has not had
significant influence. So, while there are similarities between the values held by
the people of Taiwan and Indonesia, and between Confucianism and Javanese
philosophies, it is not certain that a leadership style that works in one context
will also be effective in the other. Therefore, while we predict that leadership
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relationships will be similar in Taiwan and Indonesia, it is also important to
identify key differences in how those relationships are formed.

1.5 Research Objectives

Although many studies have considered PL in Indonesia in the light of
anthropological, sociological and political knowledge, only a limited amount of
empirical PL research has been reported in the management literature.
Therefore the purpose of this study is to investigate how well PL fits with
Javanese culture and its popularity with employees.

In broad terms, this research aims to address the following research question:
Is Paternalistic Leadership a valid framework for exploring Indonesian
leadership?

Given this background, it is possible to ask the following more specific
questions:

1. To what extent is Indonesian leadership Paternalistic?
2. How is the leader-employee relationship constructed in an
Indonesian context?

1.6 Structure of the Dissertation

In summary, this research explores how culture may impact leadership
expression in Indonesia. The following section describes the structure of the
dissertation.

Chapter Two begins by looking at three main factors that shape Indonesian
culture. The first is the historical development of the country. The second factor
considered is the basic values of Javanese culture, which is the predominant
culture in Indonesia. Finally, any Indonesian leadership research that did not
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describe the pattern of traditional Javanese leadership would be incomplete.
Therefore this chapter also addresses traditional Javanese leadership based on
anthropological sources and other sources related to social science.
Chapter Three examines concepts of leadership from a historical point of view,
and discusses the development of leadership schools of thought. This
literature review on leadership theory aims to show how leadership theory has
emerged and is being shaped, and how the concept is important for
organisations. This examination of leadership theory will enable readers to
understand how this study contributes to the development of a model of
leadership that will fit the Indonesian cultural context.

Chapter Four addresses studies that have described Indonesian cultural values,
notably the Globe project. The Globe project results for Indonesia are used as a
microscope to understand how the cultural values of Indonesia have influenced
their leadership practices.

Chapter Five describes the methodological approach used in this research. This
chapter begins by addressing the key research question, To what extent is
Javanese leadership Paternalistic? This chapter also highlights the adaptation
of the PL instrument, and the process of back-translation that was needed to
prepare for this study. The population for the study and the analysis tools used
for answering the research questions are also discussed.

Chapter Six provides an analysis of the survey results. The first section
presents descriptive statistics from the adapted instrument. The following
sections present the overall analysis, which involves two main analyses: a
factor analysis for answering research question number one, and a one-way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and two-way ANOVA for answering research
question number two. This chapter highlights several findings that confirm that
the original model of PL is applicable in the Indonesian context.

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Chapter Seven consolidates the results and discusses the implications of the
study phases. First, the Indonesian view of PL is discussed, along with an
elaboration of how PL is constructed in the Indonesian context. Second, the
results of the study are then used as a basis for considering the implications of
the research in terms of theory, policy and practice. The limitations of the study
are described, along with suggestions for future research. This chapter
concludes with a discussion of how leadership in Indonesia should be
developed to meet future needs.

To summarise, this research explores Indonesian civil servants perception of
PL, and how the leader-follower relationship is constructed. By answering the
questions To what extent is Indonesia leadership Paternalistic? and
How is the leader-followers relationship constructed in the Indonesian
context? This study will significantly enhance the understanding of leadership
in Indonesia. The next chapter begins the literature review with an indepth
discussion of Indonesian culture.

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CHAPTER 2 INDONESIAN CULTURE, JAVENESE
CULTURE AND THE JAVANESE VIEW OF
LEADERSHIP

2.1 Introduction

The Indonesian saying tak kenal maka tak sayang means until we understand
something, we can never appreciate it or know what its true meaning is. As this
study intends to examine current leadership styles practiced in Indonesia, this
literature review begins by providing a description of its Indonesian context. This
chapter acknowledges the many and complex foundations on which so called
Indonesian culture is built and addresses the profound influence of one in
particular: Javanese culture.

This chapter highlights three main issues regarding Indonesian culture. The first
is the history of the nation. An extensive review of the historiography is not
within the scope of the thesis, however, the complexities of historical writing and
the existence of profoundly completing stories of the nation are acknowledged.
The second issue addressed is Javanese culture, which is described as the
dominant ethnicity that has influenced the Indonesian peoples behaviour up
until the present day. Indeed, describing the culture of the Javanese, including
their values and the development of their culture over time, is crucial. The
chapter will provide an explanation for the complexities of Javanese culture and
its contribution to the emergence of an Indonesian culture.

Lastly, as this research is about leadership, to not describe the patterns of
traditional Javanese leadership would render this literature review incomplete.
Traditional Javanese leadership will be discussed based on anthropological and
other social science sources. It is hoped that combining these perspectives will
provide a basis for understanding the leadership styles preferred by
Indonesians.
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In summary, this chapter will address three main issues: (1) the nature of
Indonesian culture, (2) the part that Javanese culture plays in the broader
Indonesian context, and (3) the Javanese leadership style currently practiced in
Indonesia.

2.2 Indonesia: Historical Background

Indonesia, which means Indus/India and Nesos/Island, is an archipelagic
country located between the Asian and Australian continents. The unique
geographical landscape of the Indonesian archipelago, which comprises 17,508
islands, serves as a nexus for cultural exchange and trade between Southeast
Asian, Asian, Middle Eastern and Western countries. This has been noticed
since the early seventh century, when the Sriwijaya kingdom began to trade
with China and India. The adoption of trade, cultural and faith models from
these countries was unavoidable. As Hellwig and Tagliacozzo (2009) note, the
strategic location of Indonesia along the main sea routes between East and
West enabled the exchange of ideas between the traders and the locals. This
continued until the empire of Indonesia was ruled by the leaders of the Mataram
kingdom under Dutch and Japanese colonisation in the early nineteenth
century. This coincided with the strengthening of Islam and its cultural
assimilation into Indonesia. Indonesia is now the most populous Muslim country
in the world.

Indonesia is also known as a multiethnic county as it has more than 300
ethnicities within its borders. These are diverse in culture, and are heterogenic
regionally. They speak more than four hundred languages and dialects (Hellwig
and Tagliacozzo 2009). The West Sumatran speak Malay; in the centre,
Javanese is spoken; in the east, Balinese is the dominant language; and in the
far east, Papuan is spoken, to name a few. One of the Indonesian national
theme songs dari Sabang sampai Merauke (from Sabang to Merauke)
describes this diversity too. Sabang is the name of the city in the most eastern
part of the Sumatra Island, and Merauke is a city which is exactly on the border
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between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. The theme of the song is that
although Indonesia is rich in culture, beliefs and values, its people are united.
Although there are several ethnicities in the country, the Javanese make up
almost half of the total population of Indonesia. The Javanese are the people
who live on Java island, the most populous island in Indonesia. They believe in
upholding Javanese customs. Before the researcher makes further conclusions
on how the Javanese dominate the social arena of Indonesian life, an
illustration of how the Javanese influence the ways of Indonesian life is
presented.
1

Since Indonesia gained its independence in 1945, the country has experienced
three important periods in which the rulers have influenced the socio-political
climate of the nation.

2.2.1 The National Era (1945-1965)

Soekarno, a Javanese, ruled the country between 1945 and 1965, and in this
period he encouraged patriotism and Indonesian nationalism. His charismatic
appearances in public upheld the Indonesian spirit as an independent nation. In
this era, the national motto was Bhineka Tunggal Ika, which roughly translates
as unity in diversity. Soekarno established the Indonesian philosophy of
Garuda Pancasila, which respects the richness of the Indonesian culture.
Soekarno functioned as both a principal and initiator in the development of this
philosophy.

The philosophy consisted of the following five principles of life that reflected the
diversity of Indonesia as symbolised in the Garuda Pancasila: (1) Ketuhanan
Yang Maha Esa, or beliefs in the one and only God; (2) Kemanusiaan Yang Adil
dan Beradab, or just and civilised humanity; (3) Persatuan Indonesia, or the
unity of Indonesia; (4) Kerakyatan Yang Dipimpin Oleh Hikmat Kebijkasanaan
Dalam Permusyawaratan Perwakilan, or democracy guided by the inner
wisdom of the unanimity arising out of the deliberation of representatives; and

1
A full discussion of the Javanese Culture is included in the article Irawanto, Dodi, W., Ramsey,
P. & Ryan, James, C. (2010). Challenge of Leading in Javanese Culture, published Asian
Ethnicity Journal. See Appendix 1.
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(5) Keadilan Sosial Bagi Seluruh Rakyat Indonesia, or social justice for all the
people of Indonesia (Darmaputera 1987).

Recently it has been noted that these five principles are a reflection of
Soekarnos belief that Indonesia should be guided by a just lord, a concept
which originated from Javanese wisdom surrounding the life of Ratu Adil, a
messianic Javanese ruler who would set the Javanese people free from all
kinds of oppression (Soekarno 2009).

2.2.2 New Order Era: (1965-1997)

In the second period of Indonesia, between 1965 and 1997, the county was
ruled by Army alumni, Soeharto. He described himself as Javanese; Sarsito
(2006) notes that he used a lot of Javanese principles during the period of his
presidency. His government mandated the teaching of Pancasila in schools
from primary to tertiary level through a subject called Pendidikan Pancasila.
This roughly means five principles education. Liddle (1996) also notes that in
the New Order Pancasila has taken on mystical and Javanist connotations.

Industrialisation and modernisation began in this era. However, along with these
the Javanese style of management became spread nationwide. Sarsito (2006)
argues that Soeharto attempted to rule the country with Javanese wisdom
using the typical Ratu Adil leadership style.

Further, during Soehartos presidency, ABRI, the only Army organisation in
Indonesia, was declared by him to be an organisation that was above all groups
in society. ABRI was used to support the leading political party, Golkar, and to
enforce Soehartos way of ruling the country so that his values were given
primacy in Indonesian life (Jenkins 2010).

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2.2.3 The New Era (1998 present)

After the fall of the Soeharto regime in 1998, Indonesia has entered a new era.
This new era has been marked by openness to the extent that Western
countries now view Indonesia as a democracy. The Soeharto regime left some
bad lessons, which many political experts in Indonesia describe as
administration dilemmas (Taylor 2003). During his presidency, Soeharto ruled
via a dictatorship, and in some cases made political blunders by acting on
Javanese values instead of sound decision making. Sometimes this led to
negative consequences for his government and his crony businesses (Sarsito
2006). Many public sector organisations became bureaucratic with rigid
hierarchies, which was also a legacy of the Dutch administration of the colonial
past. In the years 1998 to 2004 Indonesia was considered to be one of the most
corrupt countries in the world (Boy 2004). This may have been as a result of the
Soeharto regime, as he left behind a cultural behaviour heritage and economic
collapse (Taylor 2003; Adam 2005).

Otherwise, this era has also been marked by the increase of freedom due to the
collaboration of government and parliament. As a result this condition is
described as tigers being let loose from cages. Many politicians that were
previously afraid of speaking the truth have now spoken out about their
idealism. They believe that Indonesia should revert to its previous era of real
democracy, when the openness of the public press was a good example of
public control over the government.

This era has been marked by four presidents: (1) B.J Habibie, (2) Gus Dur, (3)
Megawati Sukarnoputri and (4) Soesilo Bambang Yudhoyono (SBY). The first
was not Javanese, but his ideology and behaviour were built on the Soeharto
regime. The second previously acted as the president of the biggest Moslem
Association in Indonesia, Nadhatul Ullama, and ruled the country for just a short
period of time. The third president was the oldest daughter of Soekarno. She
came from the PDI (Indonesian Democracy Party). Under her presidency, the
Indonesian economy recovered from its 1998 collapse. The fourth president,
who still rules the country now, is from a military background and served as
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Soehartos adjutant. At the 62
nd
Independence Day of Indonesia, President SBY
said that nowadays the direction of the multi reformation of Indonesia just has
begun (Herlina 2007).

In summary, it is clear that Javanese cultural values were strongly emphasised
by the first two presidents to rule Indonesia after independence: Soekarno had
twenty-one years as the dominant influence on the countrys development, and
Soeharto ruled for thirty years in a dictatorship. Both were Javanese, and they
attempted to rule Indonesia in a Javanese style (Taylor 2003; Sarsito 2006).

2.3 The People of Java: the Javanese

A full discussion of Javanese culture will give some insight as to how Javanese
cultural values influence Indonesian social life. However, as this research is a
management related study, a total discussion of Indonesian culture is not
possible within the scope of this thesis. Indonesia has more than 300 ethnicities
which all have their own cultural values; it is not possible to capture the cultural
values underpinning each of them. As is clear from the beginning, the cultural
values that are discussed in this thesis are those of Javanese ethnicity that are
believed to have influenced Indonesian development over a very long period of
time, and the discussion is limited to this ethnicity. A complete review of
Indonesian ethnicities is provided by Vickers (2005), Taylor (2003), Hellwig and
Tagliacozzo (2009), and Ricklesfs (2008).

In order to get a clear understanding of Javanese values in the Indonesian
context, it is essential to take account of the complexity and dynamics of
Javanese culture, how this culture has operated through history until the
present time, and how it has continued to shape the behaviour of Indonesians.

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2.3.1 Javanese

Of the 365 ethnicities in the country, Javanese are considered to be culturally
and politically the most dominant (Suryadinata, Ananta et al. 2000). Evidence of
their historical background and their unique cultural values are still present
today (Efferin and Hopper 2007; Irawanto 2007).
The Javanese are an ethnic group that are native to the Indonesian island of
Java. Taylor (2003) highlights the origin of the Javanese:
they are of Austronesian origins whose ancestors are thought to have
originated in Taiwan, and migrated though the Philippines, reaching Java
between 1,500BCE and 1,000BCE

The history of the Javanese can be tracked back as far as the late 14
th
century
AD, when the Majapahit and Mataram kingdoms ruled the Java region and the
surrounding area. Under Majapahit rule, the influence of Buddhism was very
intense (Noorduyn 1978). Majapahit also successfully conquered the Sriwijaya
kingdom in the Sumatra islands, which had previously been known as the most
powerful kingdom in Indonesia. This resulted in many Javanese-Majapahit
going to the Sumatran islands, which in turn influenced the Sumatran peoples
culture. For example, the Sumatran royal families now use Javanese titles such
as raden (prince).

During this era, it is thought that the spreading of Islamic faith began with the
arrival of the first Islamic missionary from the Middle East, Syekh Magribi or
Maulana Malik Ibrahim, in 1405 AD (2007). This man is known as the father of
Wali Songo (the epithet of nine Islam faith missionaries from Java), who over
the centuries attempted to try to influence Hindus, Buddhists and animistic
followers to enter Islam. This effort was successful, because Wali Songo did not
merely influence them to adopt a new faith, but with this adoption were also
modified some of the traditional Javanese values to become closer to Islamic
values. This is believed to be the origin of the Islamic values that are found in
Javanese culture today, and their acceptance was reinforced in many ways,
including through the work of Sunan Kalijaga (sunan means guardian). Sunan
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Kalijaga is famous because he was a man of great learning as well as a poet
and a philosopher (2007). To teach people the Islamic faith, he created a
Javanese song which aimed to get people to attend sunset prayers, with the
logical consequence that activities should be stopped at dusk. As a result of
people liking the song, over time people willingly entered Islam and the Islamic
community continuously grew.

The other important decade of the Javanese started in the era of the Mataram
kingdom, which is located in an agrarian region in central Java
(Koentrjaraningrat 1985). This kingdom was a Hindu kingdom, and throughout
its development some of the members of the dynasty moved to the East
Javanese state, which is located in the Brantas River Valley and was ruled by
the King Airlangga dynasty (Koentrjaraningrat 1985). The Mataram rulers
emphasised from the beginning their direct continuity with the lines of Majapahit
kings (Jay 1963). While that dynasty is spread among the Java islands and
other regions in Indonesia such as Bali, the Javanese were mainly domiciled in
central Java, and east Java.

In exploring the historical influences on the Javanese people, parallels can be
drawn with Javanese cultural values.

2.3.2 Javanese Cultural Values

This section discusses the key concepts of Javanese culture values that are
relevant to leadership. These values denote the ideal ways for the support of
Javanese life. The careful selection of the cultural values described is based on
extensive consultation with Javanese experts during data collection; only the
key cultural concepts related to the study are discussed.

Life Value Based Cultures
To support life, the Javanese have adopted beliefs that are a mixture of
complex ideas, norms, regulations and values learnt from their ancestors
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(Koentrjaraningrat 1985). Bratawijaya (1997) notes that Javanese cultural
values can be found in literature because of the written documents of past
Javanese kings who came from different dynasties, namely Mangkunegara,
Pakubuwono and Pakualaman. The Javanese, who had adopted the Hindu faith
and culture, ruled these dynasties. The Hindu-Javanese culture was a result of
the meeting of the two civilizations, the indigenous and the Hindu. However, the
influence of Islam on Javanese civilisation in the 15
th
century produced a mixed
culture that exists until the present day (Bratawijaya 1997).

Geertz notes that the ideology of the Javanese is the ideal of peaceful life
(Geertz 1956). Key concepts are alus-kasar and lair-batin. In short, alus means
pure, which describes people as calm, and kasar means the opposite, such as
impolite, which describes people as cruel. Only alus behaviour is encouraged in
everyday life, while kasar is often associated with people who are not Javanese.
To be respected by other people, Javanese have to show lair, which relates to
the outer realm of human behaviour, including areas such as dress and
behaviour. Also, Javanese must show batin, which relates to the inner realm of
human behaviour the way Javanese people behave. Moreover, anthropology
scholars have also noted that in everyday life, Javanese should always keep in
mind the idea of kawulogusti or the unity of servant and lord (Geertz 1960;
Geertz 1961). C. Geertz (1973) argues that to be a human, a person should act
like a Javanese, which he claims to be the ideal behaviour for a peaceful life
ideology. Leaders are expected to display this ideal behaviour.

Hierarchical Rank in Java
Javanese people can also be distinguished by their social group. C. Geertz
(1960) concludes that there are three class strata commonly seen in rural Java:
(1) abangan, (2) santri and (3) priyayi. Abangan / the red is the lowest class
and mainly relates to peasants who live in villages, but is also associated with
lower social and economic status (Goodfellow 1997). Goodfellow also notes
that these peasants have several traditional animistic household and
neighbourhood rituals, but they too exhibit the crucial modern characteristics in
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that they have a tolerance for the increasing secularisation of many aspects of
social life and for the presence of other forms of worship.

As described in Section 2.3.1, Islam has also influenced Indonesia, and so the
second stratum of C. Geertzs (1960) classification is santri, or strict adherence
to Islam. As Ali (1986) notes, what is interesting about this class is their strong
belief that a person has a spiritual power that flows out from the kingdoms
water spring; gradually this spiritual power decreases until, through
bureaucracy, it reaches the lower level and in the end flows weakly to the lower
peasants, the abangan.

The highest stratum, which is associated with the highest-ranking members of
the Javanese dynasties presented earlier, is priyayi. This word roughly means
the true royal noble people. Their appearance in the public view is as
contributors to culture and philosophy, and to provide guidance for the other
classes below them, in particular for the abangan. Being priyayi means being a
public figure in society (Geertz 1961). The way priyayis act and talk are
lessons for abangan. Another important aspect of being priyayi is the ability to
feel rasa and act in accord with lair-batin (Freeland 1997). In this context, rasa
is roughly translated as a feeling that prompts a person to act in a more
elevated wayfrom either an aesthetic or moral point of viewand which
affects the emotional life of the individual who experiences the action. The more
refined ones feeling, then the more profound ones understanding, the more
elevated ones moral character, and the more beautiful ones external aspect, in
behaviour, speech, and so on (Geertz, 1957).

In todays world these differences between the strata are less evident in the city
(Makarim and Pranowo 2006). However, the essence of stratification is still
practiced nationwide, such as through higher education, seniority in terms of
age and higher position being related to someone in the higher ranks; this
affects organisational life (Goodfellow 1997; Shiraishi 1997).

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Javanese Relationship and Followership
The Javanese have a strong belief that life is not just about how we build our
social network nor about looking for materialistic objectives (duniawi) in the
world. Rather they seek security in their after-death life; they are concerned
about how they obey Allah in order to avoid the punishment of hell, and look
forward to the paradise of heaven (surgawi). Ali (1986) states that it is crucial for
Javanese to look beyond the harmonious relationships of the individual, society
and nature in everyday life. In particular, in their society most Javanese have to
be andap asor, which means to humble oneself politely and to demonstrate
correct behaviour (Geertz 1960).

In their social relationships, Javanese attempt to look at the final destination of
life, called rukun, which means harmony; they try to avoid conflict and always
respect other people, whatever their strata and whatever their situation and
condition. These values can be traced back to early relationships in the family;
the idea of bapakism, which means father-ism, includes always respecting other
father figures such as teachers and managers. This terminology refers to a form
of Javanese paternalism and patronage that demands obedience and respect.
Hildred Geertz (1961) states that hormat is a Javanese term which means the
recognition of superior rank by means of the appropriate forms of etiquette.
These values are not related to power, authority, or even class strata. Besides
those normative regulations, Javanese are also bound by a life philosophy
which is shown in their relationships with other people, either Javanese or non-
Javanese; this philosophy is called nrimo acceptance. This value emphasises
the importance of always accepting somebodys argument with respect. This
idea is related to the final destination of Javanese life, which is to build
harmony. Harmony and equilibrium are overarching values. As Hildred Greetz
(1961) states:
The determination to maintain the performance of social harmony to
minimize the overt expression of any kind of social and personal conflict,
is based on the Javanese view that the emotional equilibrium, emotional
stasis, is of the highest worth, and on the corresponding moral
imperative to control ones own impulses, to keep them out of awareness
or at least unexpressed, so as not to set up reverberating emotions in
others.
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In regards to communications, Stange highlighted the importance of speaking in
kromo, or polite words, especially with those who are senior and older (Stange
1979). This can be understood from two perspectives: from the basic cultural
values which reflect the spirit of lair-batin; and from the mysticism of wayang
expressed in shadow puppet performances. These consistently highlight the
importance of behaving correctly in front of the highest stratum heroes in the
performance (Stange 1986).

Javanese cultural values form the very basic foundation that every Javanese
should use to determine how they should build their connections with others.
The next section discusses how these cultural values have appeared in the
evolution of Indonesia as a state.

2.3.3 Javanese Cultural Values: Evidence over Time

As this review shows, the Javanese are politically and culturally dominant in
modern Indonesia (Sarsito 2006). This section provides further evidence of the
assimilation of Javanese cultural values into everyday life. The uniqueness of
these cultural values has prompted the researcher to dig deeper to find how
these values have became integrated into Indonesian society, especially after
the independence of Indonesia in 1945. As Cribb (2001) notes, the image of the
Javanese cannot be separated from that of the Indonesian state. The
discussion presented here is limited to the period of Indonesia after
independence, and in relation to the subject of this thesis.

Given this unique background, Javanese culture has been given special
treatment in both the orde lama (old order) under Soekarno presidency and
the orde baru (new order) under Soehartos presidency. McIntyre (2001)
argues that Soekarnos leadership is middle way leadership, which he
describes as the leadership style that embraces diversity. Borrowing the
concept of ratu adil, Soekarno tried to inspire the whole nation to build a state
that McIntryre translates as .... the state of all for all, one for all, all for one,
and a state built on mutual cooperation (McIntyre 2001). Being the
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mouthpiece for the Indonesian people and displaying flamboyant Javanese and
nominally muslim behaviour made Soekarno appear charismatic in the eye of
the public (Vickers 2005). When speaking to the crowd, he often included
several Javanese terms and attempted to interpret them on his own. One
example of this was ratu adil, where he claimed that ....the notion of ratu adil
actually refers to social justice (McIntyre 2001). He also mentioned Islamic
concepts, such as when he said:
I am a democrat because I am Muslim, I prefer consensus, so I request
that the head of state be elected. Does not Silam teach us that the
people should elect all heads of state, be they caliphs or Amirul
muminim (commander of the faithful) (Soekarno 2009)

As discussed in Section 2.2, under Soeharto, Soekarnos successor, the
appearance of Javanese cultural philosophies in socio-politic and economic life
of this nation became more pronounced.

In the era between 1966 and 1998, as the bureaucratic elite the priyayi in
particular had a special position and responsibility; their role was to contribute to
the development of Indonesia (Dwipayana and Ramadhan 1989; Goodfellow
1997; Sarsito 2006). In order to build national stability and to expand the
development of the country, Soeharto allowed priyayis to be partners in all
aspects of the government sector, such as the military, the cabinet and the
business sector (Goodfellow 1997). The domination of priyayis in these
strategic sectors of Indonesian development directly and indirectly encouraged
Javanese cultural values, which in turn influenced nationwide cultural, political,
and economic conditions (Goodfellow 1997).

Apart from that, Soeharto promoted basic fundamental Javanese philosophies
of life in his presidency, which included the ideology of a peaceful life based on
avoiding certain aspects of life. This is summed up in the phrase aja kagetan,
aja gumunan, and aja dumeh in other words, do not easily be surprised and
amazed at whatever happens on earth and you shall not show off yourself
(Sarsito 2006). This principle of life was taken from the priyayi attitude which
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was to be alus. Moreover, as a muslim, Soeharto also had in mind spiritual
Javanese-Islam values. Sarsito (2006) states that Soeharto never left the
spiritual philosophy of life that came from his muslim ancestors, and which is
described as hormat kawalan Gusti, Guru, Ratu, lan wong tuwo loro. This
philosophy teaches how people should take account of respect (hormat) in life:
people have to put in order their respect for God/Allah (gusti), teacher (guru),
king (ratu), and parents (wong tuwo loro). In one of the Soeharto biographies,
Dwipayana and Ramadhan (1989) state that Soeharto said that while he was
still the president he would never change his principle of hormat kawalan Gusti,
Guru, Ratu, lan wong tuwo loro, and he believed that he would not omit this
spiritual teaching from any activities in his country.

Another popular Javanese philosophy that Soeharto also encouraged during his
presidency was mikul dhuwur mendhem jero, or carry high, bury deep
regarding the body of a deceased parent. That is, be sure to keep their
infamous deeds to yourself and talk only of their good deeds (Dwipayana and
Ramadhan 1989). At any moment, every person, especially civil servants, had
to know about these un-stated rules and how to behave correctly in their
organisational activities, particularly when facing a person who had higher rank
or position (Goodfellow 1997) .

From this it is concluded that Javanese philosophies of life were taken seriously
in the formal life of an organisation and in the countrys bureaucracy, which led
to the national identity at that time (Sarsito 2006). As Sarsito (2006) states:
As the President of Indonesia, Soeharto had treated the country and the
state as a big Javanese family. He positioned himself not only as the leader,
or the King of the country, but also the father of a big family

After the fall of the Soeharto regime, Indonesia entered a new era in 1998. This
was called the reformation by student protesters and brought many changes to
the socio-political and societal spheres regarding Javanese culture. In the era of
Abdurrahman Wahid (also known as Gus Dur), the first president elected in the
new Indonesian democracy, many incidents associated with Javanese culture
25 | P age

were recorded. Although he was santri, and therefore expected to behave alus
(calm), this behaviour did not appear in his manner (Liddle 2000; Pausacker
2004). As Barton (2002) says, his deportment was more kasar (coarse). During
his presidency, a relaxed and flexible climate was commonly seen in
organisational life, and this was reflected in the media, where almost all of Gus
Dur related news items were marked with jokes (Barton 2002). Similarity,
Pausacker (2004) notes that Gus Dur attempted to be a Semar a shadow
puppet hero (vulgar court jester), where he served as a leader with the aim of
making the audiences double-up with laughter. Furthermore, another image
associated with him is inconsistency when making political statements, and
making decisions on his own without consulting his cabinet (Liddle 2000).
These factors made his presidency very short. Of particular note, his leadership
did not receive popular support because his behaviour clashed with traditional
Javanese values.

His successor was Megawati Soekarnoputri. She was the first female leader
that Indonesians had ever experienced. Her leadership style was very different
from that of Gus Dur. Her assertive personality came into the public view when
she proposed the use of military force in dealing with restive provinces (2001).
She also rarely commented publicly on any issues that she believed would
impact on Indonesian unity; that made her appearances in front of Indonesians
tegas dan berwibawa, or assertive and authoritative (Mujani and Liddle 2004).
Unlike the kasar style of Gus Dur, as a female Javanese her appearances in the
public were always graceful and indicated that she liked to bersolek, or dress up
a characteristic that is also associated with the alus personality (Pausacker
2004).

Indonesia is currently experiencing a third, typically alus president, Susilo
Bambang Yudhoyono (SBY), who is well known for his charismatic
appearances in public (Hughes-Freeland 2007). He is Javanese, and he is
believed to run his presidency based on several Javanese cultural principles.
However, in recent Indonesian history, perhaps SBY is the only president who
is known to be a well educated person, holding a doctoral degree from the
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Bogor Agricultural Institute. He has also carefully selected the ministers for his
cabinet and surrounded himself with intellectual people (Liddle and Mujani
2004). This quality orientation relates to several Javanese cultural principles,
notably lair-batin, in which quality oriented behaviour is considered the ideal for
both the outer and inner realms of human beings. In Javanese culture, highly
educated people are regarded as people with higher status, such as the priyayi
and santri classes. Interestingly, despite his Javanese image, SBY is also well
known for his efforts in combating KKN (Kassim 2004), suggesting that the KKN
is not directly linked to Javanese values and culture.

Javanese culture has changed significantly as the traditional Javanese socio-
political and societal culture has changed on its journey to a contemporary
context.

2.4 Traditional Patterns of Leadership in Indonesia: Javanese
Views

This section discusses the traditional leadership patterns in Indonesia, in
particular with respect to the Javanese culture as discussed in Section 2.3.2.
This discussion of leadership patterns will be limited to value-based patterns
only, as the researcher believes that Javanese societies teach respect for
leaders right from early childhood. As Mulder (1994) suggests, leadership at the
state level has been based on some basic principles of Javanese culture.
Therefore, the discussion in this section builds on Section 2.3.3 and will give a
more comprehensive picture of leadership patterns in Indonesia.

Traditionally, Javanese leadership has been largely related to male domination,
based on the higher stratum and the upholding of bapakism values. It reflected
patronage between bapak, or father, and anak, or child. This value enabled
fathers to practice strong levels of authority blended with moral values to which
the children should comply.
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This family setting was a solid foundation of leadership, as Shiraishi (1997)
notes:
The bapak-anak relationship was the only hierarchical relationship in
nationalists Indonesian, as Dewantara said, that resisted all other
hierarchical relationships embedded in Dutch, and other languages.

In discussing this hierarchical relationship in Javanese societies, family-ism is
discussed first as this concept serves as the central point of the bapak-anak
relationship. Historically, the keluarga, or family, is a social unit consisting of
parents and children. In Java, the eldest people, especially parents, should be
respected due to their example and moral guidance (Mulders 1994). In return,
children are expected to be nurut, manut or nrimo accepting with compliance
what their parents command them. This extends to the school environment,
where it is reflected in their salutation of their teacher, and they are expected to
call their teacher pak or bapak (father) or bu or ibu (mother) (Shiraishi 1997).
That is, teachers receive the same salutation as their parents.

This demands the same condition as in the family as they face their parents
(e.g. nurut, which is reflected in a high degree of obedience). In regard to this
principle, Koentjaraningrat (1985) says:
It is obvious that the personality trait which Javanese people prefer so
much to see in their children, that is, obedience or manut, is consistent
with a lineal value orientation ...

Additionally, superiority and seniority also play a central role in leadership
processes. Despite Javanese culture having its own stratification, being the
eldest in the community can also automatically grant status (Marianto and
Goodfellow 1997). Elders can be referred to as persons that demand extreme
reverence because of their care, teaching and protection (Mulders 1994).
Improper treatment, such as confronting them using kasar behaviour, may lead
to serious consequences, which Javanese say is kuawalat, or revenge based
on natural law (Koentrjaraningrat 1985; Shiraishi 1997). Therefore the
leadership process is often viewed as autocratic, in which there is no room for
followers to complain.
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Additionally, the expressions of respect to superiors that determine Javanese
behaviour in social relations is referred to as ngajeni/ (Geertz 1961). It concerns
the feeling that the other person is superior and that he or she demands real
submission to their authority to be expressed in an appropriate way. Therefore,
ideally the leader (he or she) should be admired and honoured
(Koentrjaraningrat 1985). On the other hand, people who are less superior are
guided by the notion of isin, which refers to a feeling in which individuals ego
considers himself extremely inferior
2
towards another person because, he,
someone, thinks that the other person despises him very much
(Koentrjaraningrat 1985). Another popular term in describing the superior-
inferior relationship is sungkan, which roughly means feeling awkward (Geertz
1961; Koentrjaraningrat 1985).

As Koentjaraningrat states (p249):
Sungkan is not yet a feeling of genuine respect, but one of distance
owing to a feeling the superiority of the other person, and that Ego, who
is only an inferior person vis-a-vis the other, may therefore disturb him.

On the other hand, the expression of remen, which roughly means liking, is
described as a feeling for inferior to congratulate superior achievement (e.g.
achievement, authority, education or higher position) (Koentrjaraningrat 1985).
Ngajeni, isin, sungkan and remen are only some of the key concepts that
describe superior-inferior relationships. However, they are tied to the key
Javanese cultural values discussed in Section 2.3.2, and they are related to one
key concept, alus. These behaviours are expected to be practiced in order to
make someone else see a person as one who behaves alus. Despite the
connection of the relationship between inferior and superior to very central
Javanese cultural values, inferiors are dependent on the superiors capacity in
the decision making process. This is what Pemberton (1994) notes as a
behaviour that fits within the nilai-nilai tradisional or cultural inheritance and

2
Western literature would tend to use the term subordinate rather than inferior. The
researcher believes, however, that inferior is a more accurate representation of the
relationships in the context of Indonesian culture.
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which later on could serve as an indicator of the success of the relationship
between leader and followers.

Decision making in traditional Javanese society varies between participative-
semi consensus building and absolute autocratic leadership. At times leaders
have used power and control to influence the people; however, important
decisions affecting the wider community have generally been made collectively
(Koentrjaraningrat 1985; Mulders 1994). The term for this process is
musyawarah untuk mufakat, which is best translated as familial deliberations
and consultation. Despite the use of this principle in the national philosophy
(Garuda Pancasila principle four, as discussed in Section 2.2), this principle is
also regulated further in the 1945 Indonesian Constitution Act 33 Section III.
Indonesians understand the essence of this principle as it is a mandatory
subject in school from primary to tertiary level (Mulders 1994); often the
principle and the Act are the subjects of recitation (Sarsito 2006). The leaders
role at any occasion requiring the building of consensus is to guide the
discussion, to summarise the main points at the end of the meeting and finally
to indicate when consensus had been achieved (Koentrjaraningrat 1985). This
is referred to as mufakat, which literally means to weave people together; it is a
word that stresses the importance of consensus and harmony
(Koentrjaraningrat 1985; Mulders 1994).

The Javanese also strongly prefer to work in cooperation. In Indonesia, working
in cooperation cannot be separated from leadership processes. The famous
term for cooperation in the Javanese language, which became national jargon,
is called gotong-royong, or mutual assistance (Koentrjaraningrat 1985; Bowen
1986). Bowen (1986), writing during the New Order Era, suggested that what
had been a cultural habit was exploited by corporations:
The gotong royong term corresponds to genuinely indigenous notions
of moral obligation and generalized reciprocity, but it has been
reworked by the state to become a cultural-ideological instrument for
the mobilization of village labor.

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However, Shiraishi (1997) argues that in Indonesian modern thought, the image
of the family basis as the foundation for any formal or non-formal organisation
has expanded to the state level. Gotong royong as a way for working
deliberately at the state level first appeared in the Soekarno presidency
(Soekarno 2009), and continues up until the present day. It is evident that
Indonesians value working collaboratively in a harmonious environment (Bowen
1986). This concept also relates to the leadership style that Javanese prefer.

Furthermore, Mulder (1994) argues that the authoritarian paternalistic form of
leadership fits with the values of the Javanese. For the Javanese, and most
other ethnic groups in Indonesia, the father figure kind of leadership embodies
the highest authority. As Mulder (1994) and Rademakers (1998) state, all
important decisions are made by the father, and all members of the group
have to obey the father figure, the bapak. It is clear that this kind of value,
bapakism, is deeply rooted in paternalism and high degrees of power and
authority. Furthermore, the Javanese are taught from childhood to respect and
obey authority figures (Willner 1963). This means that the authority figures that
they encounter when they enter the work-force are bapak, leading with the
strong hand of paternalistic leadership.

It was also noted in Section 2.3.3. that the adoption of Javanese culture into
Indonesian leadership is still taking place. Traditional Javanese leadership
patterns are still highly influential in contemporary Indonesian society, even
though, as described in Section 2.2, many Indonesian presidents have brought
their own very different approaches to leadership to the office. Bapak-ism is still
strongly identifiable for many Indonesians, especially in the government sector.
Therefore the traditional leadership values that are linked to this are still
influential.

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2.5 Summary

The exploration of Indonesian history and Javanese culture in this chapter
demonstrates that the practice of leadership in Indonesia has changed
significantly in the past and is still changing in this turbulent present. Javanese
themselves have proud cultural values that distinguish them from other groups.
At the same time, they consider that religious practices should be incorporated
into daily life. To some degree, traditional values need to be incorporated into
contemporary leadership practices.

The examination of Indonesian leadership in this chapter, in terms of Javanese
ethnicity, suggests that the face and role of Javanese leaders have not changed
significantly; they are still deeply embedded in the contemporary context. In
short, modern Indonesian leadership cannot be separated from Bapak, which is
based on a highly paternalistic climate. Leadership practices that operate
counter to these values typically face rejection in Indonesian organisations. A
summary of key concepts in understanding leadership processes in the light of
Indonesian, and in particular Javanese, culture is summarised in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1.
Outlines of Javanese Values that Shape the Leader-Follower Relationship
(A) Traditionally, leaders are expected to be:
1. Bapak: they should perform fatherly deeds.
They should behave superiorly in relation to Javanese values such as alus,
or soft, lair-batin, or perfectly outer manner-perfectly inner manner. They
should also act as a father, as if they were heading their own family.
2. Andhap-ashor: they should perform moral deeds.
They should behave in a way that is always humble, polite and
demonstrates correct behaviour.
3. Tepo-seliro: they should perform benevolent deeds.
Leaders are expected to behave sympathetically and to carry out their
responsibilities towards their followers in a sober manner.
(B) Followers are expected to be:
1. Hormat: they should provide recognition.
They should Recognise superior rank by means of the appropriate forms of
etiquette. These values are not related to power, authority, or even class
strata.
2. Nrimo: they should accept with compliance.
Whatever their leaders command them, they have to highly obey.
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CHAPTER 3 LEADERSHIP THEORY

3.1 Introduction

Leadership today is a complex and controversial area of research (Richmon
and Allison 2003), and has been studied from various scientific perspectives
(Horner 1997). The construct of leadership has been accepted by scholars in
the areas of management, organisational behaviour and psychology.
Leadership theory has developed over time and involves a wide spectrum of
knowledge in areas such as anthropology and politics.

This literature review on leadership theory aims to show how leadership theory
has emerged and is being shaped, and how the concept is important for
organisations. This chapter provides a review of the development of leadership
theory over time. As described in Chapter One, leadership is crucial to the
development of Indonesias future, and a careful examination of the early key
concepts of leadership is important to this study.

This chapter summarises recent perspectives on leadership from several
different angles of knowledge, and then summarises the research on leadership
from a leadership schools of thought perspectives. This summary describes
how leadership is viewed from different perspectives for different purposes.
However, this does not mean that the theories described stand alone. In part,
there needs to be an integration of all of the aspects that relate to leadership for
it to be universally understood. In short, this chapter aims to reach a conclusion
about what leadership is and what form of leadership is essential in the
Indonesian government sector.

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3.2 Concepts of Leadership

Leadership theory is broad, and has evolved over the time, making it
challenging to summarise. In this literature review the researcher provides two
approaches for understanding leadership. The review begins by providing some
basic concepts for understanding leadership. Second, this chapter briefly
discusses other academic literature reviews, including several major leadership
theories that many scholars refer to as the school of thought of leadership
theory.

Leadership is often associated with words like influence, motivating, inspiring
and change. Leadership theory has developed as scholars have attempted to
define the factors that contribute to success when leaders and followers work
together to accomplish shared goals (Yukl 2010).

One danger is that a leadership theorist may not recognise how much their own
values play a part in the development of the models that they propose. The
development of a leadership theory can follow a process where (1) the theorist
identifies an approach or style of leading that appeals to them on the basis of
their values, (2) this approach is given a name that distinguishes it from others,
and (3) an effort is made to establish that this approach to leadership applies
universally.

It is difficult to conclude that one leadership style is likely to be effective if
implemented worldwide, as the majority of leadership style labels were coined
by North American theorists, and therefore have been based on Western
conceptions of leadership. It is difficult to say for sure if leadership styles are
universally perceived in the same way across nations. This topic will be
discussed later in the chapter.

However, caution is needed when any attempt is made to apply leadership
theories in a non-Western context; Tourish and Pinningtons (2001) have
argued that the generalisation of transformational leadership theories might be
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in need of re-conceptualisation. There is also a strong suggestion from
reputable leadership scholars such as Geert H Hofstede (2006) and House et
al. (2004) that cultural influences on human behavior, which are believed to
impact on the effectiveness of leadership, must be taken into account. As a
result, today many researchers in the field of leadership have started to focus
on the factors that influence leadership effectiveness. The relationship between
leadership and cultural values is a popular topic because researchers have
found that leadership effectiveness depends on cultural aspects (Dorfman
2004).

Given the fact that leadership is not defined, but is characterized as a
mechanism for accomplishing goals (Pawar and Eastman 1997), the literature
review on leadership presented in this chapter does not attempt to provide a
definition of any particular leadership theory or attempt to find a style of
leadership that is universally accepted. Rather, it conceptualises ideas of
leadership that have been captured from the academic literature. The review
will begin the journey of understanding leadership by conceptualising it, and
shaping it within the boundaries of this study. Only key studies most relevant to
the research objectives will be discussed in this chapter.

3.3 Leadership Theory

It is generally acknowledged by leadership scholars that leadership theory has
been founded on in Western concepts, in particular based the North American
culture. Examples of Western concepts include Behavioural model leadership
theories (the Ohio State and Michigan model), the Situational and Contingency
model and the Charismatic and Transformational model; all of these concepts
will be discussed in this chapter. House and Aditya (1997) have postulated that
98% of leadership research has been undertaken in the context of individualistic
cultures, and primarily in a North American context. As a consequence, the
validity of all of these theories is open to question; whether or not leadership
theories originating in North America are universally applicable is a matter of
debate (Yukl 1989; Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner 2003; Dorfman 2004).
35 | P age

Given these shortcomings, and in line with the research objective, the
leadership theories considered in this chapter will not just be those that have
originated from North America, but will also include theories that have
developed outside North America, particularly Taiwan. For the purpose of
understanding the effectiveness of leadership practices in Indonesia, cross-
cultural perspectives are needed.

3.3.1 Early Attempts at Leadership Theorisation

Early leadership theories were based on the Great Man approach (Howell and
Shamir 2005), which sought to identify the traits of effective leaders. Attributes
like gender, height, psychic energy and appearance, as well as psychological
traits and motives such as authoritarianism, intelligence, need for achievement
and need for power, are associated with the great man paradigm (House and
Aditya 1997). These positive qualities were believed to differentiate leaders
from non-leaders.

Stodgill (1974), in his handbook of leadership, has classified the following five
broad categories of related traits that he believes contribute to effective
leadership: (1) capacity, (2) achievement, (3) responsibility, (4) participation and
(5) status. However, he further notes that these attributes do not provide a
sufficient explanation of the leadership phenomenon, and found that the trait
approach suffers from major drawbacks. His review found several traits, that
were supposed to be important according to some studies, were found to be
unimportant in other studies (Stogdill 1974). Further, he concludes that traits
themselves do not identify leadership. As he argues:
A person does not become a leader by virtue of the possession of some
combination of traits, but a pattern of personal characteristics of the
leader must bear some relevant relationship to the characteristics,
activities, and goals of the followers (Stogdill 1974) p.63.

In this early stage of theorisation, the classical view of leadership was
predominantly based on the view that the leaders role was transactional; that
the leaders task is to manage followers by clarifying their job roles and tasks to
achieve goals (Stogdill 1974; DuBrin 2004). House (1977) and Yukl (1989)
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argue that transactional leadership can be viewed as an authoritarian
leadership style. This type of leader believes that it is important to make the
decision on his/her own about what followers should do, and if possible to
closely supervise them (Lussier and Achua 2007). Scholars have recently
empirically verified this theory (Mumford, Zaccara et al. 2000; Chan and
Drasgow 2001; Howell and Boas 2005).

The limitations of this approach to understanding leadership, as described by
well known management scholar Peter Drucker, are that a leader cannot be
categorised by a particular personality type, style or set of traits (Frances,
Marshall & Richard, (1996). Drucker encourages leaders to look at themselves
in the mirror and make an introspective examination of how successful they are
in leading their followers. Drucker encourages leaders not to focus on their
personal traits or style, but on the relationships that they develop with followers,
and whether or not these relationships produce the desired results.

This calls into question whether a traits-based approach to leadership is
sufficient in describing the practice of effective leadership. To conclude the
discussion of this first attempt at leadership theorisation, the researcher agrees
with Kickpatrick and Lockes statement (1991):
Leaders do not have to be great men or women by being intellectual
geniuses or omniscient prophets to succeed, but they do need to have
the right stuff and this stuff is not equally present in all people p.59.

Dorfman (2004) goes further stating that this set of traits is not associated with
leadership effectiveness at all. The inability to proceed to effective leadership by
displaying a fixed set of leadership traits gives rise to a gap for other leadership
scholars to develop a behavioural model of leadership theory which will be
discussed next under the heading of Leadership School of Thought.

Yukl (1989) has noted that the shift towards trait theory in the late 1980s was
mainly a move from personal attribute traits of leaders to managerial and
specific skills. These include several theorists that enjoy nontrivial empirical
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support of trait theory (House and Aditya 1997). These theories are as follows:
(1) David McClelands Achievement Motivation Theory, (2) David McClelands
Leader Motive Profile, (3) Robert J Houses Charismatic Leadership Theory,
and (4) Kenny and Zaccaros Leader Sensitivity and Flexibility Constructs.

3.3.2 Leadership Schools of Thought

The discussion in Section 3.3.1 ended with a call for further examination of
leadership theory to overcome the limitations of trait theory. This section
explores three major groups of leadership theories that are recognised as
leadership schools of thought. These three groups are behavioural theory,
situational leadership and charismatic and transformational leadership. These
groups are widely discussed by scholars in literature reviews of leadership.
Each approach gives an insight into the nature of leadership, and can therefore
be used as a foundation for understanding leadership in the Indonesian context.

The Behavioural Approach
Stimulated by the lack of convincing empirical evidence for the effectiveness of
the trait theory, leadership scholars have been challenged to search for other
factors that may impact on leadership effectiveness. One area that has
generated a great deal of interest is the behavioural approach, where the focus
is on what the leader does.

Like the trait approach, the behavioural approach does not provide a complete
explanation of leadership effectiveness. As Lewins (1938) argues, behaviour is
a function of situational and dispositional elements. Therefore the exploration of
behavioural aspects of leadership supplements earlier leadership theories in
regard to explaining how to lead effectively. In short, Yukl (1989) concludes that
the behavioural approach emphasizes what leaders and managers actually do
on the job, and the relationship of behavior to managerial relationship p.257.

In the late 1950s, extensive research was conducted at Ohio State University
and The University of Michigan to explore effective leader behaviours that could
contribute to understanding leadership. These studies led to what is known as
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the effective leadership behaviours and attitudes theory. And were not based on
trait and personality theory; instead they are based on the behaviours displayed
by effective leaders. According to Dubrin (2004), this pioneering research has
laid the foundation for understanding the difference between successful and
unsuccessful leadership styles. The Ohio State University studies have
proposed two distinct leadership dimensions, initiating structure and
consideration (DuBrin 2004). The first is more concerned with getting the task
done, whilst the second is focused on meeting individual needs and developing
relationships.

Similarly, University of Michigan studies identified two leadership styles: job-
centred and employee-centred. Job-centred behaviour refers to the extent to
which the leader takes charge in order to get the job done. On the other hand,
employee-centred behaviour refers to the extent to which the leader focuses on
meeting the human needs of employees while developing relationships (DuBrin
2004).

The above discussion of behavioural theory provides a clue that these two
major contributors to the behavioural approach have categorised two definite
leader behaviours. In some ways, the task-oriented approach of leading is
similar to initiating structure. People-centred leadership is in some sense similar
to the consideration approach. House and Aditya (1997) claim that this
theorisation has been further developed to provide a refined and detailed
specification of leader behaviours that may lead to leadership effectiveness.

The ultimate goal of the behavioural approach has been to identify and measure
relevant leadership actions and behavioural patterns that lead to high
subordinate productivity and morale (Dorfman 2004). As the trait model was
focused on what leaders are, the behavioural approach is focused on what
leaders do. Adherents of this school of thought believe that selecting the right
leadership style will enable leaders to focus on what they should do to be
effective.

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This contribution to the leadership paradigm has been given a great deal of
attention by critics who have suggested that different leadership styles are more
effective in different situations (Fisher and Edwards 1988; House and Aditya
1997). Dorfman (2004) also notes that purely using the behavioural model of
leadership without acknowledging situational factors may lead to leadership
ineffectiveness.

Fisher and Edwards (1988) argue that the behavioural leadership model has not
had a convincing impact upon leadership effectiveness, and this has led
research to focus on the paradigm of contingency leadership theory instead.
Hence, the next theories discussed in this chapter are those that emphasise the
importance of situational factors in leading.

Situational and Contingency Approach
To overcome the limitation of the behavioural approach, groups of researchers
have tried to include more situational and contingency factors in their studies of
leadership. For example, models proposed by researchers such as Fiedler,
House and Vroom-Yetton have moved from the traditional one best way to
lead approach to an approach where the leader should adopt a leadership style
that matches what the situation demands. DuBrin (2004) notes that:
The essence of situational or contingency approach to leadership is
that leaders are most effective when they make their behavior
contingent upon situational factors, including group member
characteristics p. 135

Stogdill (1974) has pointed out that situational elements in leadership processes
have become a major focus in leadership study. The contingency approach
serves as an extension to the trait and behaviour approach (Northouse 2009).
During the 1970s and 1980s, major academic works on the contingency
approach were found in leadership journals and books. In this section, each
theory is described briefly and examined in terms of conceptual adequacy for
the purpose of this research. Three dominant theories stand out in the
development of contingency leadership theory: Fiedlers Contingency Model,
40 | P age

the Path-Goal theory, and the Normative and Description Models of Leadership
and Decision Making (Vroom and Jago 2007).

Fred E. Fiedlers contingency leadership theory is broadly known as the LPC
(Least Preferred Co-workers) theory. By integrating the behavioural aspects of
earlier leadership behavioural theory with his situational approach, he
developed a theory that stressed the three main leader behaviours that he
believed followers would be most likely to prefer in different situations. He
believed that leaders should choose their leadership style based upon reflecting
on their own personality (trait-theory oriented) and behaviour (behavioural
theory oriented) (Lussier and Achua 2007). This theory assumes that leadership
styles are constant; the leaders only task is to change the situation to make it
favourable to themselves (DuBrin 2004). Lussier and Achua believe that this
theory is used to determine if a persons leadership style is task- or
relationship-oriented, and if the situation (leader-member relationship, task
structure, and position power) matches the leaders style to maximize
performance (Lussier and Achua 2007). Hence, according to this theory there
are at least three leadership styles that will contribute to leadership
effectiveness: (1) task-motivated styles, where the leaders perform best when
they have the most control over the situation; (2) relationship-motivated styles,
where the leaders perform best when they have moderate control over the
situation; and (3) task-motivated styles, where the leaders perform best when
they have low control over the situation (DuBrin 2004).

Fiedlers theory is still viewed as a groundbreaking attempt to overcome the
limitations of previous theories. However, scholars in organisational behaviour
question the validity of the instruments used. Yukls (1989) position on the
LPCs ambiguous measurement scale led to questions about the validity of the
scale.

House (1971) formulated the Path-Goal theory based on the fact that there is a
lack of convincing evidence relating to task-oriented and person-oriented
leadership styles. The major concern of this theory is to give leaders the ability
41 | P age

to choose from four leadership styles (directive, supportive, participative and
achievement-oriented) based on the characteristics of the situations that the
leaders cope with (Lussier and Achua 2007). The selected leadership styles
should be appropriate to the situation (the subordinates and environment) in
order to maximise both performance and job satisfaction. Looking deeply into
the four leadership styles defined by this theory, the directive and supportive
styles were based to some degree on the Ohio State concepts of initiating-
structure and consideration. The participative style emphasises the importance
of leaders having followers that contribute towards decision making; the
achievement-oriented style puts leaders in the position to be able to set
challenging goals as well as initiate work improvement bounded in high
expectation of work outcomes (DuBrin 2004). Figure 3.1 illustrates the
theoretical framework of the Path-Goal theory.

Figure 3.1
Path-Goal Theory
3

However, despite the potential contribution of this theory to leadership research,
the poor refinement of the conceptualisation of the theory has meant that
practitioners are unwilling to apply this theory within their organisations (DuBrin
2004).

3
Source : DuBrin, A., J. (2004). Leadership: Research findings, practice, and skill. New
York, Houghton Mifflin Company.

Characteristics of
Group Members
LEADERSHIP STYLES

Directive
Supportive
Participative
Achievement-oriented
OUTCOMES

Productivity
Morale
Demands of the
Task
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The normative decision making model was developed by Victor Vroom and
Phillip Yetton in the early 1970s. This model views leadership as a decision
making process that requires leaders to explore certain factors in a given
situation to determine which decision making style will be the most effective
(DuBrin 2004). In their revised model Vroom and Jago (2007) identify five
leadership options (decide, consult individually, consult group, facilitate and
delegate) from which to choose in any given situation. Given the fact that this
model is a time- and development-driven decision tree that enables leaders to
select one of five leadership styles, the model allows leaders to maximise the
quality of their decision making processes (Lussier and Achua 2007). The five
leadership styles are presented in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2.
Normative Model Leadership Styles
4

In order to determine which leadership style is effectively implemented within a
situation, it is necessary to consider whether there is low/high value in the

4
Source : DuBrin, A., J. (2004). Leadership: Research findings, practice, and skill. New
York, Houghton Mifflin Company.

Decide. The leader makes the decision alone and announces it, or sells it, to the
followers. The leader may get information from others outside the group and
within the group without specifying the problem.

Consult individually. The leader tells followers individually about the problem,
gets information and suggestions, and then makes the decision.

Consult group. The leader holds a group meeting and tells followers the problem,
gets information and suggestions and then makes the decision.

Facilitate. The leader holds a group meeting and acts as a facilitator to define the
problem and the limits within which a decision must be made. The leader seeks
participation and concurrence on the decision without pushing his or her ideas.

Delegate. The leader lets the group diagnose the problem and make the decision
within stated limits. The role of the leader is to answer questions and provide
encouragement and resources.
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following seven variables: (1) decision significance, (2) importance of
commitment, (3) leader expertise, (4) likelihood of commitment, (5) group
support, (6) group expertise, and (7) team competence (Lussier and Achua
2007).

The model has been widely validated and tested (DuBrin 2004; Lussier and
Achua 2007; Vroom and Jago 2007). Vroom and Jagos consistency in updating
the model has led to its popularity in leadership scholarly works (Lussier and
Achua 2007). Worldwide research using this model has established that
managers do change their style to meet the situation, and they are reported to
be twice as likely to be successful as managers who use decision making styles
other than those in the model. (Lussier and Achua 2007).

It is interesting to note that at the same time that the contingency approach has
been promoted as a way to overcome the limitations of the early theories for
understanding leadership, there has also been a growing number of scholarly
criticisms of this approach. With the growing uncertainty of the socio-economic
and political environment the number of possible leadership situations may
increase, but the contingency model is limited to a fixed number of situations
(Horner 1997; Dickson, Hanges et al. 2001). This will make it difficult to select
an appropriate leadership style that can be fully implemented in some situations
(Yukl 1989). Another major criticism of the situational or contingency approach
relates to explanatory processes about the effects of leadership (Yukl 1989).

Charismatic Leadership and Transformational Leadership
In an effort to understand leadership based on the contingency and situational
approach, the study of personality traits that had shaped leadership study in the
1970s moved back into the centre of the arena of organisational behavior
research in the form of Transformational leadership (Kickpatrick and Locke
1991). Unlike previous leadership theories, this concept was based on the
Weberian concept of emphasising the quality of a leaders behaviour (DuBrin
2004; Lussier and Achua 2007). This approach is called charismatic leadership.
Webers notion of charisma is defined as an influence based on the followers
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perceptions that a leader is endowed with the gift of divine inspiration or
supernatural qualities; this is in contrast with the notion that a leaders influence
is based on the traditional or legitimate authority granted by the power holders
(Lussier and Achua 2007). This notion of charismatic leadership
conceptualisation has attracted scholars from different fields, including scholars
in organisation behaviour such as Robert J. House (1997) and Alan Bryman
(1993).

The theory of charismatic leadership presented in academic work, which is
regularly cited by leadership scholars, has been articulated by North American
organisation theorist Robert J. House. Personality traits that differentiate
charismatic leaders from non-charismatic leaders include a high level of self
confidence, strong motivation to attain and assert influence, and a strong
conviction in the moral correctness of their beliefs (House 1977). The key
dimension of charismatic leadership is that it involves a relationship or
interaction between the leader and the people being led (DuBrin 2004).

House and Howell (1992) list the following effects of charismatic leaders on
followers: (1) an emotional attachment to the leader; (2) emotional and
motivational arousal; (3) enthusiasm for the mission articulated by the leader;
(4) heightened self-esteem, trust and confidence in the leader; (5) increased
values; and (6) increased intrinsic motivation. It is argued that such effects lead
to psychological and behavioural outcomes, including unconditional loyalty,
devotion, self sacrifice, obedience and commitment to the leader and to the
cause that the leader represents (Bryman 1993; Lussier and Achua 2007).
Therefore an organisation benefits from having this kind of leader, as
organisational effectiveness may become reality.

Reviews by DuBrin indicate that there are two types of charismatic leaders: (1)
a socialized charismatic is a leader who restrains the use of power in order to
benefit others; and (2) a personalized charismatic, a leader who exercises few
restraints on their use of power so they may best serve their own interests
(DuBrin 2004). McClelland describes a socialised charismatic leader as a
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person who behaves in an egalitarian manner, serves collective interest and
develops and empowers others, while the personalised charismatic leaders
tend to use power to dominate and behave in an authoritarian manner
(McClelland 1975). Bryman argues that these two pure types of charismatic
leadership are not mutually exclusive; a leader may, at times, display behavior
that simultaneously reflects both types (House and Howell 1992).

So far, the great side of charismatic leadership has been the focus of this
review. However, Bryman (1993) notes that there is one aspect to be
considered in charismatic leadership that many scholars have neglected: what
he terms the dark side of charismatic leadership. In a review of charismatic
leadership, Bryman (1993) gives examples of some leaders who suffered a loss
of charisma, such as Kwame Nkrumah, the leader of Ghana, and Lee Iacocca,
the Chrysler CEO (1993). In essence, as Weber notes, charisma is fragile and
constantly in need of proof in the eyes of the leaders followers (Weber 1968).
However, DuBrin (2004) has warned that the view of the dark side of
charismatic leadership is mostly related to those who apply personalised
charismatic leadership.

Despite the weaknesses in the conceptualisation of charismatic leadership,
Bass and Avolios new theory on transformational leadership has acknowledged
that the charisma component of their model is a very useful construct for
leadership behaviour. Driven by the need for the revitalisation of organisations
in the US during 1980, a form of leadership that was able to make that
revitalization successful was urgently needed (Yukl 1989; Lussier and Achua
2007). Consequently, this era was marked by the development of
transformational leadership, which will now be discussed.

The introduction of transformational leadership was led by Bernard M. Bass.
Transformational leadership is generally characterised by the Four I principles,
which are (1) idealised influence, (2) inspirational motivation, (3) intellectual
stimulation and (4) individualised consideration. The leaders idealised influence
is viewed as a charismatic capacity that enables the leader to serve as a role
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model for their followers (Bass 1996). This capacity is believed to be able to
increase the followers pride. The second factor, inspirational motivation,
highlights the importance of valuing desired goals in simple ways and displaying
high expectations (Bass 1996). The third factor of transformational leadership,
intellectual stimulation, is described as the leaders ability to allow followers to
restructure their way of thinking from old ways to new ways (Bass 1996).
Individualised consideration encourages two way communication between
leaders and followers (Bass 1996).

Over the past twenty years transformational leadership has received a great
deal of academic attention (Lowe and Galen 1996; Podsakoff, MacKenzie et al.
1996; zaralli 2003; Shao and Webber 2006); many argued that the focus of
this leadership style should be on a leaders transforming abilities, rather than
on their personal characteristics (i.e. behaviour) or follower relationships. It is
claimed that their main tasks are seeking to alter existing structures and
influencing people to buy into a new vision or new possibilities (zaralli 2003).
Therefore, it may be said that the traits of these leaders include charisma,
intellectual stimulation, inspiration and individual consideration. From a power
and moral leadership point of view, charismatic and transformational leadership
support and reinforce each other (Bass 1996).

There is a growing debate as to whether the transformational leadership theory
is the leadership theory that best fits with the period between the
industrialisation era and the present day. However, Bass work has been a
popular subject of study and has become the dominant leadership theory in
research up until the present time (Yukl 1999), including cross-cultural
leadership research (Jung, Bass et al. 1995). Wright and Pandey (2010) noted
that the development of research on transformational leadership in the past 10
years has brought new insight to the way that this leadership model can fit well
with public and non-profit organizations, where the central idea driving change
is the mission that the leaders pursue in transforming their organizations.

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As this research has been carried out in the public sector, not providing a
review about the leadership perspectives in the government sector area would
make the literature review incomplete. The model, character and motivation of
leadership in the government sector is different from those developed in the
private sector (Cooper and Wright 1992). They suggest that the motivation of
the leader who works in the government sector may be related to drives such as
a willingness to sacrifice, dedication to service, and most importantly a concern
for the public welfare. They contend that these drives are less evident in the
private sector. Leading in the government sector is associated with social
obligation, where the leader is bound by contracts with regard to the welfare of
the people (Lane and Wallis 2009). Furthermore, leading in the government
sector is also associated with a high degree of accountability and responsibility
(Wallis and Gregory 2009).

A review by Kim (2002) showed that public sector leaders using a participative
leadership style achieved higher levels of job satisfaction among followers,
particularly where the followers can see that leaders are concerned with public
welfare. Trottier, Van Wart and Wang (2008) have recently noted that with
careful modification of the transformational leadership model in the government
setting, America has proved that civil servants in the federal government viewed
transformational leadership as an important aspect of organizational life to
which the leader should pay attention.

From the review above, it can be concluded that in both private and public
sector leadership the focus, character, motivation and level of responsibility of
leaders are important to followers. In the public sector, a commitment by the
leader to social good makes a difference to the level of dedication shown by
followers. In contrast leaders working in private sector are expected to show
more concern with making the business a success. However, the application of
leadership models developed in the private sector can make the leadership
practices in the public sector more effective. Lane and Wallis (2009) stated that
implementation of leadership models in the public sector is crucial to achieving
the strategic management goals of government sector and producing
successful change. Furthermore, the application of transformational leadership
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in public organisations can foster the innovation climate and minimise the level
of bureaucracy (Wright and Pandey 2010).

3.4 The Applicability of Western Leadership Models Across
Cultures

As has been shown, the development of leadership theory has involved a
number of shifts in perspective as scholars have built on previous work in an
effort to contribute to a better understanding of leadership concepts. Some
scholars have provided their own conceptual terms and emphases, which have
enabled us to identify a variety of factors that need to be considered in order to
understand leadership effectiveness. Contributions range from the great man
approach, which emphasises a set of personality traits for better leadership, to
transformational leadership, in which leaders attempt to create an innovative
workplace. Numerous studies of leadership models developed in North America
have been done across cultures. Some studies claim that the theories under
consideration are universally accepted, but some reject the notion that North
American based leadership models fit the cultural values of other countries.
As Dorfman (2004) states:
There is nothing inherently wrong with testing the applicability of a
particular theory developed in the West to other geographic regions or
cultures. However, simple replications limit the kind of conclusions that
can be inferred p. 285.

Therefore, the researcher feels that it is very important to provide some
empirical evidence on cross-cultural leadership research to find out whether it
supports or rejects the Western models of leadership discussed in this chapter.

3.4.1 Supporting Evidence

Leadership scholars have questioned the validity of North American leadership
models for several years now. Given the forces of globalisation and
westernisation, Bae and Lawler (2000) suggest that it is necessary to test North
American leadership models in an Asian context, whether it enabled the
leadership practices to meet globalisation forces. In this section, we discuss the
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validity of the various scholarly schools of thought leadership theory,
situational/contingency leadership theory and charismatic/transformational
leadership. There is strong evidence that transformational leadership, the theory
of which was developed in the U.S., has been successfully implemented in a
wide range of organisations; research conducted outside North America has
also shown the effectiveness of this leadership theory (Wang, Kenneth et al.
2005).

The behavioural approach has received support in Middle Eastern countries
such as Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Libya, Bahrain, Oman, and Kuwait
(Enshassi and Burgers 1991). A study of construction site managers in these
countries showed that a combination of task-oriented and person-oriented
behaviour was the most popular. A study of Israeli foremen also supported the
pattern of initiating structure and consideration dimensions; they argue that the
combination of higher consideration and structure is likely to optimise leader
effectiveness in supervisory jobs (Fleishman and Simmons 1970). Similarly, a
study in Japan also extended the validation of the behavioural model. Misumi
(1985) has pointed out that a high level of supervisory work requires effective
implementation of both task-oriented and person-oriented leadership styles.
Furthermore, a comparison study of leadership behaviour between Hong Kong
and Sydney managers did not reject the idea of task-orientation and person-
oriented behaviours, as both samples agreed to combine those behaviours for
fulfilling leadership effectiveness (Lok and Crawford 2004). Recent research in
Holland of line and staff managers also validated the behaviour model of
leadership; initiating structure was found to correlate highly with leader
performance (Hartman, Naranjo-Gil et al. 2010).

As discussed in the previous section, the popularity of the behavioural approach
was followed by the popularity of the situational/contingency approach; there is
much evidence that shows the validity of this approach across cultures. Studies
done in the European continent by Fiedlers team supported the application of
the contingency model in Holland (1961) and Belgium (1966) (Dorfman 2004).
Similar support for the path-goal theory is evident around the world, as Yetton et
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al. (1985) studied managers from Australia, Africa, Papua New Guinea and the
Pacific Islands and found support for the normative decision theory; the findings
supported participative leadership styles. Furthermore, a recent study by an
MBA student in Malaysia proved that a leaders directive, participative and
supportive behaviour, as summarised by path-goal theorists, has a significant
relationship with organisational commitment. In other words, it has been
concluded that path-goal theory is an antecedent to leadership effectiveness
(Yiing and Ahmad 2009).

Compared with the behavioural and contingency models of leadership in a
number of replication studies across culture, perhaps only transformational
leadership has been accepted as valid worldwide. Extensive development of the
theory over time has aimed to generalise across cultures, and is resulting in a
positive impact among scholars. Numerous studies worldwide have replicated
transformational leadership. Numerous recent studies in Asia have shown the
applicability of transformational leadership: in China, Hui et al. (2005) have
shown that Chinese workers generally support the acceptance of
transformational leadership; in Singapore, Avolio et al. (2004) found that at
senior levels this leadership style has a positive relationship with organisational
commitment; in Korea, Shung and Jing (2007) found that having
transformational leadership in a diverse team helps create a climate of creativity
in organisations; and in Taiwan, Hui and Aichia (2007) found that
transformational leadership had a positive impact on employee service
performance in a marketing firm. In line with this study, a recent study of
Indonesian staff and their managers in a bank merger also found that
transformational leadership was significantly related to several organisational
performance measures such as job satisfaction and normative commitment to
change (Hinduan, Wilson-Evered et al. 2009). In general, strong evidence
supports the importance of transformational leadership in the East, and shows
that to some extent this model can be generalised to collectivist cultures.

On the surface, the validation of the behavioural approach, the contingency
approach and charismatic and transformational leadership has received support
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across cultures. Some research suggests that there are no major differences
between the results of Western and non-Western studies, as most of the
studies discussed argue that the Western leadership models impacted on
several organisational outcomes such as job satisfaction and organisational
commitment. However, although some research supports the cross-cultural
applicability of the leadership theories discussed in this chapter, the mismatch
of the leadership constructs explained in North American theories is also
evident in the leadership literature. The next section will discuss this in detail.

3.4.2 Evidence That Is Less Supporting

Ethnocentric research (research designed and tested in one culture, in this case
North America, and replicated in another culture) in leadership studies has
recently been recognised (Dorfman 2004). In light of the current research, the
researcher considers finding gaps in the applicability of leadership theories to
be a main task, as this exposes the limitations of applying existing leadership
models to other countries. Dorfman (2004) argues that empirical tests of the
cross-cultural validity of Western models of leadership have become extremely
problematic.

For example, in regard to the behavioural model of leadership, a study in New
Zealand using the Ohio State model of leadership rejected in several ways the
theory of ideal leaders suggested by that model. Anderson (1983) discovered
that factor analysis findings in New Zealand resulted in five factors where the
initiating structure and consideration dimensions did not fall within their
expected factors. In Japan, an attempt to test the validity of Fiedlers
contingency model generated only partial support, as the generalisation of the
model only applied to several samples of the study (Shirakashi 1968).

In regard to the popular leadership theories that scholars are mostly interested
in, a recent exploratory study in Japan found that not all of Bass
transformational leadership dimensions were endorsed by Japanese followers:
only contingency reward aspects were perceived to be a must for ideal
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Japanese leaders (Fukushige and Spicer 2007). An MBA-based study done in
China eliminated four items of the newly devised transformational leadership
scale, and overall the researchers claim that their study of transformational
leadership increases employee commitment and willingness to stay (Liangding,
Jiwen et al. 2007). A similar study using an MBA sample in China combined
four distinct transformational leadership dimensions into one aspect of
transformational leadership in order to increase the reliability coefficient; further
analyses revealed that having transformational leadership in an organisation
makes employees more likely to speak up (Liu, Zhu et al. 2010). Even in
Australia, a Western nation, several items of transformational leadership were
removed (in idealised attribute behaviours and intellectual stimulation), and
further analysis suggested that the effects of transformational leadership on the
in-role performance of followers were mediated by empowerment and trust in
the leader (Bartram and Casimir 2007).

After reviewing leadership theories and schools of thought, Rost (1991)
concludes that all Western models of leadership share an industrial paradigm
that needs to be reviewed. The industrial paradigm asserts that leadership is
based on the behaviour or characteristics of leaders and that influence is uni-
directional: top down. Rost proposes a definition of leadership that asserts that
leadership is a relationship between leaders and followers and that influence
was multi-directional. Other scholars have emphasised the need to view
leadership as a relationship, rather than a set of practices engaged in by
leaders (Kouzes and Posner 1993; Beckhard 1996).

A relationship-based model also acts to integrate elements of earlier theories. A
leaders traits, behaviour and charisma all affect the relationships built with
followers, as does the situation in which the relationship exists. According to
Rost, the relationship needs to be the focus of attention.

A change to a relationship-based paradigm explains the need to incorporate
cultural influences into models of leadership. Culture shapes the expectations
and behaviour of leaders and followers as they form relationships. Behaviour
that promotes healthy relationships in one culture may be destructive in a
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different cultural context. Healthy relationships require leaders to act with
authenticity (Koestenbaum 2003) and credibility (Kouzes and Posner 1993),
which can be undermined when leaders adopt behaviours or styles that are
perceived by followers to be alien to the culture in which they work.

Anthropologist Harry Wolcott (1995) explains that theories need to differentiate
between levels of generalisability. Some aspects of leadership relationships will
be universal, common to all humans. Others will be unique to people of a
particular community or group. Still other aspects of leadership relationships will
be unique to the particular individuals involved. For that reason, some aspects
of Western leadership theories will be supported in other cultures, while other
aspects will not. The next section of this chapter will look at how the study of
leadership can incorporate cultural aspects.

3.5 The Culturally Based Leadership Model

For the purpose of this study, definitions of culture and its key concepts are
addressed briefly to give a clear picture of how culture impacts upon leadership.
Schein (2004) suggests that culture and leadership are two sides of the same
coin, in that a leaders first responsibility is to create a culture when they
establish a group in an organisation. Once cultures exist in an organisation then
the leaders may determine the criteria for leadership. Organisational cultures
also exist within the context of national, or macro-cultures (Less, 2003).

With this in mind, establishing forms of culture and leadership at a particular
time may run together, which is beneficial for the development of organisational
effectiveness. Thus it is important to review those terms separately, and if
possible to integrate them.

Hence, this discussion will consider how the complexity of a culture may impact
upon a leadership practice. In the next section, the researcher provides a brief
discussion on how culture impacts upon leadership practices.

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3.5.1 The Underlying Concept of Culture

Cultural differences between nations and organisations are increasingly
debated (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005). This is especially important in studying
organisations, because as Lees (2003) points out, organisations are at a micro
level of the wider culture. Wider culture, as defined by Lees, may be related to
national culture.

The pioneering English anthropologist Edward B. Tylor first used the term
culture. He defined culture as that complex whole which includes knowledge,
belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired
by man as a member of society (Tylor 1903). Furthermore, the concept and
definition of culture in academic literature can be traced back to Matthew Arnold
(cited in Joseph Carroll). According to Arnold, culture generally refers to
patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity
significance, thus, the term culture denotes the whole product of an individual,
group, and society of human beings (Carroll 1982).

Most social scientists today view culture as consisting primarily of the symbolic
(Lees 2003), ideational (Kroebner 1963) and intangible aspects of human
societies (House 2004). The essence of culture is how the members of a group
interpret, use, and perceive them as a part of their everyday life. Culture as a
part of our social interaction is also deeply connected to factors such as
symbolism (Lees 2003), family interaction (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner
2003), values (House, Hanges et al. 2004) and language (Bjerke 1999). The
nations to which we belong often have subcultures, groups of people with
distinct sets of behaviour and beliefs that differentiate them from others in their
macro-culture.

Moving toward more a progressive conceptualisation of culture, Hofstede, one
of the scholars in organisational behaviour, has proposed national culture as an
aspect to understanding culture in term of the country of origin. Hofstede (2005)
argues that culture is the collective programming of the mind which
distinguishes the members of one category of people from another.
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After studying IBM employees in 40 countries from 1963-1973, Hofstede (2005)
developed a model that identified the following five primary dimensions for
differentiating cultures:

1. Power Distance: the extent to which the less powerful members of
organisations expect power to be distributed equally.
2. Individualism and Collectivism: the extent to which individuals prefer to
act individually rather than as members of groups.
3. Masculinity and Femininity: the degree of assertiveness and
comprehensiveness versus modesty and caring.
4. Uncertainty Avoidance: the degree to which people prefer structured over
unstructured situations.
5. Long Term Orientation and Short Term Orientation: referred to as thrift
and perseverance versus (short term) respect for tradition, fulfilment of
social obligations and protection of face.

More recently, the Globe study, a collaborative effort including 170 social
scientists and management scholars worldwide (House, Hanges et al. 2004),
has investigated and analysed the relationship between culture and leadership.
They also propose other dimensions that may be important in studying culture,
which they identify as: (1) group/family collectivism, (2) power distance, (3)
humane orientation, (4) uncertainty avoidance, (5) iInstitutional collectivism, (6)
future orientation, (7) performance orientation, (8) assertiveness, (9) gender
egalitarianism. The Globe study is more complete than Hofstedes study, as
each national culture dimension is studied on both societal and institutional
levels; this makes the results of this study more specific in measuring national
culture on individual, societal and organisational levels (House, Hanges et al.
2004). A discussion of Indonesias national culture is provided in Chapter Four.

Concepts related to culture emphasise identities, shared processes, shared
ways of thinking, communication, socially constructed environments and
national cultural values. Apart from the complexity of culture, which is made
even more complex when combined with leadership theory, there are
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challenges involved in studying culture and leadership at the same time.
Leadership scholars perhaps consider national culture as the easiest way to
distinguish one culture from another culture. Triandis (1996) argues that
national culture dimensions, in particular individualism and collectivism, have
been used too broadly in cross-cultural research.

It is generally accepted by leadership scholars that most leadership studies
conducted in different parts of the world use leadership models developed in
North America, and consequently are influenced by their individualist culture
(Yukl 1989; Dorfman 2004). When a study attempts to move beyond the
boundaries of North American culture, it is wise to consider several aspects
such as local culture and national culture in order to look at the similarities or
differences between North American culture and the culture of the country that
is being studied.

3.5.2 Bridging Culture and Leadership

In the leadership literature there are numerous studies that relate culture to
leadership. There has so far been no consensus reached as to what approach
is best to explain how culture impacts on leadership theory (Chemers 1997;
Dickson, Hanges et al. 2001). For the purpose of this study the researcher has
used two approaches in an attempt to investigate how culture influences
leadership.

The first approach is National culture (e.g. Hofstedes national culture
dimensions, Globe project dimensions), which may serve as a bridge to
understanding the relationship of culture to leadership. For example, in
collectivist cultures (indicated by a high degree of power distance and a low
level of collectivism), the benevolent autocrat would be considered an ideal
leader (House and Aditya 1997).

A second approach towards understanding the relationship between culture and
leadership is social information-processing theory (Dickson, Hanges et al. 2001;
57 | P age

Dorfman 2004). According to this approach, leadership can not be separated
from an individuals past experiences, which in turn suggests that leadership
effectiveness is based in terms of the individuals qualities, traits and
behavioural style (Dickson, Hanges et al. 2001). The leadership theories
discussed in Section 3.3.2, all of which are based on individualist cultural
values, assert that leadership effectiveness depends on an individuals qualities.
Therefore this approach may only be applicable to an individualist culture. On
the other hand, in a collectivist culture the consideration that leadership has
emerged as a result of group or organisational and socio-cultural processes
should take place (Dickson, Hanges et al. 2001; Hofstede 2001).

Indeed, as was discussed in Chapter Two, for the purpose of this study both the
national culture approach and the social-information processing theory are
brought together to better understand the impact of culture on leadership from
an Indonesian perspective. The Globe study on national culture (discussed in
the next chapter) and emic views of Indonesian cultural values (as discussed in
Chapter Two) are reviewed to better explain the selection of Paternalistic
leadership as a major domain for this study.

Any attempt to view the impact of culture on leadership should acknowledge
Dorfmans statement, that several aspects of culture should be considered:

1. Cultures are not static they are dynamic and continually evolving.
2. Although cultures may be characterised correctly as being high or low on
specific dimensions (e.g. power distance), this orientation is not likely to
be characteristic for all issues.
3. Individual differences exist in the adoption of cultural values such that not
all individuals of a culture will have attributes of that culture (Dorfman
2004).

In conclusion, much progress has been made in linking culture and leadership.
The researcher has identified and reviewed major aspects of culture, national
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culture and social-information processing views for understanding the link
between culture and leadership. As Dickson (2001) states, the practical
significance of understanding the myriad interactions of culture and leadership
cannot be overstated.

3.5.3 A Collectivist Culture Based Leadership Model: Paternalistic
Leadership

Leadership researchers in a Western context tend to define leadership by
identifying leaders functions in organisations and by categorising leadership
into several different styles. Less has been done in looking at the influence of
cultural values that may impact on a leaders function or leadership style.
Recent research strongly suggests that cultural values have an important
influence on human behaviour which, in turn, has an impact on leadership
effectiveness (Hofstede 2001; House, Hanges et al. 2004).

Section 3.4 discussed how leadership scholars have attempted to transplant
North American leadership theories into their own cross-cultural studies; some
accept the universality of the models, while others do not believe that they are
applicable to the countries that they are studying. Cross cultural leadership
theorists believe that the cultural dimension of individualist versus collectivist
has the single largest impact on leadership (Triandis 1996; Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner 2003). While most of the review presented in this chapter is
based on individualist cultures, in this section the researcher discusses
leadership approaches based on collectivist cultures. The reason for
investigating the indigenous leadership of collectivist cultures is to try to find out
whether Indonesia the country being studied and which is believed to have
collective values, has an indigenous leadership model.

Hofstede (2006) claims that leadership studies tend to be based on Western
values, and particularly result from North American research. Westwood (1997)
argues that the leadership styles available in North America are now are being
challenged by the demand for a model that also allows for deep-seated and
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persisting cultural values and assumptions that prevail in other parts of the
world. An example of a leadership theory that more readily incorporates Eastern
cultural values is Paternalistic leadership (PL), as put forward by Cheng et al.
(2004). In their review of PL, Pellegrini and Scandura (2008) state that this new
construct of leadership provides a future research agenda.

In the leadership and management literature, PL is a relatively new venture in
leadership research. In relation to cross-cultural leadership, this leadership
model has been effectively implemented in non-North American countries such
as Taiwan (Farh and Cheng 2000; Cheng, Chou et al. 2004), Mexico (Martinez
2005), Japan (Uhl-Bien, Tierney et al. 1990) and Turkey (Pellegrini and
Scandura 2006). These studies are justified in several ways. They challenge
North American views of what constitutes leadership effectiveness. They
propose that their countries have cultural elements that are distinct from most
Western cultures, as can be seen by comparing national cultural dimensions.
They also propose that cultural roots need to be emphasised when considering
the practices of leadership best suited to local cultures.

The term PL may refer to the concept of authoritarian leaders providing
absolute guidance, care and protection to followers, which Redding et al. (1994)
argues borrows from the Weberian concept. From a Western point of view this
style of leadership may be referred to as classic authoritarianism, which
Westwood (1997) labels headship. It is characterised by a distinctive dual
formation hierarchy, patriarchal authority, along with harmony building,
maintenance and moral leadership. In this model, an organisation is viewed as
a family; the leader is positioned as the father of the family, who has to be
strong and is expected to act as the head of the household.

In terms of understanding the link between culture and leadership, the
development of the study of PL in Taiwan has been a tremendous step forward.
They begin by looking at the basic national cultural dimensions that differentiate
the West from the East; it is generally thought that Eastern people tend to show
collectivist behaviours. In regard to social-information processing theory, Farh
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and Cheng (2000) state that the construct of PL is heavily bound into the values
of Confucianism (Zhao 1994; Cheng, Chou et al. 2004).

The researcher chose to adopt this model for this research because of its
combination of a national culture approach and socio-information processing
theory. The next discussion will focus on the concept of PL in Taiwan as put
forward by Cheng and his colleagues.

The Confucian tradition in Taiwans culture encourages the practice of family-
ism in society and in organisations. As in a traditional family hierarchy, a leader
may be revered as a respected parent. Obedience and loyalty are granted to
leaders who are, in turn, expected to behave in a good and humane fashion.
Zhao (1994) mentions that Confucianism basically takes a hierarchical view of
society, as he describes:
One should note that of the five key human relationships in the
Confucian doctrine, four are relationships linking a superior to a
subordinate; father to son; ruler to subject; husband to wife; and elder
brother to younger brother. Only the relationship of friends to friends is
between equals p. 5.

This hierarchical approach to human relationships in Taiwan is still exhibited in
the present day, and seems to characterise the behaviour of managers in
modern society. Possible benefits of practicing Confucian values in an
organisational context are that these values emphasise a high degree of
morality in order to generate harmonious relationships (Cheng, Chou et al.
2004). They define PL as:
a style that combines strong discipline and authority with fatherly
benevolence and moral integrity couched in a personalistic atmosphere
(Cheng, Chou et al. 2004).

Chengs study in Taiwan, in which he proposed PL as the indigenous leadership
in Chinese societies, was based on the justification that strong Confucian
values impact on the behaviour of the Chinese (Farh and Cheng 2000). Despite
the fact that they consider transformational leadership to be the base of their
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leadership model, they first studied the cultural similarities between North
American individualism and Chinese collectivism. Their study established that
the PL model that they developed was preferred by their respondents over
transformational leadership (Cheng, Chou et al. 2004).

PL is comprised of three distinct leadership styles, which all have their roots in
the Chinese values; authoritarian, benevolent and moral leadership (Cheng,
Chou et al. 2004). Authoritarian leadership emphasises the importance of
creating li-wei (inspiring awe in followers). In part this is done by asserting
absolute authority. Benevolent leadership relates to the behavioural aspects of
shi-en (favour granting), which highlights the importance of concern for
someones personal or familial wellbeing. Moral leadership is related to shuh-
der (setting an example). This leadership style may refer to someone having
superior virtues in a dyadic relationship as well as being an example in terms of
self-discipline.

PL is universally perceived to be crucial in enhancing effective leadership
practices in Taiwanese societies. All cultural influences bounded in the values
of Confucianism are manifested in PL practices in Taiwan societies. Cheng et
al. (2004) state that in the Taiwanese context, PL is reported as more preferred
by subordinates than transformational leadership.

3.5.4 Similarities between Confucian and Javanese Values
5

The Cheng et al. (2004) concept of PL is grounded in the Confucian values of
Taiwan. Comparing Taiwanese values to traditional Javanese values will
provide an indication of whether PL may apply within an Indonesian context.
This is important because the roles of leaders and followers in shaping
organisational outcomes depend on the quality of their relationships, and the
reactions that followers have to particular leadership styles. These relationships
and reactions are strongly influenced by values. So, if there is a strong
connection between Confucian and Javanese values, then the psychological

5
A full discussion of the paternalistic leadership review is included in the article Irawanto, W.,
Ramsey, P. & Ryan, J. (2008). Tailoring Leadership Theory to Indonesia Culture, The 6
th
Asian
Academy of Management Conference, December 2008. See appendix 2.
62 | P age

reactions of follower responses to PL in Taiwan and Indonesia could be
expected to be similar. The researcher argues that there are a number of
similarities between Confucian and Javanese values.

Firstly, within both sets of cultural values we see harmony as a driving force
(Geertz 1960; Warner and Zhu 2000). In addition, the Javanese values of
Bapakism, andhap-ashor, tepo seliro may be related directly with the constructs
of authoritarian, moral and benevolent leadership that Cheng et al. (2004)
propose in their PL model. These similarities are illustrated in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3
Comparison of Paternalistic Leadership Model between Chinese values and
Javanese values
6

Figure 3.3 is in two parts. The box on the left shows the model presented by
Cheng et al. (2004). The box to the right shows the corresponding relationships
in Javanese society and culture. In each box the top portion shows the
relationship between constructs related to the behaviour of leaders.

Psychological predispositions to those three leadership aspects are deeply
engrained in Javanese society. For instance, in Javanese society peoples
behaviour strongly reflects nrimo (acceptance), which is rooted in both cultural
and religious practices. This aspect of dependence and compliance is not just

6
Model adapted from Cheng, B.-S., Chou, L.-F., Wu, T.-Y., Huang, M.-P., & Farh, J.-L. (2004).
Paternalistic Leadership and Subordinate Responses: Establishing a leadership model in
Chinese organizations. Asian Journal of Social Psychology 7(1), 89-117).
Chinese PL
Moral Leadership
( shud der)

Authoritarianism Benevolent
Leadership Leadership
(li-wei) (shi-en)

Javanese PL
Moral Leadership
(andhap-ashor)

Authoritarianism Benevolent
Leadership Leadership
(bapaksim) (tepo seliro)

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symbolic. It also has a deep emotional foundation which can be seen in both the
workplace and outside work activities. Javanese culture combines nrimo with
hormat (recognition). As Hildred Geertz (1961) states, hormat is a Javanese
term which means the recognition of superior rank by means of the appropriate
forms of etiquette. These values are not related to power, authority, or even
class strata. As the values of hormat are developed in the patronage
relationship, it commonly seems that in order to be respectful, people are not
always obligated with power, authority, or class strata. Furthermore, followers
are expected to completely respect a leaders values and imitate these values
as if they were their own. It is noticed that modernisation has not changed these
values, and nrimo behaviour is found even in Indonesian government agencies
where undesirable leadership behaviour KKN (Corruption, Collution, and
Nepotism) is common. Change appears to be slow, as Soehartos cultural
heritage system left very rigid hierarchical mechanisms.

More recent work by Cheng (2008) on PL found that the basis of authoritarian,
benevolent and moral leadership could be extended to the more broad and
distinct concept of PL. Recent research has indicated that the dimension of
authoritarian leadership is split into two categories: (1) authoritarian and (2)
authoritative. Benevolent leadership is also split into two types of benevolent
behaviour: (1) task-oriented benevolent leadership and (2) people-oriented
benevolent leadership. Moral leadership is split into four categories: (1)
incorruptness, (2) courage, (3) impartialness and (4) magnanimity.

Given this extension of their work the researcher considered that it was
reasonable to further examine the possible suitability of PL as a leadership
concept in an Indonesian context. The researcher was also interested in
considering how the Confucian values that underpin the concept of PL might be
manifested in Indonesia, a country in which Confucianism has not had a
significant influence. However, although there are many similar values shared
between people in Taiwan and Indonesia and Confucianism and Javanese
philosophy, it is not certain that leaders in these contexts have the same
leadership style.
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3.6 Recent Leadership Research

To date, most leadership theories developed by scholars around the world have
failed to define which theory is universally accepted (Yammarino, Dionee et al.
2005; Pellegrini and Scandura 2008). Yukl (1989) gave warning of this in the
late 1980s by stating that leadership scholars only attempt to define leadership
according to their individual perspectives and the aspects that interest them the
most. This is not to say that the leadership theories that they developed are not
valid, or that they are conceptually wrong. Rather they tend to reflect the values
of the researcher. One of the key concepts that is universally accepted as
important in leadership studies is culture, though many leadership scholars
have neglected this concept, focusing instead on the leader-follower
relationship (House and Aditya 1997). Recent research has strongly
emphasised the importance of the influence of cultural values on human
behaviour, and how this impacts on leader effectiveness (Hofstede 2001;
House, Hanges et al. 2004).
Extensive leadership research conducted by the Globe project may be seen as
an effort to bridge cultural differences, and leadership styles that might be
implemented successfully regarding those differences. The major concern
addressed by the Globe studies is the extent to which specific leader attributes
and behaviours are universally endorsed as contributing to effective leadership,
and the extent to which attributes and behaviours are linked to cultural
characteristics (Javidan and Dastmalchian 2009).

The Globe project has been developed based on implicit leadership theories. As
Den Hartog et al. (1999) state, an individuals implicit leadership theory refers
to beliefs held about how leaders behave in general and what is expected of
them. Based on this, they empirically tested managers from 62 countries. Then
they proposed the culturally endorsed implicit leadership (CLT) dimensions,
which they believed to be universally accepted around the world (see Figure
3.4)

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Global Culturally
Endorsed Leadership
(CLT) Dimensions
Descriptions Dimensions
Charismatic Universally endorsed as contributing to a
leaders effectiveness. A
Charismatic/Value Based leader
endorses a vision congruent with the
values of followers, and which are also
generally congruent with the values
based on cultural norms.
Visionary, inspirational,
self-sacrifice, integrity,
decisive
Team Oriented Endorsement of this dimension was
found to vary between cultures. These
behaviours represent a style of
leadership focusing on the team and
emphasising the relationships between
the members of that team.
Collaborative, team
oriented, diplomatic,
malevolent (reversed),
administratively
competent
Participative This is another leadership style where
endorsement was found to vary from
culture to culture. A Participative leader
works well with other people and actively
participates in the task being undertaken.
Participative,
autocratic (reversed)
Humane Oriented The endorsement of this dimension was
found to vary between cultures. This set
of behaviours represents a leader who is
generous, compassionate, patient, and
modest.
Modesty, show
consideration
Self Protective This dimension was found universally to
impede a leaders effectiveness. These
behaviours represent a bossy yet self-
interested and evasive leader, who relies
on formalities and procedures.
Self centered, status
conscious, face saver,
procedural
Autonomous This dimension was based on the single
attribute of individualism, and
encompasses an independent and
autonomous approach. This was another
dimension whose endorsement was
found to vary between cultures.
Individualistic,
independent,
autonomous

Figure 3.4
Leadership CLT Definitions and Dimensions
7

Charismatic, team oriented, participative, humane-oriented, self protective and
autonomous leadership is viewed as a set of leadership dimensions that is
culturally generalisable (House, Javidan et al. 2002). Additionally, among those
six leadership dimensions, Den Hartog et al. (1999) note that there are two
leadership dimensions that seem to be universal across cultures. The first is
charismatic leadership, which can be found working effectively in all of the 62
nations that contribute to the study. The second is self-protective, which has

7
Source: House, R., Hanges, P., J., Javidan, M., Dorfman, P., W., & Gupta, V. (2004).
Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The Globe studies of 62 societies CA, USA: SAGE
Publication.

66 | P age

been found to be universally ineffective for facilitating leadership. The remaining
leadership dimensions were found to vary depending on the local culture.

In order to understand leadership perspectives worldwide, members of the
Globe project (Vipin Gupta, Paul J. Hanges, and Peter Dorfman) have classified
ten clusters of countries: Anglo cultures, Latin Europe, Nordic Europe,
Germanic Europe, Latin America, Indigenous Africa, Arabic cultures, Southern
Asia, and Confucian Asia. The Confucian Asia cluster includes Taiwan, where
the PL model was developed. Indonesia is in the Southern Asia cluster.
Comparing these clusters suggests that application of the PL model to
Indonesia is justified.

Generally, the Confucian Asia clusters could not be separated from the
influence of the ancient Chinese cultural values of Confucianism. The ancient
Confucian values are perhaps the oldest cultural values that continue to shape
human behaviour up to the present day, including business related behaviour
as well (Zhao 1994; Westwood 1997). The emphasis of these values is
harmony (Zhao 1994; Cheng and Farh 2000). Another characteristic of this
cluster is familyism, which is often reflected in family businesses. A recent
business review has posited that most countries in this cluster readily accept
and are open to Western management practices (Gupta, Levenburg et al.
2008).

Similarly, the southern Asia cluster is also influenced by at least two major
ideological cultural values (Indian and Chinese) (Ashkanasy 2002). It is also
noted that the influence of Islamic values from the Arabic cultures cluster
characterised these clusters as well. Ashkanasy states that Islamic mosques in
this region are often adjacent to Hindu temples, Buddhist pagodas, Christian
churches, or Sikh Gurudwars (Ashkanasy 2002). In essence, the countries in
this cluster are characterised by a community-centred spirit (Ashkanasy 2002).
In short, this cluster is comprised of developed countries that are characterised
by Westernisation, including in management and business practices (Rowley
and Abdul-Rahman 2008).
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In regard to Globe leadership dimensions, Figure 3.5 represents their
leadership preferences.

Figure 3.5
Polar Graph of Leadership Scores of the Confucian Cluster and the
Southern Asia Cluster

The finding is that the two cultures portray a remarkably consistent picture of
leadership effectiveness. As House et al. (2002) note, the six dimensions of
CLT are universally accepted. Additionally, Pyes (2006) work in the 1980s also
suggests that Asians share similar values, so it is not surprising if the CLTs in
both countries are viewed similarly. Another possible explanation of these
similarities is that within the two clusters there was a consistent picture of
participative, self-protective, team-oriented and autonomous leadership.
However, their views of charismatic and humane-oriented leadership are slightly
different; the findings show that Southern Asian countries practice these more
than Confucian countries. However, the interpretation of the findings should not
be overstated, as the magnitude of the differences is very small.

The similarities and differences described in this section are subject to further
examination. As already mentioned, the project is categorised as recent
empirical research, however, precautions should be addressed in line with
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events happening worldwide within the years of the 1990s through to 2010.
Ashkanasy (2002) notes that the September 11 attacks may have brought
about dramatic changes in how people perceive culture. Additionally, the fact
that Chinese companies continue to expand their businesses worldwide by
reproducing cheap products may also impact on how people perceive cultures
worldwide (Sull and Wang 2005). For example, when Western managers attend
meetings with Chinese managers in Beijing, the Chineseexpect to build
relationships with their partners first rather than straight away talking about
business deals (Javidan, Dorfman et al. 2006).

To conclude, although the Globe research project is viewed as a
groundbreaking effort to settle on six leadership styles that are universally
endorsed, it still has some weaknesses. As Hofstede (2006) and Smith (2006)
point out, many quantitative limitations to do with the operationalisation of the
cultural dimensions have made misinterpreting the findings a serious risk.
Professor George Graen (House, Javidan et al. 2006) claims that the
development of the questionnaires without encouraging contributions from all 62
nations is a fundamental weakness in the study. Furthermore, in regard to
Indonesia, in which there are more than 200 sub-cultures, the Globe findings
have not considered the part that subcultures play in shaping responses
(Kennedy 2002). In regard to the generalisation of the theory, no empirical
research has been conducted so far other than using the Globe findings as
secondary data and relating them to the development of another new
management theory.

However, the Globe projects effort in studying 62 nations in regard to
leadership styles across cultures may be viewed as a major step forward in
cross-cultural leadership research. The strong preparation of the study and its
strong quantitative validation suggest that this theory and research design may
be advantageous when examining cross-cultural leadership.

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3.7 Conclusion of Leadership Theory Review

This chapter began by looking at attempts at leadership theorisation in the early
20
th
century. From the very beginning, scholars have postulated that the natural
skills and individual characteristics of leaders are keys to the success of
effective leadership. This view is captured in the Great Man and trait related
leadership approaches. However, other aspects that may contribute to
leadership effectiveness, such as behavioural aspects, were also recognised by
scholars in the early 1970s. During this period, specific organisational skills
such as task oriented and human oriented behaviour were introduced and were
believed to greatly influence leadership effectiveness.

Next the emphasis moved again, to how the situational and contingency
aspects greatly influence leadership effectiveness as opposed to the specific
behaviors of leaders. The trait approach has come back into the arena of
leadership from the early 1980s with the introduction of the charismatic and
transformational leadership theories.

Driven by the facts of modernisation and globalisation, transformational
leadership has been very popular compared with other theories. Attempts were
made to validate this theory worldwide. However, despite its popularity, the
violation of fundamental aspects in the attempt to make the theory generalisable
has been noticed (e.g. not identical factor structure). In order to move beyond
North American theories of leadership, scholars in Taiwan have carried out
comparison studies between transformational leadership and the indigenous
leadership practices in Taiwan, characterised as paternalistic leadership (PL).
Their findings show greater acceptance of PL than transformational leadership.
This attempt can be viewed as a gateway to researching cross-cultural
leadership by considering local cultures. There are also close similarities
between the values upon which PL is based and traditional Javanese values.

More recently, in regard to a more universal leadership theory, the Globe
project has made an extraordinary effort to brighten the visibility of the bridge
between culture and leadership. Globe project researchers have developed six
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leadership styles that they believe to be universally endorsed in all countries
worldwide. Apart from several limitations and weaknesses, it appears that this
new research project in the area of cross-cultural leadership has been well
received by leadership scholars worldwide. The Globe project also suggests
that there are important similarities between Confucian cultures (including
Taiwan) and South East Asian cultures (including Indonesia).

The researcher believes that the similarities described above justify use of the
PL model as a basis for exploring leadership in the context of Indonesian
culture. The use of a culturally-based model is also in line with the need to bring
leader-follower relationships to the forefront of leadership theory. Cultural
values are a key element of the context in which leader-follower relationships
are formed.

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CHAPTER 4 VIEWS OF INDONESIA: LESSON FROM
GLOBE PROJECT

4.1 Introduction

The discussion presented in Chapter Two examined the rich foundations of
Javanese culture, and began to provide a frame of reference for this study by
examining Javanese culture and the pattern of Javanese leadership. Chapter
Three discussed leadership theories that have mostly been developed in the
West, especially in North America.

This chapter begins the review of the current research examining Indonesian
cultural values. Javanese is Indonesias dominant culture, which suggests that
research addressing general Indonesian values could start by considering the
dominant Javanese view. As part of an international study examining the
cultural values in 62 countries, House et al. (House, Hanges et al. 2004) carried
out a comprehensive values study in Indonesia, using a survey to examine the
cultural values and leadership styles across Indonesias finance, food, and
telecommunication organisations.

This chapter therefore describes studies that measure Indonesian cultural
values in general as well the leadership styles as conceptualised by the Globe
project. An overview of the Globe will be provided, before considering its
findings in regard to Indonesian culture and the practice of leadership styles as
perceived by the Indonesians themselves.

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4.2 National Culture of Indonesia

The Globe project results for Indonesia were used as a microscope for
understanding how cultural values of Indonesia influence leadership practice. In
short, the study highlighted nine dimensions of cultural values that affect the
way the people behave and relate to each other within the society. Those
dimensions and their definitions are presented in the Table 4.1.

Of these dimensions, the Globe project researchers make a distinction between
two categories, (1) practical values - as is, and (2) societal values - should be.
As is dimensions revealed the peoples perception of current culture practised
in society or organisations; on the other hand, should be dimensions revealed
the peoples perception of how cultural values should be practised in their
society or organisations.

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Table 4.1
National Cultural Dimensions and Definitions
8

Group/Family Collectivism : The degree to which individuals express pride, loyalty,
and cohesiveness in their organisation.

Power Distance : The degree to which members of a collective expect power to be
distributed equally.

Humane Orientation : the degree to which individuals in organisation encourage
and reward individuals for acts of fairness, altruism, friendliness, generosity, caring,
etc.

Uncertainty Avoidance : The extent to which a collective relies on social norms,
rules, and procedures to alleviate unpredictability of future events.

Institutional Collectivism : The degree to which institutional practices encourage
and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action.

Future Orientation : The degree to which individuals in organisations engage in
future-orientated behaviour.

Performance Orientation : The extent to which an organisation encourages and
rewards members for performance improvement and excellence.

Assertiveness : the degree to which individuals in organisations exhibit and accept
assertive, confrontational, and aggressive behaviour in social relationship.

Gender Egalitarianism : The extent to which an organisation minimizes gender
differences.

The discussion of Indonesian cultural values resulting from this project is
presented in the Figure 4.1. and limited to the as is values, which mirror the
researchers experience of the current practices of these cultural dimensions in
the society (House, Hanges et al. 2004).

8
Source : House, R. J. (Ed.). (2004). Culture, leadership, and organisations : the GLOBE study
of 62 societies / edited by Robert J. House. CA, USA: Sage Publication

74 | P age

Figure 4.1
Polar Graph of Indonesian National Culture Dimensions.

Figure 4.1 shows the average Indonesia scores for all cultural dimensions. It
shows the position of the Indonesian scores in relation to both the high or low
scores for all countries. Whilst many of the Indonesian scores are in the middle
of the two extremes, for power distance and in-group collectivism dimensions,
the Indonesian score is almost the same as the highest ranking of the world
scores. To understand the full picture of Indonesian culture, a discussion of all
these cultural dimensions is provided to clarify Indonesian cultural values.

Indonesians perception of group collectivism ranks them in 15
th
which is in the
higher range with a score of 5.68 (total range 1 to 7 in Likert scale). Accordingly,
as House et al. (2004) pointed out, a high score on this dimension reveals the
indication that people are strongly integrated into cohesive groups and
emphasise relatedness with groups. Furthermore, the high degree of in-group
collectivism is also reflected in the extent to which members of a society take
pride in membership of small groups such as their family and circle of close
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friends (Gelfand, Bhawuk et al. 2004). These findings extend the cultural values
of Indonesians to the employer-employee relationship which is directly based in
morality, like family interaction (Hofstede and Hofstede 2005)

The Globe assessment of power distance of Indonesians reveals the fact that
Indonesians cultural values are ingrained in society. Indonesia had a mid
ranking on this dimension. The Indonesian sample scored at 5.18 and ranked at
the mid-point of 62 countries (rank 33). According to the mean value,
Indonesians may prefer a state of relatively unequal power distribution and may
readily accept, or endorse authority and status privileges. The power distance
score for Indonesia is reflected in Indonesian inferiors respect for formal
authority derived from hierarchical position (see discussion on Chapter Two). In
line with that, inferiors always need superiors directions and wait for their
superiors to make the final decision (Carl, Gupta et al. 2004). At the same time,
Indonesians expect that all will be consulted when important decisions are
made.

The score of humane orientation of Indonesians is high, it is the 7
th
highest of all
countries (with a mean values of 4.69). High humane orientation cultures are
characterised by how much society rewards or encourages its members for
being fair, altruistic, and caring toward others (House, Hanges et al. 2004).
Kabasakal and Bodur (2004) pointed out that countries where religious
practices are integral to all aspects of life, are associated with societies which
value a high degree of humane orientation. This is not surprising for Indonesia,
as it is the worlds largest Islam country and the teaching of being kind to others
is bounded in Islamic values. The high score on this dimension indicates that
Indonesians expect religious morality to be practiced in the work place.

Indonesian perception of the uncertainty avoidance dimension was in the top
half (27
th
), with the mean score of 4.17. As House pointed out, people with high
uncertainty avoidance culture are characterised by the extent to which
individuals in a society seek to alleviate the unpredictability of future events by
relying on social norms, rituals, and bureaucratic procedures (House, Hanges et
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al. 2004). Thus, as de Luque and Javidan (2004) argued, people with high
uncertainty avoidance have a tendency toward formalising their interactions with
others and relying on formalised policies and procedures. As Indonesia is
categorized in the upper mid-point score, then Indonesia can be classified as a
moderately formalised culture but also has some acceptance of informality. This
is reflected in the attitude of Indonesian civil servants and current conditions as
they tend to place high value on job security by seeking close supervision
(Goodfellow 1997).

The Indonesian score on institutional collectivism (4.54) is somewhat high. It
ranked in the top 15 among 62 countries. According to House et al. (2004)
cultures which have high values on institutional collectivism are characterised
by the willingness of the society to integrate broader entities such as the
extended family or the village into their circle. Therefore societies who place
high value on this dimension are usually dependent on decisions that have
been made by the groups and the people also make personal sacrifices to meet
organisational obligations (Gelfand, Bhawuk et al. 2004). The score reflects
Indonesian traditional collectivist practices rooted in the history of Javanese
culture as well as the Soeharto indoctrination that aimed to make Indonesia a
Javanese state (Taylor 2003; Sarsito 2006).

The Indonesian score on future orientation is medium (the mean score is 3.86).
It positions Indonesia 28
th
out of 62 countries. In general, this cultural dimension
is characterised by the degree to which individuals plan well and invest for the
future (House, Hanges et al. 2004). Furthermore, Ashkanasy et al. (2004)
argued that societies that are high on this dimension are characterised by
individuals whose views on materialistic success and spiritual success are seen
as an integrated entity. In line with current Indonesia conditions, especially
since the reformation era in the early 1998s, many organisations in Indonesia
are restructuring their organisational norms, as well as drafting their future plans
in order to compete with their rivals, such as in the financial sector (Hinduan,
Wilson-Evered et al. 2009)
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In relation to the performance orientation dimensions, Indonesians rank in the
top 15 of the all countries involved in this project (with the mean score of 4.41).
House et al. (2004) argued that a culture with high performance orientation is
characterised by a society which always encourages and rewards group
members for performance improvement and achievement of excellence. The
score is contradictive with cultural values embodied in rural (not city living)
Indonesia, where culturally Indonesians in several ways reject the idea of
working competitively as a way to achieve greater performance. However,
modernisation may be seen as a possible explanation of why Indonesians are
now accepting values associated with a performance orientation. Javidan
(2004) noted that societies who value the performance orientation highly usually
believe that schooling and education are critical for success and value ongoing
training and development. This is consistent with Indonesians who are highly
aware of the importance of education. All Indonesians are expected to enrol in
the nine years compulsory national educational program (Anynomous 2003).
Moreover, in Indonesia now there is a trend for leading organisations to invest
in training and development.

The Indonesian score on the assertive dimension is in a mid point with a score
of 3.86 (in the middle ranking in the bottom 15 bottom of the 62 countries).
According to House et al. (2004) a culture with a high value on this dimension
reflect the degree to which individuals in a society are assertive, dominant, and
aggressive in social relationships. This finding suggests that Indonesians are
not encouraged to be assertive. In fact Den Hartog (2004) argued that cultures
with low assertive scores are characterised by high values in working with
cooperation, as well as working harmoniously and emphasise highly on
seniority. An accurate explanation of this finding is that Indonesians are still
influenced by their concern for notions such as rukun or harmony and bapakism
or father-ism which do not allow them to behave aggressively and reinforce
behaviours that maintain harmony. These are rooted in Javanese culture values
that are still evident in the present work environment (Goodfellow 1997; Hellwig
and Tagliacozzo 2009).

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Medium scores on gender egalitarianism as it is perceived by Indonesian (mean
score 3.26), places Indonesia in the 26
th
to lowest rank. House et al. (2004)
acknowledges that a high score for the gender egalitarianism dimension
indicates a stronger emphasis on egalitarianism while a low score indicates an
emphasis on the male role. A society that places a high value on this dimension
is characterised by an equal percentage of women participating in the labour
force as well as similar levels of education of females and males (Emrich,
Denmark et al. 2004). The medium score indicates that Indonesians are aware
that they should give more encouragement and recognition to female roles. This
has developed since the country was led by a female president, many city
mayors and provincial governors are also female (Blackburn 2004). As well,
some state owned enterprises are headed by female managers (2009).
However, blue-collar occupations are still male dominated.

In summary, of the cultural values dimensions, the findings on Indonesia
indicate that Indonesian cultures are relatively high in group collectivism, power
distance, humane orientation, uncertainty avoidance and institutional
collectivism, and place medium value on future orientation, assertiveness, and
gender egalitarianism. It seems, that these high values are evident in work and
social practices, reflecting the conclusion reached by Goodfellow (1997) that
Indonesian culture is still influenced by the heritage of Javanese culture which
places a high value on these cultural dimensions. The next section will discuss
leadership styles as it is perceived by Indonesian managers.

4.3 Leadership of Indonesia

As discussed in Chapter Three, the Globe project is categorised as the most
recent leadership research that has been done at world level. Chapter Three
highlighted the details of the leadership style summarised in the Globe CLTs
dimensions. In this section, as this Chapter heading is Views of Indonesia, the
leadership styles preferred by Indonesian managers are presented.
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Figure 4.2
The ratings of Indonesian managers on each of Globes leadership
dimensions.

Figure 4.2 shows the ratings of Indonesian managers on each of Globes
leadership dimensions. Among managers around the world that contributed to
the Globe study, charismatic/transformational leadership was rated as the
feature which contributes most to understanding leadership (Dorfman, Hanges
et al. 2004). Indonesian managers also rated this dimension as the most
important (with the mean score of 6.15). In comparison with other nations, the
Indonesian ratings are close to the highest rating (ranked at the fourth place). In
relation to the finding of charismatic leadership, it is true that Indonesians
emphasise the importance of morale boosters, being self sacrificial, and trying
wilfully to convince others.

The second most important dimension for leadership in Indonesia is the team-
oriented dimension, it placed Indonesia in the 17
th
rank (mean score of 5.92). It
has identified a pattern that has links to the earlier discussion on Indonesian
culture. House et al. (2004) postulated that managers who gave a higher rating
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in this leadership style commonly show the diplomatic and collaborative team
orientation approach for leading. This finding is consistent with the cultural
norms that underpin Indonesian leaders who prefer to coordinate tasks in a
diplomatic style, showing consideration for others (Goodfellow 1997).

Indonesias rank for the participative leadership style is the third in importance
of leadership attributes (mean score of 4.60), positioned in the 60
th
rank. It is
generally thought that managers from countries who rated high on participative
leadership tend to place more value on the use of consultation as a part of a
shared leadership belief system both in an organisation and in a society
(Mansour 2004). In regard to Indonesia, the findings in several ways are
contradicting fundamental cultural values that emphasise the importance of
working collaboratively, perhaps because of the unique mix of collaboration on
big decisions and the authoritarian style at other times. The mean score
indicates that Indonesians like working collaboratively with the guidance of
leaders who practice a participative style.

Indonesians also place emphasis on humane-oriented leadership style of the
CLT dimensions proposed by the Globe study. The humane orientation
leadership style was rated highly. It is probable that Indonesians emphasise the
importance of concern for others, and that friendship, tolerance, and support for
others extend through the societal and organisational level. Consequently
Indonesian managers gave a rating for this leadership style which was the
seventh highest among all countries. The ratings are consistent with the picture
of Indonesians values and major Islamic values that underpin Indonesian
culture which Mulder (1994) argued expects leaders to be generous, modest,
patient, and tolerant, taking into account differences in status.

Furthermore Indonesian managers ranked self-protective leadership ratings at
the lowest of the preferred leadership styles in the Globe study. In fact, the
rating of Indonesian managers is on the median rank. Moreover, as Indonesians
place less emphasis on self-protective leadership, it is also true that in the work
environment, Indonesians show greater acceptance of formal processes, and
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being status conscious. To avoid being embarrassed by other people, they are
also more willing to accept a leader who foregoes direct communication in
favour of face-saving approaches.

The earlier discussion of cultural values highlights the traditional hierarchical
structure of Indonesian society. Indonesian managers were above the median,
on their rating of autonomous leadership but it was much lower than the score
of charismatic. In relation to autonomous leadership, the earlier discussion of
cultural values that highlights the traditional hierarchical structure of Indonesian
society shows why they reject this leadership style. Mulder (1994) believed that
the picture of Indonesians passive obedience to superiors was one of the basic
values of Indonesian society. He also argued that the reverence for elders and
traditional leaders extends into a preferred authoritarian leadership style.
However, Indonesians were evenly balanced around the midpoint of the scale
of other autonomous attributes: (1) independent and (2) unique. In summary,
Indonesian organisations with median performance orientation and collectivist
values will be less likely to have autonomous attributes as part of their
leadership style.

In conclusion, the pattern of Indonesian leadership identified in the Globe
dimensions has led to a distinctive leadership style which may differ from other
countries preferred leadership styles. In Indonesia, managers show a greater
preparedness to accept and to employ a charismatic leadership style; however,
they are balanced by the strong humane-orientation expected of leaders.

4.4 Putting it together: The old and the challenge

This thesis explores the nature of Indonesian leadership with a particular focus
on Javanese values. As mentioned in Chapter One and Chapter Three, it is
evident that there is a scarcity of literature on Indonesian leadership and most
sources are works of anthropology, history, and political science. This is a
challenge for management researchers who wish to explore the abstract world
of Indonesian-Javanese business leaders and present a piece of work that
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enables outsiders to better understand Javanese leadership, so that global
connections can be more easily fostered.

As has been discussed in Chapter Two, Indonesia is culturally rich. It is not only
distinguished by its national culture, but also its local culture, which colours the
countrys socio-political arena. It is also apparent, through the exploration of
Indonesia history and Javanese culture, that over time the construction of
leader-follower relationships is heavily bounded to the culture. Over a long
period of time, the socio-politic climate has brought significant changes to the
way Indonesians behave. However, as the Javanese culture had a strong
influence on the roots of the Indonesia history, the changes are not so
substantial in terms of fundamental values, so the level of collectivism, power
distance and humane orientation is still high. Furthermore, the Globe study has
portrayed the current condition of cultural practices, as well as leadership styles
practiced by managers across Indonesia, and surprisingly in several ways,
there are remarkably similar pictures of Indonesia in the past and Indonesian
now.

Western models of leadership can be mismatched to the specific cultural
values, of a country like Indonesia. These models are mostly developed from
individualist cultures, so to some degree they are not applicable to the
collectivist cultures. What is constituted to be effective leadership in individualist
cultures may refer a preference for more freedom, while in the collectivist
cultures, obedience and group harmony may be viewed as important aspects in
the application of specific leadership styles (Triandis 1994). Therefore, in
relation to this study, where it is argued that Indonesia is upholding collectivist
cultural values, any attempt to apply those leadership styles should be carried
out very carefully.

For Indonesia, the Globe findings showed considerable synergy with other
countries in the way that effective leadership is perceived. The principal
difference between traditional leadership in Indonesia, viewed from the
perspective of non-management knowledge, and Globe project findings
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concerns the issue of paternalism. The review has emphasised that Indonesian
leaders are characterised by a paternalistic atmosphere, where as none of the
leadership dimensions or cultural dimensions underpinning them resulting from
the Globe studies directly indicated that Indonesian managers are practising a
paternalistic leadership style.

It is strongly believed that Indonesians are practicing paternalistic leadership,
however there were no empirical findings that support this. However, as
suggested in both Chapter Two and Chapter Three, some gaps in the
Indonesian leadership literature exist. With the closest link being with Confucian
cultural values, and the strong influence of Javanese culture on Indonesian
behaviour, a Paternalistic leadership model developed in Taiwan (Cheng and
Farh 2000; Cheng, Chou et al. 2004) was used as the main variable in this
study. This makes a significant contribution to overcoming gaps in future
Indonesian leadership research and clarify contradictory aspects of the Globe
findings. To this end, the next chapter explores the research methodology used
in this research.

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CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5.1 Introduction

This research attempts to answer two major questions: To what extent is
Indonesian leadership Paternalistic? , and How is the leader-employee
relationship constructed in an Indonesian context?

To answer these two questions, a survey was carried out using the framework
developed by Cheng et al (2004). Although it is believed that Indonesians
currently practice Paternalistic leadership (PL), there are no empirical findings
about whether Indonesias leaders are practicing this leadership style. This has
been discussed in the review of both Chapter Two and Chapter Three; gaps
exist in the Indonesian leadership literature. Due to the close link between
Javanese culture, which is believed to have a strong influence on Indonesian
behavior, and Chinese cultural values, the PL model developed in Taiwan was
used in this study.

The purpose of this chapter is to highlight several stages that needed to be
undertaken before an attempt was made to answer the research questions. The
importance of the research methodology in such a study has been highlighted
by Scandura and Williams (2000):
for management research to progress, it is important for researchers to
assess the methods they employ p. 1248

This chapter explains the methodology that was used in this study, and consists
of the following six sections: research design, consideration of the participating
organisations, instrumentation, data collection, data analysis methods and
research limitations.

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5.2 Research Design

This research used a questionnaire that had been tested and shown to have
construct validity in earlier studies. The studies carried out by Cheng et al.
(2000; 2004) show a remarkably consistent picture of the psychometrics of the
instrument. The Cronbach alpha of all of the PL constructs are above the 0.7
level. Additionally, Irawanto (2008) used the same instrument for a similar study
in Indonesia and showed that it had a high reliability for each dimension of PL.
This supporting evidence convinced the researcher to use the instrument for
further study in Indonesia.

To achieve the goal of the study, the research followed the research design
developed by Sekaran (2003): this starts with questionnaire development, and
is followed by the determination of data sources, initial analysis, data analysis
and discussion (Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1
Research design used in the study
9

Descriptive research was used in this study to examine the perceptions of
Indonesian civil servants regarding PL. Descriptive research, which Kerlinger
(1979) calls survey research, is common in social science research and aims
to discover which phenomena exist and how they affect the social environment
of a group. To examine the factors that influence Indonesian leadership, this
study employed a quantitative methodology. The application of quantitative

9
Adopted from Sekaran, U. (2003). Research methods for business: A skill-building
approach. New York, Wiley.

Discussion Data Analysis Initial Analysis Data Sources Questionnaire
Development
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methodologies in leadership studies has been advanced by several leadership
theorists (Fiedler 1964; Bass 1996). The importance of quantitative
methodologies is also noted in the cross cultural leadership literature
(Yammarino, Dionee et al. 2005). As Yukl and Van Fleet (1992) have noted, the
advantages of using quantitative methodologies are that the results can be
viewed as an attempt to measure specific, concrete and easily observable
cross-cultural variables.

Apart from the research design, this chapter also presents several issues
related to the stages that needed to be undertaken in this research, as well as
obstacles that were faced by the researcher.

5.3 Consideration of the Participating Organisations

In researching cross-cultural issues, it is crucial to ensure that the population is
clearly defined in the research problem and the research questions (Cooper and
Schindler 2006). For this research, it was clearly stated from the beginning that
the target population size would be 1000, as was identified in the justification
presented in Chapter One. As the study aimed to investigate Javanese
leadership, it was important that the target population were practicing Javanese
values.

The literature review presented in Chapter Two discussed the historical factors
that led to Javanese values becoming dominant in government organizations,
and why the Indonesian government sector continues to be profoundly
influenced by Javanese values. As Javanese is the largest ethnicity in
Indonesia and has been a major influence on Indonesian history, the researcher
decided that exploring the impact of Javanese values on leadership was an
appropriate starting point for researching indigenous Indonesian leadership.

In order to explore leadership in the Javanese context, the researcher chose to
focus on the government sector. Siregar (1969) and Kim (2002) observed that
the major occupation of Javanese people is civil servant. For the Javanese,
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working in the civil service is particularly attractive, and consequently the
majority of civil servants throughout Indonesia are Javanese. Therefore carrying
out research in government organisations would ensure that the sample
provided representative data for the study. Ideally, in order to dig to the heart of
the cultural practices of Javanese people, studying those who worked as civil
servants in the Indonesian government would closely relate to the research
goals. Due to globalisation, other sectors in Indonesian society (such as the
private sector) are more likely to be influenced by the values of other nations.

Using public sector organisations for this study was a change from the
population used by Cheng et al (2004), whose research was based on family-
owned businesses in the private sector. In that study, family-owned businesses
were considered the most likely to be influenced by traditional Confucian values
in the Taiwanese context. As discussed above, public sector agencies are likely
to be influenced by Javanese values in the Indonesian context, so they were an
appropriate choice.

The current study was conducted in government organisations located in East
Java Province and Yogyakarta Special Region. Javanese is the dominant
ethnicity of both these areas, with 95% of the population in these regions being
Javanese. Data were obtained from the administrative and supervisory staff of
government agencies (Dinas) at the district level. In East Java Province, there
are 38 district government groups: 29 are called regencies (similar to a district
council) and nine are called cities (similar to a city council). In the Special
Region of Yogyakarta there are four regencies and one city.

The number of government agencies in the each district varies depending on
the size and the complexity of the regency or the city. Regulation direction from
the Minister of Administration indicates that ideally in every province, city, and
regency there should be not more than 22 agencies. However, the
Decentralization Act (Indonesia 2004) has authorised each regency and city
within each province to arrange the number of agencies needed, so long as this
does not exceed 22 agencies within the scope of their governance.
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In general there are the following six classifications in the agency sector:
1. Education and Culture (i.e. Education agency)
2. Natural Resources (i.e. Agriculture agency)
3. Administrative and Governance (i.e. Local governance agency)
4. Economic and Trade (i.e. Trade and enterprise agency)
5. Citizens Service (i.e. Village bureau)
6. Health (i.e. Village health clinic)

The sampling technique used in this research was probability sampling, which
involves purposive sampling and a simple random sampling method. Purposive
sampling was employed to select the provinces and districts (regencies and/or
cities) in which the government agencies would be sampled. Simple random
sampling was employed to select the participants within the government
agencies. The sampling procedure is discussed in detail in Section 5.7.

5.4 Instrumentation
5.4.1 The Questionnaire

PL was measured using the updated version of the instrument originally
developed by Cheng et al. (2004). The updated scale was used in this study, as
its 42 items were reconstructed by Cheng (2008) according to the critiques and
suggestions of leadership scholars (see Appendix 3).

The updated version of the scale consists of ten elements, three of which were
part of the 2004 version. Seven new elements have been created by
differentiating the various factors of the constructs. The previous (2004) version
of authoritarian leadership only consisted of nine questions, while in the new
version this is split into two elements, in which seven questions summarise
authoritarian leadership and seven questions relate to authoritative leadership
elements. The previous benevolent leadership element consisted of eleven
questions; in the updated version Cheng divides this into two elements. Five
questions relate to person-oriented benevolent leadership and five questions to
task-oriented benevolent leadership. Finally, the old version of moral leadership
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only had six questions, whereas the new version is split into the following six
dimensions: courage, magnanimity, incorruptness, responsibility, impartialness,
and leading by example. Each of these new dimensions has three questions.

The questionnaire consisted of four independent sections. The first section
included a covering letter explaining the nature of the study and the purpose of
the study, and highlighted to respondents that their participation and responses
would only be used for the purpose of this research and would not be published
in a way that would allow them to be identified. The second section contained
questions relating to the respondents demographics. This section included
questions about age, gender, education, managerial level, work tenure, number
of years in the agency, and other questions relating to the leader-follower
relationship.

A six point Likert scale was employed for giving the respondents alternatives for
answering the related questions. The benefit of using a six point measurement
scale in the Indonesian context, which does not value high assertiveness, is that
it provided many alternative answers as possible and avoided a central point.

The following section of the questionnaire (Section 2) contained all of the
questions on PL. It should be noted that the items have retained the same
English wording used by Cheng. The ability to directly compare the Javanese
analysis with Chengs results was considered more important than tidying up
English expression. Table 5.1 shows a brief description of each of the ten
scales within the questionnaire and an example of the items.

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Table 5.1
Descriptive Information on Paternalistic Leadership Scales

Authoritarian Leadership
This measures the degree to which the leader possesses and displays an authoritarian
style of leadership.
e.g. My supervisor asks me to fully obey him.

Authoritative Leadership
This measures the degree to which the leader demonstrates authoritative behaviour in the
work place.
e.g. My supervisor is very tight to his subordinates.

Benevolent Leadership (Person Oriented Consideration)
This measures the extent to which the leader, through the positive use of benevolent
behaviour, shows person oriented consideration.
e.g. My supervisor cares not only on my work but also on my life

Benevolent Leadership (Task Oriented Consideration)
This measures the extent to which the leader, through the positive use of benevolent
behaviour in shows they are task oriented.
e.g. My supervisor trains and guides me when I fell having less ability to work.

Moral Leadership (Courage)
This measures the leaders perceived morality as demonstrated by strong displays of
courage.
e.g. My supervisor has courage to report wrongdoings.

Moral Leadership (Magnanimity)
This measures the leaders perceived morality as demonstrated by magnanimous
behaviour.
e.g. My supervisor does not mind being offended.

Moral Leadership (Incorruptness)
This measures the leaders perceived morality as demonstrated by avoiding corrupt
behaviour.
e.g. My supervisor does not use the companys facilities for his interest.

Moral Leadership (Responsibility)
This measures the leaders perceived morality as demonstrated by responsibility.
e.g. My supervisor is responsible for work.

Moral Leadership (Impartialness)
This measures the leaders perceived morality as demonstrated by impartial behaviour.
e.g. My supervisor does not evaluate subordinates based in personal relationship.

Moral Leadership ( Lead by Example)
This measures the leaders perceived morality as demonstrated by efforts to lead by
example initiatives.
e.g. My supervisor acts as a model for me in all aspects

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5.4.2 Working with the Instrument

The set of questionnaires developed by Cheng et al. (2004); Cheng (2008) for
a Taiwan setting (see Chapter 3) have been tested for their construct validity.
However, this does not guarantee that the test actually measures these
phenomena in other research domains. The fact that Javanese and
Confucianism values are similar does not necessarily mean that the values will
be exactly the same.

Furthermore, the set of questions went through several important stages of
conceptualisation before they were finalised. As the questionnaire developed by
Cheng et al. (2008) was in English translation from Chinese, it further needed to
be translated into Indonesian. In order to increase the instrument construct
validity of this research, the translation-back translation method was used.
According to Brislin (1970) and Hambleton and Patsula (1998), translation-back
translation is the preferred method for cross-cultural research.

The translation-back translation process involved two steps. First, the
researcher translated the original questions into Indonesian. According to Vijver
and Leung (1997), the researcher should translate the research instrument
themselves, as he/she knows both of the languages and the other
characteristics of the target respondents being studied. Second, the researcher
used an independent translator, in this case an English speaker who is also
fluent in Indonesian, to carry out the back-translation. The researcher and two
experts then reviewed the back-translation; the experts were experienced in
research and were native English speakers. Mismatches between the original
questionnaire and the back translation were identified and resolved.

The following discussion provides information on the process of back-
translation, the problems that arose from the use of two languages and
translation, the structure of the questionnaire, and the strategies used for
increasing the response rate.

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Back-translating the Questionnaires
The questionnaire used in this research consisted of (1) ten questions on
benevolent leadership, (2) fourteen questions on authoritarianism leadership,
and (3) eigtheen questions on moral leadership. These were translated into
bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian language). A six point Likert scale was employed
for this study, ranging from (1) strongly disagree to (6) strongly agree. The
questions began with the phrase, My immediate supervisor .; an example of
these questions is, My immediate supervisor cares about not only my work but
also my life. The questionnaire was written in English and translated into
Indonesian. The two versions can be found in Appendices 3 and 4.

The wording of many of the questions was changed. This was done to ensure
that the meaning was clearly understood by Indonesians. However, the
changes that were made for the Indonesian language version were not
significantly different from the original English meaning. The details of the
changes are shown in Table 5.2.

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Table 5.2
The changes to the questions

Original Final back translation Reason for change

Question on Benevolent
Leadership
8. My supervisor offers
necessary help when I am
to occupied at work.

8. My supervisor offers me
a suitable little help when I
am really busy at work.

The word necessary, if
translated to Indonesian,
is little enough, so
changing to a clearer word
was needed to capture the
real meaning.
Questions on
Authoritarianism
Leadership
2. My supervisor would be
vexed if I oppose his ideas
in public.

6. My supervisor has the
last say in meetings.

2. My supervisor would be
annoyed if I oppose his
ideas in front of the public.

6. My supervisor expects
people to agree with his
opinion during the
meeting.

The word vexed is too
strong for Indonesian, so
annoyed would fit with
the Indonesian culture
better.
The word last says in
Indonesian does not
exist, which does not
define the concept.
Questions on Moral
Leadership
15. My supervisor doesnt
cover fault in groups
subordinates.
18. My supervisor leads,
rather than follows,
subordinates to deal with
difficult tasks.

15. My supervisor does
not cover my department
members mistakes.
18. When my department
faces difficult tasks, my
supervisor will lead rather
than follow.

Department is more
likely to be acceptable for
Indonesian workers.

In order to briefly inform the respondents about the nature of the research, the
researcher provided a very short introduction that described what the research
was about, as well as the objectives of the research. When conceptualizing this
section, the researcher faced several obstacles. The way that biographical
information is sought in Western research is different to how it is usually done in
Indonesian research. The original draft of the biographical section contained
personal questions about the nature of each respondents business, age, work
tenure, gender, and latest education. These types of straightforward questions
are likely to be accepted by Indonesians who are used to this style of question
more than the more tactful or less direct Western versions.
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However, to meet the standards of ethical conduct for research in a Western
university, the researcher decided to make some changes. The biographical
information section was therefore changed to ask in which year each
respondent was born, their gender, their level of education, which training they
had attended, and the frequency of their meetings with their supervisor.

Increasing the Response Rate
It is commonly argued that in order to increase the response rate for
questionnaires, the content must be shaped appropriately. Dillman (2000)
states that any attempt to motivate respondents to return survey questionnaires
should be based on social exchange theory. Furthermore, Dillman also points
out that the researcher should communicate clearly three critical elements to
potential respondents about their rights as respondents. These three elements
are now discussed.

The first critical element is the reward. Respondents should know in advance
what benefit they will receive upon completion of the survey. In this research,
the researcher provided forms of rewards other than financial rewards. This was
reflected in the covering letter, which said: Your participation will contribute
to not only knowledge accumulation but also practical application.

The second critical element is highlighting in the covering letter that the time to
complete the survey questionnaire will be minimal. In this research, the
researcher tried to make the information concise. This was in agreement with
Labaws (1981) statement that straightforward and concise language should be
employed in order to increase the readability of the cover letter. In Indonesia,
especially in the government sector where civil servants are usually busy with
their tasks, asking them to fill in a questionnaire may be seen as a work
disruption. A long questionnaire that is not of direct benefit for them will make
them think twice about completing it. In this research, a preliminary test of the
questionnaire was carried out using ten randomly selected civil servants; this
showed that it took around 15-20 minutes to complete the questionnaire, so this
was the estimated time provided to potential respondents in the covering letter.
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The last critical element is trust. Establishing an adequate level of trust is also
crucial to increasing the response rate of questionnaires. Stating that the
researcher will ensure the confidentiality of the respondents answers will make
them feel safe. In this research, the researcher provided details in the covering
letter with the statement: You will never be personally identified in this research
project or in any presentation or publication.

These actions, along with the quality of translation-back translation of the
questionnaire, were the major strategies used to increase the response rate of
the questionnaire. However, in order to make a favorable impression on
Indonesian people it was also important to look at the quality of the materials;
strategies like designing the cover page and making the covering letter concise
were also considered to be significantly important for increasing the response
rate. The researcher used a simple and colourful design for the questionnaire
cover, which the researcher hoped would create more interest in the survey and
motivate respondents to open the booklet and complete the questionnaire. It is
also important to give the impression that the questionnaire is exclusive (Berdie
and Anderson 1974); therefore the survey was printed on high quality, glossy
paper. This also increased the legibility of the survey. Printing on photocopy
paper would have made the questionnaire seem the same as the commercial
surveys that many civil servants may dislike.

5.5 Ethical Issues and Data Collection

The study was conducted using a single source of documentation, the PL
survey questionnaire. This was in accordance with the recommendations for
using survey methods in leadership research that aims to gain the first-hand
experience of leadership as practiced by the respondents immediate
supervisors (Dickson, Den Hartog et al. 2003; House, Hanges et al. 2004).
Before data collection began, the survey instrument was subjected to translation
back-translation processes, as has been discussed in the Section 5.4.2.
Although the researcher played a significant part in these processes, a number
of steps were taken to minimise any possible effect of researcher subjectivity.
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5.5.1 Ethical Issues

The ethical code for conducting research without causing harm to participants in
any way was strictly followed. Considering this, two further management expert
opinions were sought in regard to the content of the questionnaire. From their
(Western) views, the content of the questionnaire was unlikely to cause harm.

As will be discussed in Section 5.7, the participants of the study also comprised
attendees at training sessions run by the government. The researcher ensured
that their participation in the study was voluntary. This was done by contacting
the training administrators by letter and asking them to invite trainees to
participate in the survey by filling out the questionnaire. However, because of
the requirement of informed consent, the trainees agreed that they would not fill
in the questionnaire during the training programmes, but when they had
returned to their boarding houses in the weekend. The training administrators
then collected the questionnaires on the following Monday. Furthermore,
anonymity was addressed through an identification number coding procedure;
there was no way for the researcher to identify individual trainee responses.

In line with the normal procedure for survey research at Massey University, the
original questionnaire was screened by the Massey University Human Ethics
Committee (MUHEC) to ensure that the questions were considered safe for the
survey process.

Ethical approval was given (see Appendix 5) and a statement regarding ethics
was included in the survey (see Appendix 6).

5.5.2 Data Collection

At the beginning of this study the researcher was in New Zealand, while the
target sample was in Indonesia. This situation made the researcher decide
carefully about which methodology would be appropriate. Three months before
the data collection started, the researcher initiated correspondence with the
representatives of the provincial level government offices of the provinces
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where the study was to be undertaken. This resulted in a preliminary research
permit indicating that all agencies in their provincial coverage (including 29
regencies and 9 cities in East Java Province; and 4 regencies and one city in
the Special Region of Yogyakarta) and the provincial government office were
accessible and could be sampled for the research. Details of this process will be
discussed in the procedure section below.

Population
The population for the present study consisted of 358,579 civil servants in the
East Java Provinces and 87,713 civil servants in the Special Region of
Yogyakarta. Most of the civil servants work in government agency offices in
city/regency capitals. Some work remotely in the villages as agricultural
advisors or teachers. The working week for civil servants varies from five to six
days, depending on each citys/regencys policy. In general, high school
education is the minimum educational level for civil servants, though a small
number have university degrees.

Given this population size, and following a classical statistical approach (where
10% of the population should be sampled) (Sekaran 2003), ideally there would
have been about 40 thousand people included in the sample. However, due to
time and resources constraints it was impossible to collect such a huge sample.
Consequently this study used Explanatory Factor Analysis (EFA) techniques as
the main tools. For this, Brace, Kemp and Snelgar (2009) suggest that the
number of the cases required for statistical analysis should be ten times bigger
than the total number of questions in the questionnaires. The questionnaire was
comprised of 42 questions, so therefore the minimum sample size was 420
participants. Given the limited time available for the survey process, 1,000
people were selected for the sample. This was a reasonable target, and would
provide a sufficient number of cases for the statistical techniques applied in the
study.

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Sampling
Considering the time limitations and the characteristics of the population, the
sampling techniques used in this research were purposive and random
sampling. Purposive sampling was employed to select the regencies and/or
cities in which the government agencies would be sampled. Simple random
sampling was employed to select the participants within the government
agencies.

The detailed sampling steps were as follows:

1. The provinces used in this study were the East Java Province and the
Yogyakarta Special Region. The justification for selecting these
provinces was discussed in Chapter Two.
2. The regencies and/or cities in which government agencies operate were
selected based on the characteristics of the region. For example:
a. Yogyakarta Special Region. This is considered to be the centre
and origin of Javanese culture, and has only 5 districts. Therefore
all of the districts were included in the sample.
b. East Java Province. According to Siahaan (Dean of Social
Sciences Airlangga University-personal communication, 2008),
there are the following three cultural groups in East Java (see
Figure 3): Mataraman (dominated by Javanese ethnic/culture);
coastal culture, Maduranese (dominated or strongly influenced by
Madura ethnic/culture); and urban/modern culture. The latest is
also known as the Arek culture. The researcher randomly selected
five districts as the sample for each cultural group. If there were
less than five districts, all districts for that cultural group were used
as the sample. With this approach there were 15 districts in East
Java involved in the study.
3. Since there is a variation in the number of government agencies in each
district, these were grouped into six sectors (see Section 5.3). If there
was more than one government agency in each sector, the government
agency used in the sample was selected randomly.
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4. About twenty percent of the total staff within the selected government
agency were randomly sampled to participate in the survey. In this way
the participants from each government agency varied from 20 to 30
persons. With a total of 20 districts, the number of participants expected
to be involved in the study was about 700.

Figure 5.3
The Selection of cities/regencies for the Study

5. Furthermore, as reported in Section 5.3 the researcher also cooperated
with the Bureau of Training at the provincial level in order to increase the
sample size. (One in Surabaya office, the capital of East Java provinces
and the other one in Yogyakarta office, the capital of Yogyakarta Special
Region). The participants in their training courses come from all of the
district government agencies within the province. Therefore it could be
assumed that they were representative participants for the study; 300 of
these trainees participated in the study.

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Using this approach, 1,000 questionnaires were sent to the participants. From
these, 807 questionnaires were used by the researcher.

Procedure
Data collection started in early September 2008. As discussed earlier, the final
questionnaire from the translation back-translation process was translated into
Indonesian. Before data collection began, the following steps were taken to
make sure that the survey process was ready to begin:

1. The first step was to follow up communication with the Bureau of
National Unity (Badan Kesatuan Bangsa) in the two provincial capital
cities. The purpose of the communication was to obtain the permit
needed for the research, and at the same time to get advice from the
Bureau of National Unity in the two provincial capital cities on how to
conduct the survey effectively (see Appendix 7). In Indonesia this bureau
is well known as the first gate that researchers should approach before
commencing a survey in the public sector. They provided information
about who would be the best person to contact when first entering the
cities/regencies, and about agencies that have responded to surveys
promptly in the past.
2. The second step was to contact two government officials (one in the
Bureau of National Training in the East Java Provinces, and one in the
Bureau of National Unity in the Special Region of Jogyakarta) and one
student who had previously agreed to act as a research assistant. A total
of three research assistants were enlisted and asked to read the
research aims provided by the researcher and to thoroughly read the
questionnaire. At a short meeting held in Surabaya in early September
2008, the researcher gave information to the research assistants on how
the questionnaires should be handed out, how much time was needed to
complete the questionnaire and how the questionnaires should be
returned to them before passing them back to the researcher.

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The method for questionnaire distribution was mainly person-to-person delivery.
This meant that the researcher and the research assistants went directly to the
target agencies with a copy of the research permit and asked permission to do
the survey. Normally, agencies responded positively and set up a 30-minute
voluntary meeting for interested civil servants (20-30 people). The section head
of Public Relations announced the purpose of the research at the beginning of
the meeting and allowed the researcher or the research assistants to briefly
introduce what the research was about.

For the sample that participated in the training held by the National Training
Agency in Surabaya and Yogyakarta, the distribution of the questionnaires was
done by the researcher on the Friday afternoon prior to the trainees going home
for the weekend.

5.6 Data Analysis Method

Before carrying out any statistical analysis, it was important to select an
analytical methodology that meet the aims of the research. The selection of
data analysis tools involves several steps of justification, and should be done
carefully.
It has been discussed in Chapter One that the aim of this study was to answer
several questions relating to Indonesian leadership. The analysis of the
quantitative data was done using the latest version (16) of Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences (SPSS). The analyses used to answer the research
questions including explanatory factor analysis (EFA), one-way Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) and two-way ANOVA. Each of the analyses requires data
integrity. Therefore the researcher screened, tested and refined the data to
ensure that no violation of the integrity assumption was made prior to the data
analyses.

Thirty five questionnaires were subjected to a double check to make sure that
the data tabulation was correct. No tabulation errors were found, though a few
cases indicated that some participants had double-ticked one question. In these
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cases the researcher accepted that the bolder tick represented the final answer.
This process increased the researchers confidence in the integrity of the data
file.

SPSS also shows extreme values for each survey question. Ten extreme
values (e.g. answering out of the Likert range or providing illogical demographic
information) were detected. The researcher re-inspected the original
questionnaires to see whether the data tabulation was in error or if the
respondents had incorrectly answered the questions. In most cases the
mistakes were in the data tabulation, so the appropriate corrections were made.
This finding increased the researchers confidence to proceed with further
analyses. From the total of 807 questionnaires that were returned to the
researcher, only 6 were excluded (on the basis that 60% or more of the
questions were unanswered). A total of 801 questionnaires were subjected to
further analysis.

Furthermore, as this study involved multivariate analysis (EFA), the first step in
the data analysis was to conduct an outliers test. Hair et al. (2006) note that
outliers are a form of measurement error in which substantial differences occur
between the actual and predicted values for the variable being studied. In this
study, Z-scores were utilized to screen for outliers. The use of Z-scores is in
agreement with the suggestion of Weinberg and Abramowitz (2008), who state
that using Z-scores is an acceptable technique for detecting outliers. Z scores
were used for the total raw data for each question of the questionnaire using
two values +

3 (Weinberg and Abramowitz 2008) and + 4, a less conservative
standard discussed by Stevens (2002), the researcher performed the test using
the total raw data for each question on the questionnaire and detected that
there were no outliers.

This study also involved analysis of variance (ANOVA) of univariate data (in this
study a general linear model was used). Concerning this analysis, before any
attempt was made to interpret the results, ANOVA assumptions needed to be
met. The factor score resulting from a factor analysis is used in these analyses;
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therefore it is not necessary to conduct a normality test as part of testing
ANOVA assumptions, as the score is standardized (Rummel 1970).
Furthermore, the Lavene test was performed to ensure that the data entered in
the analysis had not violated the other ANOVA assumptions (i.e. assumptions
of homogeneity of variance). A conservative criterion of 0.05 was set for
Lavenes test. In the case of a violation of assumptions, the stringent
significance level of 0.01 was employed (Pallant 2007; Tabachnick and
Fidell 2007). The summary of Lavenes test is reported in Table 5.3.

In order to understand the characteristics of each variable, descriptive statistics
were used. The mean, standard deviation and percentages of each item were
provided to inform the research findings. Then, a reliability analysis was
performed to ensure that the resulting factor indicating each leadership scale
was reliable and met the minimum requirement. As suggested by Nunnally and
Bernstein (1994), the Cronbachs alpha cut-off point was set to 0.60 for the
purpose of the study.

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Table 5.3
Levenes Test for Equality of Variances

Levenes Test for Equality of
Variances
F Sig
Visible Leadership Age
Gender
Position
Education
Training attended by employee
Frequency meet supervisor
0.286
1.765
0.462
4.457
0.070
2.674
0.921
1.184
0.630
0.010*
0.791
0.070
Authoritarian Age
Leadership Gender
Position
Education
0.686
0.023
0.196
1.831
2.610
4.215
0.634
0.881
0.882
0.121
0.107
0.015*
Benevolent Age
Leadership Gender
Position
Education
0.353
0.000
1.520
0.837
0.071
0.469
0.881
0.998
0.220
0.502
0.789
0.626
Moral-incorruptness Age
Leadership Gender
Position
Education
1.521
1.906
4.269
2.883
4.475
0.393
0.181
0.168
0.014*
0.022
0.035
0.675
Moral-courage Age
Leadership Gender
Position
Education
0.884
0.227
0.195
1.224
0.807
0.385
0.491
0634
0.823
0.299
0.369
0.681
Moral-impartialness Age
Leadership Gender
Position
Education
0.497
3.706
2.988
5.207
4.019
2.517
0.778
0.055
0.051
0.00*
0.045*
0.081
Moral-magnanimity Age
Leadership Gender
Position
Education
0.631
2.936
0.332
1.648
1.871
3.150
0.676
0.087
0.718
0.160
1.172
0.044
Visible Leadership Two-way ANOVA design
(gender and position, gender and education, position
and education)
1.705

0.105

* significant at the level of 0.01
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Furthermore, in order to test the instruments construct validity and to answer
research question one, a factor analysis was performed. All forty-two questions
on PL were subjected to an EFA. With an initial principal component analysis,
followed by applying a Varimax rotation method, the EFA answered research
question one: To what extent is Indonesian leadership paternalistic?

In conducting the EFA, several rules were set up in line with the guidance from
Hair et al. (2006) and Brace et al. (2009). The rules were as follows:

1. As a general EFA rule of thumb, only factors that have Eigenvalues
greater than 1 were retained as factors created in this analysis,.
2. To be meaningful, only factors with a loading of 0.40 will be chosen (this
is in line with many SPSS guidebooks).
3. To obtain clearer factors of dimensionality, EFA will be performed
repeatedly to explore whether there are multiple loadings in one factor.

In this research, an EFA was conducted two times. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
(KMO) statistic from the first EFA was very high (0.901), and its resulting eight
factors were retained. Four items had high multiple loadings, and one item had
a value less than 0.40. In this study, the researcher decided to run the EFA one
more time in order to obtain better and clearer results. The results of the final
EFA are reported in the results chapter.

The next step was to answer research question number two: How is the
leader-employee relationship constructed in an Indonesian context? In
order to answer research question two, a general linear model (GLM) was
implemented. Brace et al. (2009) note that in the latest SPSS software, a GLM
is a more powerful tool than the independent t-test or one-way ANOVA
techniques for analysing variance. The researcher used the GLM to evaluate
whether or not there were significant differences between respondents
demographic data (age, gender, education, position, training attended and
frequency of meetings with supervisors) and their interaction with the leadership
construct developed in this study.
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In this study, the GLM was used in two stages. First, the GLM was applied to all
the PL components. Second, in order to further explore the possibility of
significant differences between the respondent demographics and the PL
components, the GLM was applied to the PL components where the first step
had showed the largest significant effect, which was that of Visible Leadership.
As Pallant (2007) suggests, a follow-up analysis may be done if there are
significant effects resulting from the initial analysis. This method was used to
establish strong evidence before any attempt was made to answer research
question two. To determine whether significant differences existed in this study,
eta-squared values were considered.

The relationships between the two research questions, the sources of data and
the types of statistical analyses are presented in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4
Data Analysis of Research Results

Research Questions Sources of Data Type of Statistical Analysis
1. To what extent is
Indonesian leadership
paternalistic?
PL
a
responses 1. EFA
b

2. Mean and SD

2. How is the leader-
employee relationship
constructed in an
Indonesian context?
Demographic variables
from PL survey;
responses
GLM
c
1. One-Way Analysis
of Variance
2. Two-Way Analysis
of Variance
a
Paternalistic leadership.
b
Explanatory factor analysis.
c
General linear model.

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5.7 Conclusion

This research method presents several potential strengths, including the
processes used in the instruments adaptation, the selection of the participating
organisations and the sampling techniques that could extend the generalisation
of the study to a broader context.
Performing rigorous processes is necessary when the adoption of an instrument
involves translation. Using the translation back-translation process can increase
the validity of the translated instrument and achieve the original instruments
intent (Brislin 1970; Sperber, Develiss et al. 1994). In this study, the translation
back-translation process involved two independent Western experts and a
certified translator in Indonesia. Therefore the researcher had strong confidence
in the quality of the translation. In turn this created a document that was
understandable to the respondents and kept the original instruments meaning.

The public sector was selected for this study in order to examine a population
that was likely to be influenced by the traditional Javanese values of Indonesia.
Using the public sector is a break from the usual application of PL, which has
generally been in family-owned businesses in the private sector. Given this
studys unique population, the researcher hoped that an outcome of the study
would be to advance the study of PL beyond the private sector.

The researcher used a multiple sampling method to obtain a representative
sample from the selection of provinces, cities or regencies, agencies and staff
that were involved in the study. The use of multiple sampling methods has
several advantages. Apart from gaining the maximum number of responses,
this technique can also result in a well-drawn sample. Scheaffer, Mendenhall
and Ott (1991) state that it allows the researcher to approach a more accurate
generalisation of the relationship between the sample and the population. The
researchers justification for selecting the target sample may be viewed as an
attempt to broaden the generalisation of the sample to the population.
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However, the researcher also acknowledges several limitations with regard to
the design of the research, in particular relating to sampling design and the
process of data analysis. The first limitation relates to the selection of trainees
that were involved in the training course held by the two government provincial
training providers. Although the researcher had been informed that the training
is attended by a representation from each city and regency beyond the
coverage of provincial border, there was no way of knowing which of the various
sectors were represented. For example, in the last three months of 2008, only
three sectors in the Yogyakarta Special region (the Education and Culture
sector, the Natural Resources sector and the Administrative and Governance
sector) were invited to send their staff for training. Therefore, the other sectors
classified by the researcher were not attainable.

The second limitation relates to the data analyses. In the two-way ANOVA
analysis, the researcher combined categories for within two variables
(education and position). In the one-way ANOVA, the education variable
consisted of five levels (below high school, high school, diploma, bachelor and
master) and the position variable consisted of three levels (staff, section head,
and field head). Although this change was aimed at finding possible
relationships among respondent demographic variables, this may have affected
the consistency of the main effects between the one-way and the two-way
ANOVA tests.

Finally, before any attempt is made to generalise this studys findings to all of
Indonesia, the researcher suggests that precautions should be put in place.
This study is within the context of responses from a sample of Indonesian civil
servants at a particular point in time. These responses represent the
interpretation of meaning by the respondents of the study to the seven PL
scales (e.g. visible leadership, authoritarianism leadership, benevolent
leadership, and moral leadership). Other sectors of Indonesian society may be
influenced by a wide range of cultural values, and might produce different
results in a similar survey.
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With reference to the strengths of the studys design, the quantitative analysis
described in this chapter will help to create an understanding of the suitability of
PL in Indonesia.

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CHAPTER 6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

6.1 Introduction

In line with the purpose of this study, two main issues will be discussed in this
chapter; (1) uncovering the extent of Paternalistic Leadership (PL) in Indonesia,
(2) employees demographic characteristics relating to the practice of
Paternalistic Leadership in Indonesia, an investigative method endorsed by
Stodgill (1974) who concluded that designing research around leader-follower
interactions should be promoted in future studies.

As discussed in Chapter Five, this study has taken a quantitative approach.
This section discusses the results of the study in the form of numerical analysis
used to answer the research questions. In brief, the data used was generated
from 801 completed questionnaires using a 6-point Likert-type scale. There are
24 tables in this section representing the data analyses, along with the
interpretation of results through narration.

6.2 Survey Responses

The respondents in this study consisted of civil servants from provincial agency
offices, regency agency offices and city agency offices. A total of 807 civil
servants participated in the study.

Table 6.1 summarises the demographic profile of the respondents, revealing
that they were predominantly male (59.3%), and that nearly three quarters of
participants (73.2%) were from the staff level. The average age of the
respondents was 40 years (the youngest being 18 years of age and the oldest
being 59), with nearly half of them (45.8%) holding a bachelors degree. As
would be expected from members of this population, the sample consisted of
mature age civil servants, most with high levels of literacy. This is considered
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advantageous because the respondents perceptions of their supervisors also
reflected their average number of years serving as civil servants. This indicates
that, on average, the civil servants involved in this study had good supervisory
knowledge, and it may therefore be inferred that their perceptions of their
supervisors leadership processes were based on both personal objectives and
an informed understanding of the supervisor.

Not all respondents had attended overseas training, with only 29 stating that
they had received both overseas and national training. Nearly 96% of
participants, however, had received national training. The majority of
respondents met with their supervisors every day (54.93%), while 28% met with
their supervisors once a week.

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Table 6.1
Respondent Demography

Table 6.2 shows a comparison of the percentages of gender and position status
of the sample to the percentages of the populations of the provinces where the
study was carried out. Data gained from the Bureau of Statistics of East Java
Province and Yogyakarta Special Region Province was used for this purpose
(Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta dalam angka 2008,2009; Provinsi Jawa Timur
dalam angka 2009, 2009)

Variable Category n Percentage

Gender

Age

Position

Education

Training

Frequency of meeting
with supervisors
Male
Female
Total for this question

< 30 years old
31 35 years old
36 40 years old
41 45 years old
46 50 years old
> 50 years old

Staff
Section Head
Field Head

Below high school
High school
Diploma degree
Bachelor degree
Master degree

National training
National and overseas training

Every day
Once a week
Once a month

452
310
762

98
122
215
167
92
79
773

573
132
77
782

12
254
48
354
105
773

634
29
663

384
202
113
699
59.3
40.7
100.0
12.7
15.8
27.8
21.6
11.9
10.2
100.0
73.3
16.9
9.8
100.0
1.7
32.8
6.2
45.8
13.5
100.0
95.6
4.4
100.0
54.9
28.9
16.2
100.0
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Table 6.2
Comparison of Sample to the Civil Servant Populations for Gender and Position
Status

Data Percentages Population Percentages

Gender
Sample percentages for the two
provinces
Male = 60%
Female = 40%

East Java Provinces (data 2007)
Male = 59%
Female = 41 %
Yogyakarta Special Region (data 2008)
Male = 58%
Female = 42%

Position
Sample percentages for the two
provinces
Staff = 73%
Managerial = 27%

East Java Provinces (data 2007)
Staff = 67%
Managerial = 33%
Yogyakarta Special Region (data 2008)
Staff = 76%
Managerial = 24%

Based on these respondent characteristics and the percentages of the gender
and positions of civil servants in the two provinces being studied, it was
concluded that the study was reasonably representative of the population from
which it was drawn.

6.3 Internal Consistency Reliability of the Instrument

In order to ensure the reliability of the survey instrument, internal consistency
reliability was computed. Reliability is described as a statistical measure of how
reproducible a survey instruments data is. Litwin (1995) noted that Internal
consistency reliability is applied to groups of items that are thought to measure
different facets of the same features. In this study, internal consistency
reliability was performed twice. The first time it was performed on the original
instrument. The reason for conducting reliability tests before using the
instrument for further analyses is in line with Santos (1999) argument in which
he pointed out that a reliability test for all factors should be performed before
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using them in subsequent analyses. The second test was done after
Explanatory Factor Analysis (EFA). Gerbing and Anderson (1988) noted that
the reliability of a measure should also be performed after uni-dimensionality
has been established (this will be discussed further later in this chapter).

Hair et al. (2006) suggests that 0.7 is the acceptable cut-off point when
establishing a satisfactory level for instrument reliability. However, with regard
to scale development, a value of more than 0.6 is considered satisfactory (Van
de Ven and Ferry 1980; Nunnally and Bernstein 1994). As can be seen from
Table 6.3, all of the scales are at a satisfactory level, ranging from 0.632 to
0.802, and all are well above the generally accepted lower limit of 0.6.

Table 6.3
Cronbachs Alpha Scores for Paternalistic Leadership Scales
(Original)

Measurement Scale No of Items Cronbachs
Alpha
Authoritarian Leadership 7 0.665
Authoritative Leadership 7 0.681
Benevolent Leadership
(Person-oriented consideration)
5 0.700
Benevolent Leadership (Task-
oriented consideration)
5 0.802
Moral Leadership
(Courage)
3 0.683
Moral Leadership
(Magnanimity)
3 0.684
Moral Leadership
(Incorruptness)
3 0.778
Moral Leadership
(Responsibility)
3 0.660
Moral Leadership
(Impartialness)
3 0.632
Moral Leadership
(Lead by Example)
3 0.754

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From these findings the researcher concludes that the scales have satisfactory
levels of internal consistency and so may be considered to be suitably reliable
for further analysis.

6.4 Descriptive Statistics

This research was performed by replicating the instrument of Paternalistic
Leadership (PL) developed by Cheng et al. (2004). The latest version (Cheng
2008)
10
was used in order to provide a comprehensive picture of the study. In
keeping with the objective that the research was to be applicable to the
population of the study, the descriptive statistics in this study are presented
twice. Firstly, they are presented only to provide a brief illustration of how the
respondents replied to the questions, thus any further interpretation is not
made. Secondly, the descriptive statistics (which will be presented later in this
chapter after Explanatory Factor Analysis) are used with the factor scores
resulting from the EFA and the interpretation of how respondents replied to the
modified questions.

A 6-point Likert scale was used in the study so there was no neutral point.
Forty-two questions were used to assess civil servants perceptions of the
leadership practices exercised by their immediate supervisors. Answers were
expressed using the following scale values: 1 (never); 2 (seldom); 3
(sometimes); 4 (often); 5 (usually); and 6 (always). Tables 6.4 to 6.13 provide
the descriptive statistics by questionnaire item for the research variables. They
display means and standard deviations for the responses to each question
pertaining to the research variables
11
.

10
All questions presented in this dissertation are the same as the original questionnaire. Cheng
developed the questionnaire in the Taiwanese language and translated it into English.
11
Throughout this chapter, information about the mean for each question for descriptive
statistics on the construct of Paternalistic leadership is in order (from the smallest to the largest).
116 | P age

Table 6.4
Descriptive Statistics for Authoritarian Leadership

Items Means Standard Deviation
Appears to be intimidating in front of
his/her subordinates
2.00 1.371
Does not impart information to me* 2.25 1.328
Defines an exemplary subordinate
as one who acts upon what he/she
demands
2.34 1.568
Would be vexed if I oppose his/her
ideas in public
2.86 1.663
Solely makes all decisions in my
department
2.92 1.523
Asks me to completely obey him 3.43 1.757
Always has the last say in the
meeting
4.10 1.555

* reversed scale
With regard to the construct of Authoritarian leadership (Table 6.4) almost all
questionnaire items revealed negative perceptions among respondents, with
answers being among the lower scale values. Based on the mean score, the
average respondent answered with a scale value of 2 (seldom), with the
exception of one item which was marked as having the highest mean. This item
was, Always has the last say in the meeting, to which the respondents replied
often (scale value 4).

Table 6.5 provides a summary of respondent responses for the construct of
Authoritative leadership. Most of the questionnaire items revealed positive
perceptions among respondent, with answers being among the higher scale
values. Based on the mean score, the average respondent answered with a
scale value of 3 (sometimes), with two items which was marked as having the
highest mean. This item was, Demands that his/her team outperform others,
to which respondents replied often (scale value 4).
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Table 6.5
Descriptive Statistics for Authoritative Leadership

Brings me a lot of pressure when we
work together
2.19 1.417
Keeps track of my work from head to
toe
2.38 1.515
Scolds me when I fail expected
target
2.76 1.503
Very strict with his/her subordinates 3.07 1.442
Disciplines me for violation of his/her
principles
3.52 1.558
Demands that I immediately report
him/her any change at work
4.09 1.516
Demands that his/her team
outperform others
4.60 1.530

Table 6.6 summarises the respondent views of Benevolent leadership (person-
oriented consideration). Almost all questionnaire items revealed positive
perceptions among respondents. Based on the mean score, the average
respondent answered with a scale value of 3 (sometimes), with the exception of
one item which was marked as having the lowest mean. This item was, Helps
me solve my personal problems, to which the respondents replied seldom
(scale value 2).

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Table 6.6
Descriptive Statistics for Benevolent Leadership (person oriented
consideration)

Helps me solve my personal
problems
2.75 1.486
Understands my preference enough
to accommodate my personal
requests
3.26 1.388
Cares about not only my work but
also my life
3.49 1.325
Often shows his/her concern about
me
3.65 1.141
Very considerate to subordinates
working with him/her for a long time
3.85 1.395

With regard to Benevolent leadership (task-oriented consideration) (Table 6.7),
almost all questionnaire items revealed positive perceptions among
respondents, with answers being among the higher scale values. Based on the
mean score, the average respondent answered with a scale value of 4 (often),
with the exception of one item which was marked as having the lowest mean.
This item was, Trains and coaches me when I lack required abilities at work,
to which the respondents replied seldom (scale value 2).

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Table 6.7
Descriptive Statistics for Benevolent Leadership (task oriented
consideration)

Trains and coaches me when I lack
required abilities at work
2.80 1.372
Helps me make future career plan in
the company
3.04 1.614
Encourages me when I encounter
difficulties at work
4.03 1.487
Would try to understand the real
cause of my unsatisfied performance
4.09 1.573
Offers necessary help when I am too
occupied at work
4.12 1.539

Table 6.8 summarises the respondent views of Moral leadership (courage).
Almost all questionnaire items revealed positive perceptions among
mean score, the average respondent answered with a scale value of 3
(sometimes), with the exception of one item which was marked as having the
lowest mean. This item was, Has the courage to report wrongdoings, to which
the respondents replied seldom (scale value 2).

Table 6.8
Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (courage)

Has the courage to report
wrongdoings
2.97 1.560
Stands out and fights against
injustice
3.45 1.660
Speaks out for unfairly-treated others 3.54 1.553

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With regard to the construct of Moral leadership (magnanimity) (Table 6.9), all
questionnaire items revealed positive perceptions among respondents, with the
answers being among the higher scale values. Based on the mean score, the
average respondent answered with a scale value of 3 (sometimes), with the
exception of one item which was marked as having the highest mean. This item
was, Tolerant of criticism, to which the respondents replied usually (scale
value 4).

Table 6.9
Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (magnanimity)

Would not mind should his/her
opinion be not accepted
3.44 1.442
Open-minded and never minds when
being offended
3.63 1.533
Tolerant of criticism 4.23 1.462

Table 6.10 summarises the respondent views of Moral leadership
(incorruptness). Almost all questionnaire items revealed positive perceptions
among respondents, with answers being among the higher scale values. Based
on the mean score, the average respondent answered with a scale value of
usually. Sample item Does not take advantage of position power to bribe is
replied to by the respondents as usually (scale value 4).

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Table 6.10
Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (incorruptness)

Does not take advantage of
company resources on personal
affairs*
4.22 1.722
Does not ask subordinates to do
personal business for him/her*
4.32 1.701
Does not take advantage of position
power to bribe*
4.36 1.610

* reversed scale

Table 6.11 summarises the respondent views of Moral leadership
(responsibility). Almost all questionnaire items revealed positive perceptions
among respondents, with answers being among the higher scale values. Based
on the mean score, the average respondent answered with a scale value of
usually. Sample item Takes responsibility on job and never shirks his/her
duty is replied to by the respondents as usually (scale value 4).

Table 6.11
Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership(responsibility)

Does not pass the buck to others
when he/she makes a mistake*
4.06 1.873
Takes responsibility on job and
never shirks his/her duty
4.95 1.363
Responsible on job 5.19 1.199

* reversed scale

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With regard to the construct of Moral-impartialness leadership (Table 6.12), all
questionnaire items revealed positive perceptions among respondents, with the
answers being among the higher scale values. Based on the mean score, the
average respondent answered with a scale value of 3 (sometimes), with the
exception of one item which was marked as having the lowest mean. This item
was, Does not give extra attention to subordinates with whom he/she has
personal relationship, to which the respondents replied usually (scale value
4).

Table 6.12
Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (impartialness)

Does not cover fault for in-groups
subordinates*
3.61 1.555
Does not evaluate subordinates by
personal relationship*
3.91 1.799
Does not give extra attention to
subordinates with whom he/she has
4.13 1.649

* reversed scale

Table 6.13 summarises the respondent views of Moral leadership (lead by
example). Almost all questionnaire items revealed positive perceptions among
mean score, the average respondent answered with a scale value of usually.
Sample item Well self-disciplines before demanding upon others is replied to
by the respondents as usually (scale value 4).

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Table 6.13
Descriptive Statistics for Moral Leadership (lead by example)

Sets an example to me in all aspects 3.93 1.543
Leads rather follow, subordinates to
deal with difficult tasks
4.26 1.503
Well self-disciplines before
demanding upon others
4.52 1.541

The descriptive statistics as shown in Table 6.3 to Table 6.13 indicated that, for
the construct of PL, respondents tend to give a relatively positive response
(mostly the mean score as they respond is sometimes on the scale).

6.5 Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA)

In this study, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed to answer
research question number one. The research question is:

To what extent is Indonesian leadership Paternalistic?

This research question was answered through reporting the factor structure of
the PL instrument. By reporting this finding the researcher was able to compare
the dimensionality of the PL found in this study to the original Taiwan-based
model. Thus the researcher was able to interpret how Indonesian leadership is
characterised by the concepts embedded in PL.

As described earlier in the methodology chapter, EFA was conducted twice.
The reasons and conditions for running EFA for the second time are provided in
the previous chapter.
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The 42 items in the PL instrument (Cheng 2008) were subjected to explanatory
factor analysis (EFA) with varimax rotation. EFA was used to test the degree to
which the model of PL proposed by Cheng et al. (2004) applied to the
Indonesian sample. The purpose of the analysis was to produce a profile of
Indonesian leadership which could be used to test the assumption that the
influences of Javanese and Taiwanese cultures were similar in the way they
shaped relationships between leaders and followers.

The Kaiser-Meyer Olkin measure of sampling adequacy test and Bartletts test
of sphericity estimates were within acceptable values to satisfy the assumptions
for factor analysis. Principal component factor analysis yielded a solution that
accounts for 52 percent of the variability in the data and after optimisation using
varimax rotation produced loadings for the various scale items onto seven
factors. Five items had multiple loadings and after some further examination
and analysis were dropped leaving 37 items in the factor solution. The relevant
item loadings for seven factors are provided in Table 6.14.
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Table 6.14
Item listings, factor loadings 1-3 for the seven-factor PCF solutions

Item My supervisor
Factor 1 (0.82) Factor 2 (0.79) Factor 3 (0.76)
Visible
Leadership
Authoritarian
Leadership
Benevolent
Leadership
Q34
Q38
Q30
Q35
Q39
Q37
Q31
Q33
Q14

Q6
Q24

Q22
Q5
Q4
Q13
Q23
Q1

Q2
Q29
Q21
Q11
Q28
Q10
Q26
Responsible on job
Discipline himself before asking others to be disciplined
Demands that his/her teamoutperformothers
Takes responsibility on job and never shirks his/her duty
Lead rather than follow when we cope difficulties
Sets an example to me in all aspects
Disciplines me for violation of his/her principles
Asks immediately report of changes work
Always has the last say in the meeting

Looks frightening in front of the employees
Defines an exemplary subordinates as one who acts upon what
he/she demands
Grumble when I m fail
Brings a lot of pressures when we work him
Would be vexed if I oppose his/her ideas in public
Asks me to completely obey him
Solely makes all decisions in my department
Very strict with his/her subordinates

Cares about not only my work but also my life
Often shows his/her concern about me
Helps me to make future career plan
Trains and guides me when Imunderperformer
Helps me to solve private problem
Offers necessary help when I am too occupied at work
Understands my preference enough to accommodate my
personal requests

0.736
0.703
0.700
0.692
0.569
0.561
0.535
0.473
0.455

0.725
0.700

0.693
0.687
0.602
0.559
0.519
0.484

0.729
0.715
0.616
0.586
0.574
0.459

0.421

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continued ... Item listings, factor loadings 4-7 for the seven-factor PCF solutions

Item My supervisor
Factor 4 (0.77) Factor 5 (0.68) Factor 6 (0.63) Factor 7 (0.68)
Incorruptness
(Moral
Leadership)
Courage
(Moral
Leadership)
Impartialness
(Moral
Leadership)
Magnanimity
(Moral
Leadership)
Q25
Q27

Q8

Q7

Q9
Q41

Q40

Q42

Q16

Q16

Q18

Q17
Does not ask employees to do his needs
Does not use the companys facilities for his
interest
Does not use his power to bribe

Protest on the unfair manner done to other
persons
Has the courage to report wrongdoings
Stands out and fights against injustice

Does not give any special attention for
someone who close to him
Does not evaluate sub-ordinates based on
personal relationship
Does not cover mistake for internal team

Would not mind should his/her opinion be not
accepted
Open-minded and never minds when being
offended
Tolerant of criticism
0.832
0.788

0.747

0.725

0.707
0.674

0.791

0.763

0.519

0.654

0.651

0.524
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Four of the factors identified in the Taiwanese study (Cheng 2008) emerged
from the Indonesian data: Incorruptness (Moral leadership), Courage (Moral
leadership), Impartialness (Moral leadership), and Magnanimity (Moral
leadership)
12
. In addition, three new dimensions were discovered which appear
to encapsulate distinctive features of Javanese leadership.

Factor one is labelled Visible Leadership because it reflects Javanese
employee expectations that leaders should be visible and act as figureheads
(Table 6.14). This factor presents a new grouping of items that does not follow
the factors identified in prior studies. Specifically Visible Leadership is
compromised of one item from Authoritarian leadership, My supervisor always
has the last say in the meeting, three questions from the Authoritative
leadership dimension, such as My supervisor demands that his/her team
outperform others, one question from the Moral leadership (responsibility)
dimension My supervisor is responsible in job, and all three questions from the
moral leadership (leads-by-example) dimension, including My supervisor sets
an example to me in all aspects.

The second factor is labelled Authoritarian Leadership as it reflects very strict
Authoritarian behaviour on the part of the leader. Five questions on the original
model of Authoritarian leadership dimensions are captured in this factor
including My supervisor asks me to completely obey. However, the other three
questions originated from the Authoritative leadership dimension which included
My supervisor is very strict with his/her subordinates. This factor is previously
considered to be two distinct factors (authoritarian and authoritative), but this
distinction is not supported by the current data. The respondents views
revealed that there were no distinctions between authoritarian and authoritative
as they viewed Authoritarian leadership as including both aspects.

12
The term Moral leadership used by Cheng to identify one of the 3 main constructs of his
model, is placed after the name factors identified in this study that relate to that construct (e.g.
Courage (Moral leadership). This applies throughout the rest of the chapter.
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The third factor is labelled Benevolent leadership since it combines factors
that captured two different aspects of benevolence in the original model. These
two original factors were task-oriented and person oriented benevolent
leadership, but this distinction is not supported by the current data. The
Indonesian respondents did not distinguish between task and people, viewing
benevolence as including both aspects together.

The fourth, fifth, six, and seventh factors confirmed the previous model (refer to
Table 6.14). Factor number four is Incorruptness (Moral leadership); factor
number five is Courage (Moral leadership); factor number six is Impartialness
(Moral leadership); and factor number seven is Magnanimity (Moral
leadership). All these factors are consistent with the previous model so the
researcher adopted the same nomenclature as a matter of consistency between
studies.

Overall it should be noted that Benevolent and Moral leadership are consistent
with expected PL dimensions. However Visible leadership, which encompasses
the leaders articulation, emerged in the Javanese data as a key personal
attribute of Indonesian public sector leaders.

6.5.1 The Elements of Paternalistic Leadership in Indonesia

The first research question addressed is To what extent is Indonesian
leadership Paternalistic? In this study, the scale used for answering this
research question was developed in Taiwan (Cheng 2008). However, as
Indonesia is perceived to be culturally similar with Taiwan, the study attempts to
transplant the scale and to examine its applicability. Accordingly, the research
question focused on the leadership styles and the underpinning cultural values
of Javanese (presented in the literature review) and was answered through an
exploration of Indonesian culture and leadership theory.

The new factor created as a result of EFA showed a clear picture of the
leadership style preferred by the Indonesian respondents. To some degree, the
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EFA results are congruent with the model of PL from which this study
transplanted the construct. Important concepts grounded in the PL construct
such as Authoritarian, Benevolent and Moral leadership are still present. This
provides a convincing argument that to a large degree Indonesian leadership is
Paternalistic. Furthermore, other interesting findings were discovered in this
study. In the adopted model, Visible leadership did not occur in the construct of
PL; however, in this study, Visible leadership appeared as a significant
leadership style for Indonesians. Next the discussion of Visible leadership will
be carried out.

Visible Leadership
A new concept, Visible leadership, has been created from the results of this
study because of the strong emphasis placed by respondents on factors which
make leadership and the characteristics of a leader overt. This comprises
aspects of Authoritative leadership, Authoritarian leadership, moral leadership
(responsibility), and moral leadership (lead by example), that existed in the
Cheng (2008) model, but act as a separate factor in Indonesian perception of
leadership.

In terms of leadership styles, the current study finds that Visible leadership
utilises most forms of PL. This aspect of leadership existed in the Cheng et al.
model, in which this leadership style is compromised of one question from
Authoritarian leadership (my supervisor always has the last say in the meeting),
three questions from the Authoritative leadership dimension (i.e. my supervisor
demands that his/her team outperform others), one question from Moral-
responsibility leadership dimension (my supervisor responsible for work), and all
three questions from Moral-lead by example leadership dimension (i.e. my
supervisor sets an example to me in all aspects). The reason it is named as
Visible leadership is that all the questions in this factor reflect to the situation
where the employee felt that leaders should be visible in every act, and acting
as a figurehead by showing totalitarianism behaviour.

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The term Visible leadership is rarely found in the leadership scholarly writings.
On the surface, Visible leadership may not be too far away from the
developmental leadership theory discussed in the Chapter Three. Visible
leadership is encapsulated in the latest leadership theories, such as charismatic
and transformational leadership. Elements like being in the forefront are
closely associated with charismatic leadership where the leader is expected to
have strong conviction in the moral correctness of their beliefs. The idealised
influence construct of transformational leadership is closely associated with the
Visible leadership attribute of set an example. Although culturally Indonesians
are different from Western populations, these findings on the importance of
Visible leadership suggest that Indonesians accept Western ideals of leadership
in several ways.

In their review of Shackletons Antarctic Expedition, Dennis et al. (2000)
concluded that despite the competency that the leader should have, they must
be visible. Similarly Benton (2009) highlighted the importance for leaders to be
visible to a wider range of people. Key concepts of Visible leadership are
(Perkins, Holtman et al. 2000; Benton 2009):

Being at the forefront
Visible leaders are expected to recognise the importance of being in the
forefront and to willingly face extreme conditions.
To let people see you
Visible leaders are expected to use the power of their role as a leader to
provide assurance, direction, and inspiration.
Set an example
Visible leaders are expected to fix a problem rather than to establish
blame and show what work needs to be done.

These factors relate well to the study. Table 6.15 provides the framework of
Visible leadership by matching it with the three elements discussed earlier.

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Table 6.15
Framework of Visible Leadership

Questions Elements

Responsible on job
Well self-discipline before
demanding upon others
Takes responsibility on job and
never shirks his/her duty
Act as a role model for me in all
aspects
Disciplines me for violation of
his/her principles
Being at the forefront
Demands that his/her team
outperform others
Always has the last say in the
meeting

To let people see you
Leads, rather than follows,
subordinates to deal with difficult
tasks
Demands that I immediately
report him/her any change at
work

Set an example

These results match well with those of Perkins and Benton, however their
research is experience-based and so more research would be required to
establish the factor theoretically. Nevertheless it is an important element that
emerged from these results and is useful for the purpose of this discussion.

A distinct concept, Authoritarian leadership, was also created from the results of
this study because it reflects the very strict Authoritarian behaviour showed by
leaders. This comprises aspects of Authoritarian leadership and Authoritative
leadership, that existed in the Cheng (2008) model, but acts as the single factor
of Authoritarian leadership in Indonesian perception of leadership. This aspect
of leadership in the Cheng (2008) model, comprised six questions from
Authoritarian leadership (asks me to completely obey him), and three questions
from Authoritative leadership (brings me a lot pressure when we work together).
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Authoritarian leadership is exhibited in almost all leadership studies. Even in the
early stage of leadership theorisation, Authoritarian leadership was viewed to be
effective leadership. Despite it being a trait related behaviour, leaders
intentions to make decisions on their own reflect the essential Authoritarian
leadership behaviour (DuBrin 2004; Lussier and Achua 2007). Moreover,
Authoritarian leadership also encompasses the transactional role of the leaders
as discussed in Chapter Three. Attributes like clarifying jobs that need to be
done by the subordinates and making decisions on their own as well closely
supervising the staff all highly reflect the Authoritarian capacity of the leaders.
Therefore, although culturally Indonesians are different from Western culture,
these findings on the importance of Authoritarian leadership suggest that
Indonesians do accept Western ideals of leadership in several ways.

In terms of the study findings, and to appreciate the earliest concept of
Paternalistic Leadership that this study replicated, Cheng and Farh have
postulated that Authoritarian leadership has four constructs:

1. Authority and control such behaviours as being unwilling to delegate,
top-down communication, information secrecy, and tight control.
2. Underestimation of subordinates competence such behaviours as
ignoring subordinates suggestions, and belittling subordinates
contributions.
3. Image building such behaviours as acting in a dignified manner,
exhibiting high self-confidence and information manipulation.
4. Didactic behaviour such behaviours as insisting on high performance
standards, reprimanding subordinates for poor performance, and
providing guidance and instructions for improvement (2000).

These findings have now been matched to the construct of Authoritarian
leadership and the items of the newly constructed factor. Table 6.16 provides
the framework of Authoritarian leadership by matching it with the four elements
discussed earlier.

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It is considered that the eight questions on Authoritarian leadership were loaded
properly on the dimensions of Authoritarian leadership (Cheng and Farh original
version), and the new framework is not to be viewed as a generalisation or
theorisation of Authoritarian leadership rather, but as supplementary information
for the purposes of this discussion.

Table 6.16
Sketch Map of Authoritarian Leadership

Questions Elements

Brings me a lot of pressure when
we work together
Very strict with his/her
subordinates

Authority and control
Would be vexed if I oppose
his/her ideas in public
Solely makes all decisions in my
department

Underestimation of
subordinates competences
Appears to be intimidating in front
of his/her subordinates

Image building
Defines an exemplary
subordinate as one who acts
upon what he/she demands
Scolds me when I fail expected
target
Asks me to completely obey him

Didactic behaviour

The concept of Benevolent leadership has been created from the results of this
study because of the strong emphasis placed by respondents on the
importance of benevolent behaviour that should be practiced by leaders. The
study findings lead to the construction of one distinct form of Benevolent
leadership. The two versions of Benevolent leadership described within the
original model of PL are not supported in this study. The findings show the
respondents viewed Benevolent leadership as unity.
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Within the literature review, the concept of benevolent leadership was appear to
be congruent with the concept of Transformational leadership. One aspect that
may relate well with benevolent behaviour is individualised consideration. Bass
(1996) stipulated that individualised consideration requires leaders to respect
subordinates, care for them, satisfying their feelings and needs as well giving
them appropriate support. However, caution needs to be taken when relating
the concept of individualised behaviour with Benevolent leadership as how it is
viewed in the West may be different from what is viewed in the East. As western
culture commonly respects peoples privacy, the level of care granted by their
leader may be only limited to work related matters. Therefore, it is suggested
that individualised consideration is not comparable with Benevolent leadership.

The earliest concept of Benevolent leadership from Cheng and Farh describes
leader integrity as being a kind and gentle superior (2000). They argued that
leaders should emphasise individualised care for all subordinates, such as
treating employees as family members, providing job security, assisting during
personal crises, showing holistic concern, avoiding embarrassing subordinates
in public and protecting subordinates even when they have made grave errors
(Cheng and Farh 2000). The findings of this study seem to support this
characteristic of Benevolent leadership. In line with the new factor that this
study suggests, items like supervisor behaviour keenness for looking after
someones personal needs, not just in the workplace, but also out of work and
supervisor keenness for helping employees to make their long term career
plans are viewed as fitting with the characteristic of Benevolent leadership
addressed by Cheng and Farh (2000). The key difference is that Indonesian
leaders show benevolence consistently rather than making any difference
between work-related and personal issues.

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Moral Leadership
Four moral types of leadership have been created from the results of this study
because of the strong emphasis by the respondents on factors where they want
their leaders to practice moral leadership. This comprises aspects of
Incorruptness (Moral leadership), Courage (Moral leadership), Impartialness
(Moral leadership), and Magnanimity (Moral leadership).

In terms of leadership style, the current study discovered that Moral leadership
utilises most forms of PL. This aspect of leadership existed in the Cheng model,
where it comprised three questions from the Moral-incorruptness leadership,
Moral-courage leadership (courage), Moral-impartialness leadership
(impartialness), and Moral leadership (magnanimity).

Within the literature review, the concept of Moral leadership is seemingly well
bounded in the description of charismatic leadership. The strong emphasis on
leader capacity to exert strong conviction on the moral correctness of their
beliefs could be viewed as a moral deed that the leaders practice. Furthermore,
the socialised type of charismatic leadership also showed strong evidence on
how the leaders should be practicing moral deeds, such as using power for the
benefits of others, and avoiding using their power to their own benefit. Another
moral deed with this type of leadership is the expectation for the leader to serve
in a collective manner, which in several ways is similar to the Moral-
impartialness leadership style. However, caution is required before any attempt
is made to directly link these similarities, as what in the Western world is viewed
as an act that is morally acceptable may be different in this Eastern culture. This
finding, at least, provides advance acknowledgement that Indonesian
leadership in several ways is still connected with the Western theory of
leadership.

Moreover, in terms of PL, the original construct of Moral leadership developed
by Cheng and Farh in 1995 consists of two other important constructs for Moral
leadership: (1) unselfishness behaviour which does not abuse authority for
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personal gain, does not mix personal interests with business interest, and puts
collective interests ahead of personal interests; and (2) leading by example
behaviours such as being an exemplar in work and personal conduct (2000). In
line with the new factor that this study discovered, items like Does not ask the
subordinates to do private interest for him are linked properly with the
designation factor labelled Moral-incorruptness leadership. The item Will stand
and fight against injustice is loaded properly on the designated factor called
Moral-courage leadership. Other items such as Does not evaluate sub-
ordinates based on personal relationship are also loaded properly in the
designated factor called Moral- impartialness leadership. Lastly, the item Does
not mind if his opinion is not accepted is also loaded properly on the
designated factor called Moral- magnanimity leadership.

The findings indicate that all four of the Moral leadership dimensions still match
with the description of the adopted model. Indeed, these four types of Moral
leadership are assimilated to the Indonesian context and in several ways match
with the four aspects of Moral leadership suggested by Cheng (2008).

6.5.2 The Answers of Research Question Number One

From EFA and the attempt to link the aspects of PL that this study discovered
with relevant literature review, this study in a number of ways confirms the
applicability of PL in Indonesia. That is, To a large extent, Indonesian
leadership is Paternalistic .

In other words, the relationship between leader and follower mirrors that of a
traditional Eastern father and children. Culturally that fatherly relationship is
similar to that described by Cheng (2008), in that it is authoritarian, benevolent
and morally based. A key difference is that Indonesian leaders assume that
their fatherly behaviour is clearly visible to others.

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6.6 Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for the Adjusted Scale

In order to ensure the reliability of the survey instrument, internal consistent
reliability was computed. Previously in this chapter, reliability analysis was
performed for the original scale used for this study to serve as a screening
phase only. Thus, the scale for psychometric information is provided (reliability
and construct validity), as well as the descriptive statistics for all questionnaire
items. In this study, the construct validity was measured using the corrected
item-total correlation. As a general rule, Pallant (2007) and Field (2005) set
values of greater than 0.30 to indicate that the item was measuring the same
thing.

Tables 6.17 to 6.23 provide the necessary information (corrected item total
correlation used for testing the construct validity; Cronbach alpha of all items;
means and standard deviations of all items) by questionnaire items for the
adjusted PL scale. Nine items related to Visible leadership, nine to Authoritarian
leadership, seven to Benevolent leadership and three to each of the four
categories of Moral leadership (incorruptness, courage, impartialness and
magnanimity). Table 6.17 shows the reliability and descriptive statistics of the
total sample (N=801) for the subscale of Visible leadership. Item analyses were
conducted on the nine items after EFA.

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Table 6.17
Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Visible Leadership

Items Corrected
Items -Total
Correlation
Cronbachs
Alpha if Item
Deleted
Means Standard
Deviation
Disciplines me for
violation of his/her
principles
0.353 0.793 3.52 1.588
Sets an example to me in
all aspects
0.543 0.762 3.93 1.543
Demands that I
immediately report
him/her any change at
work
0.398 0.785 4.09 1.516
Always has the last say in
the meeting
0.387 0.787 4.10 1.555
Leads, rather than follows,
subordinates to deal with
difficult tasks
0.538 0.763 4.26 1.503
Well self-disciplines
before demanding upon
others
0.640 0.746 4.52 1.541
Demands that his/her
team outperform others
0.573 0.757 4.60 1.530
Takes responsibility on
job and never shirks
his/her duty
0.617 0.793 4.95 1.363
Responsible on job 0.614 0.757 5.19 1.199

As can be seen from Table 6.17, all item-total correlations are greater than 0.3,
which in turn provides the construct validity of the Visible leadership scale. Its
alpha value attained a very satisfactory level of 0.82, which was excellent
considering it was a new factor which was generated using factor analysis. In
addition to reliability analysis, the descriptive statistics provide a comprehensive
review of all items on the Visible leadership scale. Based on the mean score, all
respondents replied positively to the questions. On average, the respondents
answered with the scale value of 4 (often), with the exception of the item
responsible at work, for which the mean was 5.19 (they responded usually).

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Table 6.18 shows the reliability and descriptive statistics of the total sample
(N=801) for the subscale of Authoritarian leadership. Item analyses were
conducted on the nine items after EFA.

Table 6.18
Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Authoritarian Leadership

Items Corrected
Items -Total
Correlation
Cronbachs
Alpha if Item
Deleted
Means Standard
Deviation
Appears to be intimidating
in front of his/her
subordinates
0.596 0.769 2.00 1.371
Brings me a lot of
pressure when we work
together
0.573 0.771 2.19 1.417
Defines an exemplary
subordinate as one who
acts upon what he/she
demands
0.570 0.770 2.34 1.568
Scolds me when I fail
expected target
0.592 0.763 2.76 1.503
Would be vexed if I
oppose his/her ideas in
public
0.528 0.776 2.86 1.663
Solely makes all decisions
in my department
0.402 0.793 2.92 1.523
Very strict with his/her
subordinates
0.401 0.792 3.07 1.442
Asks me to completely
obey him
0.449 0.789 3.43 1.75

As can be seen from Table 6.18 all item-total correlations are greater than 0.3,
which in turn provides the construct validity of the Authoritarian leadership
scale. Its alpha value attained a very satisfactory level of 0.79, which was
excellent considering it was a new factor which was generated using factor
analysis. In addition to reliability analysis, the descriptive statistics provide a
comprehensive review of all items on the Authoritarian leadership scale. Based
on the mean score, all respondents replied negatively to the questions. On
average, the respondents answered with the scale value of 2 (seldom), with the
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exception of two items such as Ask to fully obey him, for which the mean was
3.43 (they responded sometimes).

(N=801) for the subscale of Benevolent leadership. Item analyses were
conducted on the seven items after EFA.

Table 6.19
Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Benevolent Leadership

Items Corrected
Items -Total
Correlation
Cronbachs
Alpha if Item
Deleted
Means Standard
Deviation
Helps me make future
career plan in the
company
0.519 0.731 2.04 1.614
Trains and coaches me
when I lack of required
abilities at work
0.451 0.745 2.80 1.372
Help me to solve private
problems
0.483 0.739 2.75 1.486
Understands my
preference enough to
accommodate my
personal requests
0.399 0.755 3.26 1.388
Cares about not only my
work but also my life
0.552 0.725 3.49 1.325
Often shows his/her
concern about me
0.520 0.735 3.65 1.141
Offers necessary help
when I am too occupied at
work
0.504 0.734 4.12 1.539

which in turn provides the construct validity of the Benevolent leadership scale.
Its alpha value attained a very satisfactory level of 0.76, which was excellent
considering it was a new factor which was generated using factor analysis. In
addition to reliability analysis, the descriptive statistics provide a comprehensive
review of all items on the Benevolent leadership scale. Based on the mean
score, all respondents replied positively to the questions. On average, the
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respondents answered with the scale value of 2 (seldom) and 3 (sometimes)
with the exception of one items such as Offers necessary help when I am too
occupied at work, for which the mean was 4.12 (they responded often).

(N=801) for the subscale of Incorruptness (Moral leadership). Item analyses
were conducted on the three items after EFA.

Table 6.20
Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Incorruptness (Moral leadership)

Items Corrected
Items -Total
Correlation
Cronbachs
Alpha if Item
Deleted
Means Standard
Deviation
Does not take advantage
of company resources on
personal affairs*
0.565 0.753 4.22 1.722
Does not ask
subordinates to do
personal business for
him/her*
0.697 0.606 4.32 1.701
Does not take advantage
of position power to bribe*
0.588 0.731 4.36 1.610

* reversed scale

which in turn provides the construct validity of the Incorruptness (Moral
leadership). Its alpha value attained a very satisfactory level of 0.77, which was
excellent considering it was a new factor which was generated using factor
comprehensive review of all items on the Incorruptness (Moral leadership)
scale. Based on the mean score, all respondents replied positively to the
questions. On average, the respondents answered with the scale value of 4
(often).

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(N=801) for the subscale of Courage (Moral leadership). Item analyses were
conducted on the three items after EFA.

Table 6.21
Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Courage (Moral leadership)

Items Corrected
Items -Total
Correlation
Cronbachs
Alpha if Item
Deleted
Means Standard
Deviation
Has the courage to report
wrongdoings
0.404 0.703 2.97 1.560
Stands out and fights
against injustice
0.492 0.597 3.45 1.660
Speaks out for unfairly-
treated others
0.605 0.450 3.54 1.533

which in turn provides the construct validity of the Courage (Moral leadership)
scale. Its alpha value attained a very satisfactory level of 0.68, which was
excellent; considering it was a new factor which was generated using factor
comprehensive review of all items on the Courage (Moral leadership) scale.
Based on the mean score, all respondents replied positively to the questions.
On average, the respondents answered with the scale value of 3 (sometimes)
with the exception of one item i.e. Has courage to report mistake, for which the
mean was 2.97 (they responded seldom).

(N=801) for the subscale of Impartialness (Moral leadership). Item analyses

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Table 6.22
Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Impartialness (Moral leadership)

Items Corrected
Items -Total
Correlation
Cronbachs
Alpha if Item
Deleted
Means Standard
Deviation
Does not cover fault for in-
groups subordinates*
0.539 0.393 3.61 1.555
Does not evaluate
subordinates by personal
relationship*
0.479 0.479 3.91 1.799
Does not give extra
attention to subordinates
with whom he/she has
0.320 0.684 4.13 1.649

* reversed scale

which in turn provides the construct validity of the Impartialness (Moral
leadership) scale. Its alpha value attained a very satisfactory level of 0.63,
which was very good; considering it was a new factor which was generated
using factor analysis. In addition to reliability analysis, the descriptive statistics
provide a comprehensive review of all items on the Impartialness (Moral
leadership) scale. Based on the mean score, all respondents replied positively
to the questions. On average, the respondents answered with the scale value of
3 (sometimes) with the exception of one item Does not give special attention
for someone who is close to him, for which the mean was 4.13 (they responded
often).

(N=801) for the subscale of Magnanimity (Moral leadership). Item analyses

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Table 6.23
Reliability and Descriptive Statistics for Magnanimity (Moral leadership)

Items Corrected
Items -Total
Correlation
Cronbachs
Alpha if Item
Deleted
Means Standard
Deviation
Would not mind should
his/her opinion be not
accepted
0.405 0.703 3.44 1.442
Open-minded and never
minds when being
offended
0.540 0.533 3.63 1.533
Tolerant of criticism 0.555 0.516 4.23 1.462

which in turn provides the construct validity of the Magnanimity (Moral
leadership) scale. Its alpha value attained a very satisfactory level of 0.68,
which was excellent; considering it was a new factor which was generated using
factor analysis. In addition to reliability analysis, the descriptive statistics provide
a comprehensive review of all items on the Magnanimity (Moral leadership)
scale. Based on the mean score, all respondents replied positively to the
questions. On average, the respondents answered with the scale value of 3
(sometimes) with the exception of one item i.e. tolerant of criticism, for which
the mean was 4.23 (they responded often).

As can be seen from Tables 6.17 to 6.23, all aspects of PL that were
established from this study have a very satisfactory level of Cronbach alpha.
For the responses of those surveyed on each aspect, the Likert scale revealed
a positive outcome of PL. This may be viewed as a unique characteristic of the
Paternalistic style of Indonesian leadership.

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6.7 Analysis of Variance (General Linear Model GLM)

This section answers research question number two:

How is the leader-employee relationship constructed in the Indonesian
context?

General Linear Models (GLM) using one-way and two-way ANOVA techniques
were performed to determine if there were significant differences between the
means for the overall PL scale scores based upon demographic profiles of
respondents. In this study, there were six independent variables taken from the
respondents demographical information (gender, age, position, education,
training and frequency of meeting with supervisors) and seven dependent
variables (Visible leadership, Authoritarian leadership, Benevolent leadership
and the four forms of Moral leadership Courage, Impartialness, Incorruptness
and Magnanimity).

Before any attempt was conducted to review the results of this study, it was
critical to clarify the source of the data used for the analysis. As discussed
earlier, factor scores generated from Explanatory Factor Analysis (EFA) were
used to replace the original data which applied the 6-point Likert scale. Field
(2005) noted that the use of EFA-based scores has several advantages which
are beneficial to the level of analysis that researchers use. In general, factor
scores allow researchers to have greater confidence with the dataset, as they
are standard scores with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1 (Rummel
1970). As factor scores obtained from EFAs use refined methods based on
regression scores, the datasets are not subjected to the double-screening
procedure for checking normality, as they are well standardised (DiStefano, Zhu
et al. 2009).

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As the GLMs used datasets obtained from the EFA (factor score), further
findings may indicate a small level of magnitude which may be proposed for
further interpretation, as the actual mean difference based on a factor score
was very small (Pallant 2007). Pallant also noted that researchers undertaking
studies with large samples need to consider the significant effects found even
though the level effect size is small.

6.7.1 Step 1: General Linear Model (one-way ANOVA) for All Paternalistic
Leadership Components

It was noted that employee demographic information was used to establish
research variables, and in particular, independent variables. These were: (1)
employee age; (2) employee gender; (3) employee position; (4) employee
education; (5) training attended by employee; and (6) employee frequency of
meeting with supervisors. At the pre-analysis stage, the researcher explored all
demographic information provided by the respondents to determine the
adequacy of the number of each category (e.g. the number of males and
females in the employee gender variable). All categories were found to meet the
minimal requirements needed to perform a one-way ANOVA test. Furthermore,
in relation to the literature review presented in Chapter Two, all employee
demographic information provided was viewed to be important predictors of the
leadership styles perceived by respondents. For example, older employees are
generally resistant to the idea of Authoritarian leaders compared to younger
employees (a reflection of Bapak-ism values). As a result, all demographical
information provided by employees for this study was used in the analysis.

A one-way between-group analysis of variance was conducted to explore the
impact of all the respondent demographic information on the seven leadership
styles (Appendix 8). A summary of the number of the case is presented in Table
6.24.

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Table 6.24
Summary of the Number of the Cases for Each Demographic Variable.

Respondent Demographic
Variables

Groups n Cases
Age (n = 773) Group 1 (age < 30 years)
Group 2 (ages 31-35 years)
Group 6 ( age > 51 years)

98
122
215
167
92
79
Gender (n = 681) Group 1 Male
Group 2 Female

401
280
Position (n =700) Group 1 (staff)
Group 2 (section head)
Group 3 (field head)

511
122
67
Education (n = 693) Group 1 (below high school)
Group 2 (high school,)
Group 3 (diploma)
Group 4 (bachelor)
Group 5 (master)

10
228
41
320
94
Training attended by
employee (n = 592)
Group 1 (national training)
Group 2 (both national and
overseas training)

568
24
Frequency meeting with
supervisors (n = 626)
Group 1 (everyday)
Group 2 (every week)
Group 3 (once a week)

338
183
105

Benevolent leadership and respondents demographic
The data in Table 6.25 displays the overall F-test and the significance values. It
further indicates that the Benevolent leadership of Indonesian leaders does not
vary across the variables on the employee demographic profiles
13
.

13
Throughout the discussion, the term employees was used to replace the term respondents.
This applies to the whole discussion on the analysis of variance.
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Table 6.25
General Linear Model test for Benevolent Leadership by demographic variables

Independent variables F-ratio Sig. value Significance

1. Employee age 2.205 0.054 No
2. Employee gender 0.970 0.325 No
3. Employee position 0.780 0.459 No
4. Employee education 1.234 0.295 No
5. Training attended by employee 0.693 0.405 No
6. Frequency of meeting with
supervisors
0.025 0.976 No

The above analysis suggests that the Benevolent leadership of Indonesian
leaders does not vary according to the employee age, employee gender,
employee position, employee education, training attended by employee and
frequency of meeting with supervisors. Concerning this no further analysis and
interpretation was taken.

Incorruptness (Moral leadership) and respondents demographic
further indicates that the Incorruptness (Moral leadership) of Indonesian leaders
does not vary across the variable on the employee demographic profiles.

Table 6.26
General Linear Model test for Incorruptness (Moral leadership) by demographic
variables


supervisors
1.887 0.152 No

The above analysis suggests that the Incorruptness (Moral leadership) of
Indonesian leaders does not vary according to the employee age, employee
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gender, employee position, employee education, training attended by employee
and frequency of meeting with supervisors. Concerning this no further analysis
and interpretation was taken.

Authoritarian leadership and respondents demographic
further indicates that the Authoritarian leadership of Indonesian leaders also
varies across the variable of employee gender.

Table 6.27
General Linear Model test for Authoritarian Leadership by demographic
variables


2. Employee gender 5.703 0.017 Yes
supervisors
0.614 0.541 No

The interpretation of the significant results is also presented. This analysis
clarifies the significant relationship between the Authoritarian leadership of
Indonesian leaders and employee gender.

Gender differences on Authoritarian leadership
The F-statistics in Table 6.27 indicate a significant difference in the perceptions
of the Authoritarian leadership of Indonesian leaders between male (M = 0.068,
SD = 1.016) and female (M = -0.117, SD = 0.970) employee; t=679, p = 0.881,
p = 0.017 (two tailed). The magnitude of the differences in the means was small
but significant (eta squared 0.008). A two-dimensional plot is presented in
Figure 6.1.

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Figure 6.1
Estimated Marginal Means of Authoritarian Leadership (by gender)

These findings suggest that male employees place significantly more emphasis
on the dimension of Authoritarian leadership than their female counterparts

Courage (Moral leadership) and respondents demographic
further indicates that the Courage (Moral leadership) of Indonesian leaders also
varies across the variable of employee gender.

Table 6.28
General Linear Model test for Courage (Moral leadership) by demographic
variables


supervisors
2.733 0.066 No

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Gender differences and Courage (Moral leadership)
of the Courage (Moral leadership of Indonesian leaders between male (M =
0.084, SD = 1.005) and female (M = -0.113, SD = 0.975) employee; t =679, p =
0.634, p = 0.011 (two tailed). The magnitude of the differences in the means
was small but significant (eta squared 0.009). A two dimensional plot is given
presented in Figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2
Estimated Marginal Means of Courage (Moral leadership (by gender)

These finding suggest that male employees place significantly more emphasis
on the dimension of Courage (Moral leadership than their female counterparts.

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Impartialness (Moral leadership) and respondents demographic
further indicates that the Impartialness (Moral leadership) of Indonesian leaders
also varies across the variables of employee education.

Table 6.29
General Linear Model test for Impartialness (Moral leadership) by demographic
variables


4. Employee education 4.786 0.001 Yes
supervisors
0.558 0.573 No

Employee education differences and Impartialness (Moral leadership)
The F-statistics presented in Table 6.29 show that the F-statistics for employee
education are significantly different, indicating a significant difference in
perceptions of Impartialness (Moral leadership) for the five groups of employee
education: F(4,688) = 4.786, p = 0.001. Despite reaching statistical significance,
the actual mean difference in mean score between the groups was quite small
but significant. The effect size, calculated using eta squared, was 0.0027. Post
hoc comparison using Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for Group
5 (Master) M = 0.262 was significantly different from Group 1 (Below high
school) M = -0.722 and Group 2 (High School) M = -0.139. Group 3 (Diploma)
M = -0.150 and Group 4 (Bachelor) M = 0.073 did not differ significantly either
from Group 1, Group 2 and Group 5. A two-dimensional plot is presented in
Figure 6.3.

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Figure 6.3
Estimated Marginal Means of Impartialness (Moral leadership) (by education)

These findings suggest that staff with master degree level education place
significantly more emphasis on Impartialness (Moral leadership) and indicates
that the higher the education of the employee, the greater the importance
placed on this dimension.

Magnanimity (Moral leadership) and respondents demographic
further indicates that the Magnanimity (Moral leadership of Indonesian leaders
also varies across the variable of employee gender and employee position.

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Table 6.30
General Linear Model test for Magnanimity (Moral leadership) by demographic
variables


3. Employee position 3.990 0.019 Yes
supervisors
0.150 0.860 No

Gender differences and Magnanimity (Moral leadership)
of the Magnanimity (Moral leadership) of Indonesian leaders between male (M =
-0.071, SD = 0.949) and female (M = 0.105, SD = 1.061) employee; t = 679, p =
0.055, p = 0.024 (two tailed). The magnitude of the differences in the means
was significant (eta squared 0.008). A two-dimensional plot is presented in
Figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4
Estimated Marginal Means of Magnanimity (Moral leadership) (by gender)

155 | P age

These findings suggest that female employees place significantly more
emphasis on the dimension of Magnanimity (Moral leadership) than their male
counterparts

Position differences and Magnanimity (Moral leadership)
Table 6.30 shows that the F-statistic for employee position is significantly
different, indicating a significant difference in perceptions of Magnanimity (Moral
leadership) for the three groups of employee positions: F(2,697) = 3.990, p =
0.019. Despite reaching statistical significance, the actual mean difference in
mean scores between the groups was small. The effect size, calculated using
eta squared, was 0.011. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test
indicated that the mean score for Group 1 (Staff) M = 0.071, SD = 0.989 was
significantly different from Group 2 (Section Head) M = -0.177, SD = 0.982.
Group 3 (Field Head) M = -0.145, SD = 1.03 did not differ significantly from
either Group 1 or 2. A two-dimensional plot is presented in Figure 6.5.

Figure 6.5
Estimated Marginal Means of Magnanimity (Moral leadership) (by position)

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These findings suggest that staff level employees place significantly more
emphasis on Magnanimity (Moral leadership)and indicates that the lower the
position of the employee, the greater the importance placed on this dimension

Visible Leadership and respondent demographics
further indicates that the Visible leadership of Indonesian leaders also varies
across the six variables of employee gender, position, education, training
attended and frequency of meeting with supervisors.

Table 6.31
General Linear Model test for Visible Leadership by Demographic Variables


3. Employee position 3.765 0.024 Yes
4. Employee education 10.157 0.000 Yes
5. Training attended by employee 11.912 0.001 Yes
supervisors
8.522 0.000 Yes

The interpretation of the significant results is also presented. This analysis
clarifies the significant relationships between the Visible leadership of
Indonesian leaders and employee gender, position, education, training attended
and frequency of meeting with supervisors.

Gender differences on Visible leadership
of the Visible leadership of Indonesian leaders between male (M = -0.077, SD =
1.021) and female (M = 0.122, SD = 0.972) employees; t = 679, p = 0.184, p =
0.011 (two tailed). The magnitude of the differences in the means was very
small but significant (eta squared 0.010). A two-dimensional plot is presented in
Figure 6.6.

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Figure 6.6
Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by Gender)

These findings suggest that female employees place significantly more
emphasis on the dimension of Visible leadership than their male counterparts.

Position differences on Visible leadership
Table 6.31 shows that the F-statistic for employee position is significantly
different, indicating a significant difference in perceptions of Visible leadership
for the three groups of employee positions: F(2,697) = 3.765, p = 0.024. Despite
reaching statistical significance, the actual mean difference in mean scores
between the groups was small but significant. The effect size, calculated using
eta squared, was 0.011. Post hoc comparisons using the Tukey HSD test
indicated that the mean score for Group 1 (Staff) M = 0.066, SD = 0.988 was
significantly different from that of Group 2 (Section Head) M = -0.192, SD =
0.961. Group 3 (Field Head) M = -0.095, SD = 1.08 was not significantly
different from either Group 1 or 2. A two-dimensional plot is presented in Figure
6.7.

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Figure 6.7
Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by position)

These findings suggest that staff level employees place significantly more
emphasis on Visible leadership and indicates that the lower the position of the
employee, the greater the importance placed on this dimension.

Education differences on Visible leadership
The F-statistics presented in Table 6.31 shows that the F-statistics for employee
education are significantly different, indicating a significant difference in
perceptions of Visible leadership for the five groups of employee education: F(
4,688) = 10.157, p = 0.000. The effect size, calculated using eta squared, was
0.0008. Post hoc comparison using Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean
score for Group 2 (High School) M = 0.328, SD = 0.842 was significantly
different from Group 4 (Bachelor) M = -0.134 SD = 1.03 and Group 5 (Master)
M = -0.289, SD = 1.04. Group 1 (Below High School) M = 0.201, SD = 1.314
and Group 3 (Diploma) M = -0.056, SD = 1.00 did not differ significantly either
from Group 2, 4 and 5. A two-dimensional plot is presented in Figure 6.8.

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Figure 6.8
Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by education)

These findings suggest that staff with high school level education place
significantly more emphasis on Visible leadership and indicates that the lower
the education of the employee, the greater the importance placed on this
dimension.

Training attended differences on Visible leadership
of the Visible leadership of Indonesian leaders between national training (M = -
0.053, SD = 0.99) and national & overseas training (M = 0.77, SD = 1.07); t =
590, p = 0.791, p = 0.001 (two tailed). The magnitude of the differences in the
means was significant (eta squared 0.020). A two-dimensional plot is presented
in Figure 6.9.

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Figure 6.9.
Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by training attended)

These findings suggest that employees who only ever attend national training
place significantly more emphasis on the dimension of Visible leadership than
the employees who had been overseas for training.

Frequency of meeting with supervisor differences on Visible leadership
The F-statistics presented in Table 6. 31 show that the F-statistics for employee
frequency of meeting with supervisors is significantly different, indicating a
significant difference in perceptions of Visible leadership for the three groups of
employee for frequency of meeting with supervisors: F( 2,623) = 8.522, p =
0.00. The effect size, calculated using eta squared, was 0.027. Post hoc
comparisons using the Tukey HSD test indicated that the mean score for Group
1 (everyday) M = -0.143, SD = 1.02 was significantly different from Group 2
(Once a Week) M = 0.338, SD = 0.888. Group 3 (Once a Month) M = -0.052,
SD = 0.99 differ significantly from Group 2. Group 1 and Group 3 did not differ
significantly. A two-dimensional plot is presented in Figure 6.10.

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Figure 6.10
Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by frequency of meeting with
supervisors)

These findings suggest that staff who meet their supervisor once a month place
significantly more emphasis on Visible leadership and indicate that the less
frequently the employees meet their supervisors, the greater the importance
placed on this dimension.

6.7.2 Step 2: General Linear Model for Visible Leadership

The second step of the General Linear Model (GLM) in this study was
performed using a two-way ANOVA technique aimed at explaining the
existence of significant differences between the means of the PL scale scores
based upon the interaction of demographic profiles of the respondents (whereby
the first step of the GLM resulted in the largest significant effect
14
). The analysis
only revealed one convincing piece of evidence that such an interaction exists.

14
Three way interactions were not performed because the number of cases in each sub-
category was too small and did not allow for further testing.

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In the first step of the GLM, Visible leadership seemed to result in producing the
greatest portion of significant differences, compared with other leadership
styles. A full factorial model, however, was not able to be performed as the
researcher considered the importance of having sufficient subgroups of each
variable. The researcher specified a custom model with main effects and two-
way interaction terms only, and higher order interactions could not be
computed. As a result, in this step three combinations of variables were applied
using part of the interactions of the respondents demographic information:
gender and position; gender and education; and position and education, and the
dependent variable of Visible leadership.

A two-way between-groups analysis of variance was conducted to explore the
impact of (1) interaction of gender and position on Visible leadership; (2)
interaction of gender and education on Visible leadership; and (3) interaction of
education and position on Visible leadership. The number of the cases in each
group after being customised is:

1. Gender (n = 654); males (n = 380) and female (n = 274).
2. Position (n = 654); Group 1 (staff, n = 274) and Group 2 (managerial, n =
181).
3. Education (n = 654); Group 1 (low level education, n = 561) and Group 2
(high level education, n = 93).

Data in Table 6.32 displays the overall F-test and the significance values (see
also Appendix 9).

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Table 6.32
General Linear Model test for Visible Leadership by the interactions of
demographic variables


1. Employee gender and position 0.004 0.947 No
2. Employee gender and
education
0.419 0.518 No
3. Employee position and
education
8.737 0.003 Yes

Only the interaction analysis is presented in this section, while in the previous
section the analysis of the main effect of Visible leadership was conducted. This
approach was suggested by Norton and Strube (1986), allowing the researcher
to provide a clean analysis without worrying about the messiness of the
analyses. As the post-hoc test was conducted in step 1, it clearly indicates that
the differences between the means toward Visible leadership were visible in the
one-way ANOVA step.

The above analysis further suggests that the Visible leadership of Indonesian
leaders does not vary according to the interactions of employee gender and
position, nor employee gender and education. On the other hand, there was a
significant effect found on the interaction between employee position and
employee education: F(1,647) = 8.737, p = 0.003. With regard to staff levels,
those with lower levels of education produced a higher score than those with
higher levels of education. A two-dimensional plot is presented in Figure 6.11.
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Figure 6. 11
Estimated Marginal Means of Visible Leadership (by position and education)

These findings suggest that staff level employees with lower levels of education
place significantly more emphasis on the dimension of Visible leadership. On
the other hand, there was little difference found in perceptions of Visible
leadership between employees with low and high levels of education at
managerial level positions. That is, those employees with lower levels of
education and lower positions perceived Visible leadership to be most
important, while highly educated employees with lower positions found Visible
leadership to be least important. Nevertheless, the importance of Visible
leadership was found to be increasing among those with higher positions and
educational levels, while it was found to be decreasing slightly for employees
with lower educational levels.

As mentioned in Section 6.7.1, a two-way ANOVA was conducted to further
explore any interaction relationships between employee demographic variables
and Visible leadership. One interaction effect was found to be very interesting.
The discussion of the analyses was carried out in Section 6.7.3.
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6.7.3 Summary of Research Findings on How is the leader-employee
relationship constructed in the Indonesian context?

The second research question addressed is How is the leader-employee
relationship constructed in the Indonesian context? To investigate the
pattern of the leader-employee relationship, one-way ANOVA and two-way
ANOVA analyses were conducted. Throughout the analyses of the seven
leadership styles bounded in the Paternalistic Leadership model, it was found
That generally for Indonesian employees, their relationship with their
leaders, and therefore the preferred leadership style, depended on
specific employee demographic characteristics.

On the basis of the one-way ANOVA analysis, among the seven leadership
styles that were examined, only Visible leadership was found to have a high
number of significant effects in term of the employee demographics. Moreover,
based on the two-way ANOVA on Visible leadership, among the three
interaction analyses carried out, there was only one interaction effect amongst
the employee demographics which was between employee position and
employee education. That is, there is no clear trend amongst the differences in
the terms of employee age, gender, position, education, training attended by the
employee, and frequency of meeting with supervisors when civil servants are
asked about their supervisors leadership styles.

However, through individual one-way ANOVA analysis, the researcher
attempted to interpret further how the respondent demography affected the way
the respondents saw their supervisor leadership style. Furthermore, for the
purpose of the study carried out to explore the leader-employee relationship
constructed in Indonesia, the researcher attempted to match the results on the
one-way ANOVA and two-way ANOVA and the literature. The idea was that a
comparison of the quantitative results within the context of the study would
elucidate the relationship between the leadership style and respondent
demographic information within which they operated.

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The first comparison was regarding the gender of the respondents. Through the
individual one-way ANOVA analysis on each leadership style, gender was
found to have relationship with most of the leadership styles being analysed. It
was found that male employees view Authoritarian leadership and Courage
(Moral leadership) more importantly than female employees. In relation to the
sex differences in the work place, Eagly (1987) had noted that males are
categorised by the Agentic dimension of behaviour which emphasises the
importance of being assertive, goal directed, and decisive. That is, as a male
they want their leaders to behave the same as them. When this is a leader with
an Authoritarian leadership style who is likely to be very assertive, and
combined with Courage (Moral leadership), which is characteristic by
decisiveness they are viewed to be preferred by male employees. On the other
hand, females are categorised in the Communal type of dimension of behaviour
which emphasises the importance of devoting self to others and has emotional
expressiveness (Eagly 1987). This further suggests that as female employees
want their leader to think like them in practising leadership in organisations.
That is, the female employees want their leaders to act as Visible leaders, who
are directed to be devoting self to others, as well as acting as Magnanimity
(Moral leadership) leaders by showing a high degree of emotional
expressiveness.

The second comparison related to the position of the respondents. The study
revealed interesting findings, and suggested that the lower the position of the
employee, the more important it was for them to have a type of Visible
leadership and Magnanimity (Moral leadership). Recent reviews on
management and empowerment programs indicated that the lower the position
of employees, the higher the tendency to seek guidance and advice from their
leaders (Hales 2000). That is, this study can be interpreted in a way that
employees who had low education expect that the leader would practise Visible
leadership style by providing guidance, as well as to act with Magnanimity
(Moral leadership) by showing high tolerance to them.

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The third relationship explored relates to the education of the respondents. The
study verified that employees with the lowest levels of education tend to rate
Visible leadership importantly. On the other hand, the higher the education of
the employee, the more importantly they rated the Impartialness (Moral
leadership). Education is found to be related to leadership, either the leaders
education and the followers education (Bass and Bass 2008). This study in
several ways supported the research findings of Novaky, Hideg and Kappeter
(1994). They found that there is a greater tendency for lower educated
employees to prioritise work compared with the higher educated employees
who placed more emphasis on the importance for thinking for the future. That is,
Visible leadership is viewed to be important by the lower educated employees
as most aspects covered in the aspect of Visible leadership stress the leaders
action to be task oriented. On the other hand, the higher educated employees
are likely to view the importance of Impartialness (Moral leadership because
they may expect equity in the workplace as this is reflected by the rational types
of thinking shown by more highly educated employees (Bergmann 2003).

Finally, it was also found that type of training attended by the respondents and
the frequencies of meetings with supervisors have a relationship with Visible
leadership. The high ratings by the employees who had only ever attended
national training suggest that Visible leadership is more important than the other
leadership styles investigated in this study. This may be related to the social
learning theory (Swenson 1980). Further Black and Mendenhall (1990) found
that employees who attended overseas training were likely to have their self-
efficacy increased. That is, the employees who went overseas to attend training
are less likely to just depend on their supervisors leadership style, as they are
more independent. On the other hand, the employees who only experienced
national training were associated with lower self-efficacy, and their responses
revealed a preference for a supervisor with Visible leadership as they are more
dependent. Furthermore, regarding the frequency of meetings with supervisors,
the less frequently the employee met their leaders, the more important it is to
have a leader who is practising Visible leadership. In the supervisory strategy
literature, Komaki and Citera (1990) have noted that regular supervisory
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meetings are crucial to monitor whether work activity is being accomplished
properly. In line with the studys findings, the findings suggest that at a monthly
meeting, the role of Visible leadership is important to maintain the progress of
the work at the highest level. Looking across the demographic variables, it could
be argued that Visible leadership is more important to employees who are in
more vulnerable positions, and thus depend on a visibly strong father figure.

Further analysis of the two-way ANOVA produced interesting findings. The
findings suggest that there are interactions between employee position and
employee education regarding Visible leadership. For those who hold a staff
position having lower education level, they view Visible leadership as important.
This finding is congruent with the classic work of Vroom and Mann (1960) on
authoritarian leadership that suggests lower educated staff in small groups were
found to have more positive attitudes towards leaders who give guidance and
direction. On the other hand, for those who are highly educated but not holding
managerial position their perception is that Visible leadership is less important
and this is congruent with Yu and Millers (2005) work that suggests in general,
highly educated staff do not worry too much about the particular leadership style
practised by their leaders. However, the findings that provide the facts for those
who hold managerial position and are either highly or poorly educated and who
view Visible leadership importantly, may be related to the political behaviour
such as highlighted by Ferris, Fedor and King (1994) that suggests staff in the
managerial level tend to avoid uncertainty by making their position closer to the
leaders. This behaviour can be described by the English phrases dont take
any risks, protect your rear, and follow the mentoring of someone higher up in
the organization, riding on their coattails (Hisrich 1988). This will be discussed
in the Chapter Seven.

To this end, this study confirmed that seven leadership styles were assessed:
Visible, Authoritarian, Benevolent, Incorruptness (Moral leadership), Courage
(Moral leadership), Impartialness (Moral leadership), and Magnanimity (Moral
leadership). The study found that the perception of these seven leadership
styles by these civil servant respondents was dominated by a preference for
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Visible leadership. Individual analysis of variance found difference for only two
groups: men who preferred Authoritarian leadership, and the less educated who
preferred Visible leadership showing a desire for equity. However, the strong
preference for Visible leadership overall may be viewed as confirmation that
Indonesians, especially the Javanese, are still upholding their cultural values
until present day. The respondents historical trajectory developments confirmed
that Javanese culture influences their view on organisational life. This will be
discussed in Chapter Seven.

6.8 Summary

Chapter Six began with reporting the respondent demography. The data
analysis presented in this chapter started with the descriptive statistics of the
survey instrument. It has been found that the reliability of the instrument
achieved satisfactory level and beyond the acceptable values (range from 0.60
to 0.80).

In order to evaluate the construct validity of the PL instrument and at the same
time to answer research question number one, EFA was performed with an
initial principal component analysis followed by Varimax rotation. The items with
factor loading less than 0.4 were dropped and four questions with multiple
loadings were examined in terms of language mismatch. As a result seven
factors were discovered. Eight items for Visible leadership (Factor 1) and
Authoritarian leadership (Factor 2). The subscales of Benevolent leadership
(Factor 3) consisted of seven items. As the adopted model (Factor 4, 5, 6, 7)
which is Incorruptness (Moral leadership) (three items), Courage (Moral
leadership) (three items), Impartialness (Moral leadership), (three items), and
Magnanimity (Moral leadership) (three items) was not required to be renamed.
The factor scores generated from the analysis were used for the data analysis
of research question number two.

After EFA was conducted, analysis of variances (one-way ANOVA) using
General Linear Model techniques revealed that significant differences existed
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for the means of Visible leadership between the respondent demographic
information. Based on the findings, further analyses of variance (two-way
ANOVAs) were also performed which indicated that there was one interaction
between respondent demographic which was significantly different.

Based on the series analyses and in conjunction with the research questions
addressed in this study, (1) to what extent is Indonesian leadership
Paternalistic? and (2) how is the leader-employee relationship
constructed in Indonesian context?, the researcher was able to answer
those research questions. First of all, from the EFA results, it can be concluded
that to a large extent, Indonesian leadership is Paternalistic. Second, from the
series of one-way and two-way ANOVA, the second research question could be
answered as That generally for Indonesian employees, their relationship with
their leaders, and therefore the preferred leadership style, depended on the
employee demographic characteristics. It is suggested that the primary
influence on the relationship is cultural. A more detailed discussion of PL as
seen from an Indonesian perspective will be reported.

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CHAPTER 7 STUDY CONCLUSIONS IMPLICATIONS
AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

7.1 Introduction

This study was designed to investigate the applicability of the Paternalistic
leadership (PL) model (Cheng and Farh 2000) in Indonesia; in particular, the
extent to which it can be used within Javanese culture, historically the dominant
culture influencing Indonesia. Javanese culture is especially influential within
Indonesian civil service organisations. The two research goals of this research
were to establish civil servants perception on the key questions: (1) to what
extent is Indonesian leadership Paternalistic? and (2) how is the leader-
employee relationship constructed in the Indonesian civil service
context? .

For the purpose of the study, PL was defined as a leadership style that
combines strong discipline and authority with fatherly benevolence and moral
integrity couched in a personalistic atmosphere.

A questionnaire comprising items on PL as well as demographic information
questions was sent to the staff and lower management level of civil servants
across agencies in two provinces in Indonesia. Eight hundred and seven
useable responses were received from a maximum population of 1000 civil
servants. The data was coded in SPSS and re-tabulation was conducted,
resulting in 801 participants whose answers could be used in the analyses.
Reliability analysis and descriptive analysis was undertaken to ensure that the
data were safe enough to be used for the further analyses.

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The primary unit of analysis was explanatory factor analysis (EFA) that was
carried out to answer the main research question. PL factors identified were:
Visible leadership, Authoritarian leadership, Benevolent leadership, and Moral
leadership : Courage, Magnanimity, Incorruptness and Impartialness.

EFA was also carried out to validate each of the seven scales used in the later
analysis. The effect of selected demographic information variables on the seven
variables of PL was examined using one-way ANOVAs analysis. A two-way
ANOVA analysis, using reduced demographic information variables on one
aspect of leadership (Visible leadership), was undertaken using a general linear
model.

Having addressed the results for each result of these outcomes in Chapter Six,
this chapter compiles the results and highlights the major conclusions drawn.
These conclusions are compared with the relevant points drawn in Chapter Two
regarding Indonesian culture, Javanese culture and Javanese view of
leadership. Leadership theory, as discussed in Chapter Three, is also
considered. The implications of these results are explored, in terms of
leadership theories and general management practices in Indonesia.

7.2 Study Conclusion

The overall finding, as discussed in Chapter Six, was that civil servants at the
staff and lower level of management agreed that their immediate supervisors
style of management was characterize by PL as defined by Cheng (2008). The
first analysis carried out to investigate the extent that Indonesian leadership is
Paternalistic has shown some convincing findings that, to a large degree,
Indonesians leadership is Paternalistic. Important characteristics of Indonesian
PL emerged in this study, such as Authoritarian leadership, Benevolent
leadership and Moral leadership. These factors mirrored those identified in
research by Cheng (2008).

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A new concept within the PL construct, Visible leadership, was rated highly by
the respondents. Visible leadership comprises aspects of authoritative
leadership, authoritarian leadership, moral leadership (responsibility and leading
by example) concepts, that existed in the Cheng (2008) model, but acts as a
separate factor in the Indonesian perception of leadership.

To some degree Visible leadership, Benevolent leadership and Moral
leadership are congruent with aspects of the Western ideal of leadership
identified in the literature, such as charismatic and transformational leadership.
They are similar in the kinds of behaviours they prescribe for leaders, however
they differ in their intention: rather than seeking to transform the employee into
a more self-directed and motivated individual, PL aims to draw employees more
closely to the organisational family.

Authoritarian leadership is also closely linked to the task-oriented leadership
style discussed by some Western theorists. So in several ways, the
characteristics of PL, as it is perceived by Indonesians, aligns with Western
views of effective leadership. However, this study suggests that the style of
leadership that operates within the Indonesian civil service is unique to that
cultural context.

The second analysis carried out in this study aimed to investigate the
construction of the leader-employee relationships. It was found that of all the
respondent demographic information, all of six factors in demographic
information showed only marginally significant differences in the perception of
PL. Therefore, it can be concluded that the leader-employees relationship
constructed in the Indonesian context is not strongly influenced by employees
demographic characteristics. Rather, the cultural context influencing all
respondents appears to be the primary influence on leader-employee
relationships.

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Independent analysis of each factors of PL was undertaken. One-way ANOVA
analyses produced five significant results in relation to Visible leadership. These
suggest that female employees, employees who hold staff positions, employees
who had lower education levels, employees who have only ever attended
national training, and employees who meet their supervisor least frequently are
more likely to view Visible leadership as important. The one-way ANOVAs
showed that male employees were more likely to view both Authoritarian
leadership and Courage positively. On the other hand, female employees
placed more importance on Magnanimity (Moral leadership), as did employees
who hold staff positions. In the analysis of Impartialness (Moral leadership),
employees who were more highly educated were significantly more likely to see
this aspect of leadership style as important.

The two-way ANOVA analyses strongly indicated that the interaction of
employees position and education affect the way they perceived Visible
leadership. Employees who are staff and hold a low level of education place
significantly more emphasis on this dimension, and this was not much different
with those employees who hold managerial positions with a high level of
education. However, employees who are staff and hold a high level of education
and employees who are in the managerial level but hold low level education
place less emphasis on Visible leadership.

From these series of analyses, this study confirmed that PL is applicable in
Indonesia. That is, to a large extent, Indonesian leadership is
Paternalistic . Furthermore, the findings with both one-way and two-way
ANOVAs are that there are only a few significant differences resulting from
differences in employee demographics, which indicates that leader-
employees relationship was stably constructed within the Indonesian
population sampled .

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Individual analyses of each leadership factor associated with PL revealed some
significant differences. These were primarily around the importance of Visible
leadership, which was also a factor unique to this study and which was a
relatively stable construct. The next section aims to discuss the nature of
Visible leadership in greater depth in order to address research question
number two, in particular in regard to Javanese culture.

7.2.1 PL in the Eyes of Indonesians

As has been noted in Chapter Six and in Section 7.3 of this chapter, to a large
extent PL is applicable to the Indonesian context and the way the leader-
employee relationship is constructed was relatively stable after controlling the
employee demographics characteristics. Moreover, it has been noted as well in
the Chapter Six, that the factors of PL that emerged in this study have several
similarities with the major leadership theories discussed on the Chapter Three.
The discussion on how this studys results matched the leadership theories has
been provided in Chapter Six. Therefore, this section explores how PL is
congruent with the Javanese culture. The discussion in this section explores
and uncovers how the construct of PL is relevant with the Javanese culture, in
order to answer research question number two.

Because of the limited amount of previous empirical research leadership
practices in Indonesia (Irawanto 2008; Irawanto, Ramsey et al. 2008),
explanation of how the findings of this study relate to Indonesian culture can be
done by comparing them with literature in the fields of anthropology and political
science and the researchers own experience of life in the Indonesian culture.

Anthropologists have argued that leadership in Indonesia is characterised by
patronage which is rooted in the family setting that also serves as the
foundation of leadership in organisational life (Geertz 1961; Koentrjaraningrat
1985; Shiraishi 1997). The need for leaders to act in the role of bapak (that is,
to provide father-like leadership) has greatly influenced the behaviour of
Indonesians up to this time. As is discussed in the Chapter Two, at the national
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level, the leader is still closely associated with the term of bapak. Therefore, the
studys finding that PL is characterised by Visible leadership, Authoritarian
leadership, Benevolence leadership, and Moral leadershipall of which are
connected with paternalism--is congruent with what would be predicted on the
basis of anthropological research on Indonesia. The factors of PL emerging in
this study are closely linked to the cultural values of Javanese discussed in the
Chapter Two, in particular the concepts of Tri Pakarti Utama, andhap-ashor,
and toleransi which have played an important part in shaping Indonesian
culture. The links between elements of PL and Indonesian values will be
considered in the discussion that follows.

Visible Leadership
This element emerged as the highest loading factor in the study, suggesting
that it represents an aspect of leadership highly valued by respondents. This
finding supports the emic views of anthropologists who have studied Indonesian
culture. For example Koentrjaraningrat (1985) and Liddle (1996) found that
leaders should be at the forefront of groups. Gertz (1961) and Mulders (1994)
found that leaders should be able to motivate others, be recognized for the
achievement and most importantly be available whenever followers need them.
Furthermore, it is argued by many commentators on Indonesia that, in the
public sector, being leader is not just serving as a managerial leader, but is
also required to act as a father (Goodfellow 1997). Therefore constructs like
set an example and being in the forefront may serve as factors that
illuminate the concept of father leadership.

Ki Hadjar Dewantara, a philosopher during the early independence of
Indonesia, articulated a set of cultural ideals, known as Tri Pakarti Utomo, which
are still entrenched in the Indonesian society. Visible leadership is a means by
which these ideals can be made manifest by a leader. They are: (1) Ing Ngarso
Sung Tulodo, or leaders should be a good example for their followers; (2) Ing
Madyo Mangun Karso, or leaders should be able to motivate their followers; and
(3) Tut Wuri Handayan or leaders should be known by their achievements. An
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Indonesian leader who desires to measure up to these ideals in the eyes of
others would need to ensure that his leadership was highly visible.

In Javanese culture, Authoritarian leadership can be viewed as an expression of
bapak-ism values. In the family and in the workplace, the bapak or father is
expected to act in an autocratic way, using absolute authority and demanding
that followers comply with orders without questioning (Mann 1994). The
showing of nurut or accepting with compliance by subordinates is rooted in the
family setting where the family see their bapak as someone to be respected and
a trustworthy person. This view of authority continues when Indonesians are at
work in organisations: they expect their immediate leaders to act as their bapak.

The authority of the leader is expressed in harmony with the basic Javanese
cultural value of alus or calm, which is an obligation for both parties in a
leadership relationship. Leaders who practice Authoritarian leadership are
expected to show they are in control by displaying a calm disposition no matter
what challenges arise. Subordinates are also expected to demonstrate the
same alus behaviour in response to the demands of the leader, demonstrating
that they appreciate full guidance that relates to all the activities in the
workplaces. Alus in the leader-follower relationship serves as key means of
maintaining harmony, so authoritarian behaviour demonstrated by their leaders,
is viewed by followers as a protection rather than a burden; a means of
ensuring nobody will be hurt.

In Indonesia, the willingness of subordinates to receive personal care both
inside and outside the workplace has been described by academics
(Goodfellow 1997; Shiraishi 1997). Factors related to benevolence emerged in
this study which is in line with the cultural values of Indonesia, and in keeping
with the role of the father in the traditional Javanese family setting, a role which
is also reflected in workplace leadership behaviour. As previously discussed,
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being a leader in an Indonesian organisation means acting as father does in
the family setting. Therefore, the idealised leaders in the workplace are required
to take care of their followers. This is expressed by the Javanese concept of
tepo seliro, which compels leaders to act with gracious sympathy without
concern as to whether the issue at hand id directly connected with the tasks to
be performed by the recipient. Where other cultures might distinguish between
task-related and relationship-related benevolence, this distinction is not typically
made in Indonesia. The positive attitudes and good manners encapsulated in
the concept of ing-ngarso sing tulodho, likewise, are expected of leaders in all
aspects of their behaviour toward followers. Recent reviews (Irawanto, 2008;
Munandar, 2003) indicate that these traditional values are still commonly
practiced in Indonesian organisations, despite forces of modernisation.

Moral leadership
The findings of this study highlight several ways in which moral values play an
important role in leadership within Indonesian organisations. Incorruptness is
closely related to the Indonesian concept of being andhap-ashor, which
encourages leaders to maintain a proper image in the eyes of others through
moral deeds that provide a good example. Corruption is generally perceived as
a bad deed, so Indonesians espouse the need to avoid corrupt acts. The
concept of Courage is also closely associated with andhap-ashor, a concept
which encourages leaders to report wrongdoing and be brave in upholding
justice. The need for acting with impartialness is also incorporated in the need
to act with justice, as espoused in andhap-ashor and most Javanese children
are taught from childhood that they need to treat others in a decent and sober
manner. Magnanimity is considered to be an identifying mark of real
Indonesians, who pride themselves on toleransi (tolerance) and strive to appear
alus (calm) when provoked.

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The discussion thus far has considered how elements of PL are related to
cultural values and concepts described by scholars. Connections can also be
seen between PL in Indonesia and ratings given to Indonesians in cross-cultural
studies of national culture using dimensions such as power-distance, the
humane orientation, assertiveness and institutional collectivism.

It is arguable that authority is closely linked to the cultural dimension of power
distance: countries with high levels of power distance are more likely to accept
authoritarian behaviour from leaders. Indonesia has a high index of power
distance, thus it is not surprising to find that employees prefer to have their
leaders practice the Authoritarian leadership style (Munandar 2003).

Similarly, the humane orientation cultural dimension is closely related to
benevolence; countries with high levels of humane orientation are more likely to
value tolerance as a basis for healthy relationships. Indonesia ranks high in
comparison to other nations on the humane orientation, thus it is not surprising
to find that Indonesian employees prefer to have their leaders practice the
benevolent leadership style. Subordinates expect and desire to be treated in an
environment of human warmth and to be treated personally by their immediate
leaders.

The medium level rating of Indonesians on the cultural dimension of
assertiveness, is congruent with the studys findings that show Moral leadership
is an important element of Indonesian leadership. As noted by Den Hartog
(2004), people in cultures with a low to medium level of assertiveness tend to
prefer workplaces that value harmony. Therefore Indonesian subordinates
judge the effectiveness of the leaders in part on the degree to which they
practice behaviours related to impartialness and magnanimity.

The medium level rating of Indonesians on the cultural dimension of
assertiveness, is congruent with the studys findings that show Moral leadership
is an important element of Indonesian leadership. As noted by Den Hartog
(2004), people in cultures with a low to medium level of assertiveness tend to
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prefer workplaces that value harmony. Therefore Indonesian subordinates
judge the effectiveness of the leaders in part on the degree to which they
practice behaviours related to impartialness and magnanimity.

Moreover, the high ranking on Indonesia regarding the institutional collectivism
dimension of national culture can be linked with the moral dimension of
courage. Subordinates want their leaders to make personal sacrifices in order to
meet organisational obligations (Gelfand, Bhawuk et al. 2004).

The second part of the analysis carried out in this study establishes how leader-
employee relationships are constructed in the Indonesian context. The results of
the study suggest these relationships are relatively stable across a range of
demographical variables. However, as we considered in the discussion of
Visible Leadership earlier in this chapter, variation associated with employee
demographics suggest how the leader-employee relationship is being
constructed.

A number of significant differences arising from employee demographics were
found in the analysis of Visible leadership. While differences between mean
responses were often small, the Visible leadership factor was more important to
employees who were: (1) female, (2) had staff level rather than managerial
positions, (3) low levels of education, (4) had never been attended training
overseas, and (5) met their supervisor occasionally rather than daily or weekly.
These categories appear to share a degree of vulnerability, which suggests that
employees who are the least strong are most those who appreciate most
working for someone whose leadership is highly visible.

Dependency of the least strong employees toward leader is in line with the
basic structure of traditional Javanese culture. Within this culture vulnerable
people demand a leader who can give them strong guidance in their
workplace activities (Effendi 1993) and to be commanding rather than
consultative. Bapak-ism, or father-like leadership, suggests that employees
expect males to be dominant in the leadership arena. In addition in conjunction
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with the obligation of people of lower status to be hormat to the superiority of
their leaders, those with lower level positions or education may feel more
secure where leadership is being visibly displayed.

The feelings of dependence associated with Visible leadership may seem
inappropriate to people from Western cultures. In nations with high levels of
individualism, leaders are more likely to be judged to be effective if they
generate feelings of independence in their followers. In a collectivist culture like
Indonesia it seems that leadership can be judged effective when it generates
feelings in employees that they are dependent for protection on the group, as it
is represented by the leader.

The heritage of Javanese cultural values which emphasises the importance of
maintaining relationships with others based on bureaucratic structures may also
be viewed as a possible explanation for why marginal types of employees
demand that their leaders are visible. In Indonesia, factors such as hierarchical
status (based on either position or education), age differences (the oldest is
always to be respected), and seniority, especially for Javanese (Munandar
2003), are important in determining the nature of a work relationship. The term
colleagues is rarely used in the work place, especially to describe the
relationship between an employee and his or her supervisor. Indonesian staff
felt it is important to address their supervisors in a formal manner. This
bureaucratic interaction is most likely derived from the stratification of classes
in Indonesia, where Javanese social order distinguishes between three levels:
(1) abangan, (2) santri, and (3) priyayi. This traditional stratification has
changed very little up to the present. Hofstede (Hofstede and Hofstede 2004)
and House (House, Hanges et al. 2004) have classified Indonesia as a country
that scores high in power distance.

According to Hofstede:
people in large power distance societies accept a hierarchical order in
which everybody has his/her place and which needs no further
justification p.10.
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Therefore, if somebody knows their counterpart has a higher rank, they will
obey them and they will be careful not to oppose or argue with them (Munandar
2003). Traditional Javanese value principles that most Javanese learn from
childhood, such as alus-kasar and lair-batin, also guide Indonesians to avoid
conflict with their superiors. Alus-kasar emphasises that people should not be
cruel when dealing with others, while lair-batin teaches Indonesians to show to
the others that they are concerned for both the inner and outer realms of human
behaviour.

Other findings of interest were those that showed that male employees
perceived Authoritarian leadership and Courage (Moral leadership) to be the
important aspects of leadership that should be practiced by the Indonesians
leaders. These elements of leadership are also closely connected with
traditional Javanese cultural values. Men expect their leaders to be a bapak.
For Indonesian males, the showing of courage is always considered an
important aspect in everyday life. They may also be influenced by the behaviour
of recent political leaders in Indonesia: Soekarno was known for his courage on
behalf of the Indonesian people, and Soehartos status as bapak pembangunan
or father of the development, also suggested to others that he displayed
courage in pursuing what was good for the nation.

A two-way ANOVA analysis described in Chapter Six, showed an significant
relationship between Visible leadership and the interaction of employee position
and level of education. Employees in staff roles and those with Masters-level
education are not vulnerable employees, and so respondents in each of these
categories viewed Visible leadership as being of relatively low importance.
However, when an employee was both in a managerial role and had a Masters
level education, Visible leadership was of a relatively high importance. In the
researchers experience this can be explained by a phenomenon that can be
called by the Western term riding on the leaders coat-tails. In Indonesian
public service organisations, valued and trusted employees personally benefit
from a promotion given to their leader. If the leader goes on to a higher position
of responsibility the employee may be taken too. However, the employees only
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qualify to ride on the coat-tails of the leader in this way if they are in
managerial positions and have high levels of education. Therefore, for those
employees who meet this requirement it is important that their leaders
successes are highly visible, particularly to those who make decisions about
promotions. This form of patronage seems to operate in Indonesia in a way that
encourages employees to seek higher levels of education.

Chapter Four discussed the link between leadership and culture, and
considered this link both in terms of a national culture approach and socio-
information processing theory. The findings of study are consistent with major
propositions of these approaches. From a national culture approach, Indonesia
combines a highly collectivist culture with high power distance, and a humane
orientation. Table 7.1 shows the links proposed between the findings of this
study and the values that are part of the Indonesian national culture.

Table 7.1
Findings Related to National Cultural Values

Elements of PL

Collectivism High
Power
Distance
Humane
Orientation
1. Visible leadership
2. Authoritarian
leadership
3. Benevolent leadership
4. Moral leadership
- Courage
- Magnanimity
- Incorruptness
- Impartialness

V

V

V
V
V
V
V

V

V

V

V

V

V
V
V

Socio-information processing theory assumes that responses to leadership
result from an individuals past experiences. Views of leadership effectiveness
are based on the individuals qualities, traits and behavioural styles (Dickson,
Hanges et al. 2001). Findings in this study can also be understood using this
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approach. Basic Javanese values learned in the family, community and
institutions of Indonesia shape how both leaders and followers view effective
leadership. Bapakism explains the response of employees to the factors
Visible, Authoritarian, Benevolent, and Moral leadership that emerged in this
study. That is, individual Indonesians learn to refer to their organisational
leaders as their own fathers, and willingly depend on leaders who genuinely act
as paternal fathers by providing protection and patronage.

Lessons subordinates learn regarding ideal values and what constitutes good
deeds is bounded in the Javanese cultural values discussed earlier (i.e
bapakism, andhap ashor, alus and ngajeni). These values are gained from the
family and the school, which in Indonesia give consistent messages about what
is constitutes effective or appropriate leadership behaviour. Therefore the
preference for PL is in line with the social processing lessons learned in an
Indonesian context.

Leaders need to be careful when implementing Visible leadership, as further
analysis revealed that employees who hold staff position and have a lower level
of education view Visible leadership as relatively important. This indicates that
becoming anak or children, in the workplace is still the preference for this group
of employees, and it is not surprising that they still demand the figure of a
bapak. On the other hand, for subordinates who are in the managerial positions
and hold a high level of education, also have a preference for leaders who
practice Visible leadership, but apparently for a different reason. Evidently they
look to the leader for their personal future success, hoping that the leaders are
able to guide them and create opportunities for them.

For those in the managerial role, their desire to ride on the coat tails of a
highly visible leader should be viewed with caution. In the Indonesian context at
present it is not possible to discern if this preference for having a visible leader
is culturally related behaviour (thus it can be viewed as a normal practices) or if
it is a deliberate personal choice that enables the follower to gain visibility too. A
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preference toward Visible leadership may not be initiated on the basis of one
pure motive (this will be discussed in the concluding section).

However, for those in the staff positions, their action of riding on the coat tails
of a visible leader can be viewed as deriving from cultural factors in that they
are dependent on the leaders and they would not otherwise expect a further
reward, such as an accelerated promotion.

In summary, the researcher is able to conclude that the construction of
leader-follower relationship was stable . This conclusion receives support
from the statistical analyses conducted in the study and an examination of how
the elements of PL are viewed from the eyes of Indonesians, where the cultural
values of Javanese still dominate the social relationship. No matter what the
gender of the employees, the level of the education, the position level, the types
of training attended and how frequent they meet their supervisor, overall they
saw that PL is still an important aspect for them.

7.3 Implications for Theory and Practices

A major research finding of this study is that PL is applicable to the Indonesian
context. One explanation for this is that Javanese cultural values serve as the
foundation values underpinning the paternalistic climate in the organisations
represented in the study sample, and these values are similar to those
underpinning the original Taiwan-based model. The study findings do suggest
the need for a modified model of PL to fit the Indonesian context. This study
has provided the basis for such a modified model, and further enhancement of
this model can be the focus of future research on the application of PL in
Indonesia and other collectivist cultures. A leadership model adapted to the
Indonesian culture will also be useful for those who choose to adopt this
leadership model when they are working in Indonesia.

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Prior to the presentation of the implications in these findings, it is important to
clarify how the model of PL that has emerged from this study is a modification of
the original model based on the work of Cheng and associates in Taiwan.

A comparison of the two forms of PL is shown in Figure 7.2. The box to the left
shows the model presented by Cheng. The box to the right shows the construct
of PL in Indonesia based on these research results. As can be seen from the
comparison, in several ways the Indonesian PL is not much different from the
Taiwan PL model. The principal differences are that the six key concepts
embedded in the Taiwan PL of Moral leadership did not appear on Indonesian
PL of Moral leadership, where there are only four concepts. The other two (lead
by example and responsibility) are merged together with the concepts of
Authoritarian and Authoritative leadership that are labelled uniquely in the
Indonesian PL as Visible leadership. Also, the Benevolent leadership that
appears in Taiwan PL is separated into two categories (task-oriented and
person-oriented) did not occur in the Indonesian PL, as the respondents views
indicated that Benevolent leadership is united.

Moreover, in regards to the cultural values underpinning the leadership style
presented in Figure 7.2, it was concluded that andhap-ashor is the key concept
that underpins the importance of Moral leadership; bapaksim is the key concept
that underpins the importance of Visible and Authoritarian leadership; and tepo
seliro is the key concept that underpins the importance of Benevolent
leadership. However, the results and the discussion presented in the Chapter
Six and Section 7.21. of this chapter lead to the conclusion that bapakism is a
manifestation of those three important concepts of PL that have been
discovered in this study. Therefore the Indonesian leadership is bapakism which
involves leaders acting with andhap ashor and tepo seliro. These unique
characteristics distinguish Indonesian PL from Taiwanese PL.
.
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Figure 7.2.
PL Re-visited: Comparison between Taiwan model and Indonesian model.
Taiwan PL

Moral Leadership
shud der
Indonesian PL

BAPAK-ISM
Authoritarianism
Leadership
li wei
Benevolent
Leadership
shi-en
1. Authoritarian
2. Authoritative
1. Task oriented
2. Person
Oriented
1. Courage
2. Magnanimity
3. Incorruptness
4. Responsibility
5. Impartialness
6. Lead by
Example

Moral Leadership
andhap-ashor
Benevolent
Leadership
tepo-seliro
Authoritarianism
Leadership
bapakism
1. Courage
2. Magnanimity
3. Incorruptness
4. Impartialness
1. Visible
2. Authoritarian
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7.3.1 Implications for Theory

As was explained in Section 7.2, the discussion has answered the research
questions posed by this study:

To what extent is Indonesian leadership Paternalistic? , and
How is the leader-employee relationship constructed in an
Indonesian context?

From the perspective of broader leadership theory, the study has shown firstly
that a new application of the recently developed PL model in an Indonesian
setting extends the research which has up until this time been predominantly
based in Taiwanese and Chinese cultural contexts. This study also confirms
that the idea of PL is not restricted to the private sector of business and family-
owned business, in which the original research was conducted. PL is also
practiced in the Indonesian public sector where responses for this study were
obtained.

The identification of seven dimensions of PL provides a new insight into
theories of leadership. Visible leadership, which up until this time has not been
a major part of the literature on leadership, was found to be an important aspect
of this study. It could be viewed as a possible extension to the individualized
consideration dimension of Transformational leadership. A synergy between
scholarly work and experience-based work, such as that which discusses the
Shackleton expedition (Perkins, Holtman et al. 2000) may foster understanding
of this leadership style, and can be of benefit to the further development of the
leadership theory. The key attributes of Visible Leadership emerging from this
study, such as being in the forefront, are not discussed by the majority of
leadership theories. Therefore, to some extent, Visible leadership could be
viewed as an aspect of effective leadership that should be explored further in
leadership research, with particular attention given to cultures in which it is
considered an important aspect of leadership effectiveness.
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Other dimensions of PL that emerged in this study, such as Authoritarian
leadership and Benevolent leadership, are more clearly evident in existing
leadership theory. Authoritarian leadership is often discussed as task-oriented
leadership, and Individualized Consideration dimension of transformational
leadership is closely aligned with the element of Benevolent leadership. Moral
leadership which comprises of four distinct concepts: (1) incorruptness, (2)
courage, (3) impartialness, and (4) magnanimity is similar to the Charismatic
dimension (the socialised type) that showed strong evidence on how the
leaders should be practicing moral deeds, such as using power for the benefits
of others, and avoiding using their power to their own benefit

The analyses carried out in this research also assessed the impact employee
demographics had on employee responses to PL. The findings indicated further
that responses from participants in the Indonesian civil service context are not
greatly affected by employee age, gender, education, position, training
attended, or the frequency of meetings with supervisor. This suggests that for
Indonesia, PL is primarily constructed on the basis of the Javanese cultural
values that predominate in civil service organisations. This study makes an
important contribution to the field of PL theory through the application of the
Cheng et al. (2000; Cheng, Chou et al. 2004; 2008) model to the public sector
and the leadership effectiveness of Indonesian civil servants.

The results of this study are also congruent with the view of leadership as a
relationship, a paradigm proposed by Rost (1991)
15
. The Rost (1991) paradigm
of relationship-based leadership emphasises the need for non-coercive
influence so that leadership can foster organisational effectiveness smoothly
and be accepted by all parties within the organisation. The findings of this study
showed that actions by a leader are embedded within a cultural context that
allows both parties to put meaning to the actions of the other. So, for instance,
Visible Leadership is experienced by both leaders and followers in the
Indonesian context as an expression of paternalistic concern within the leader-

15
The need to understand PL as part of a relationship-based paradigm is discussed further in a
paper presented at the International Conference on Organisational Innovation, August 2010,
entitled The Paternalistic Relationship See Appendix 10.
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follower relationship, and is an element of leadership that communicates
protection to those who are vulnerable and opportunity to those who are
seeking to further their careers.

7.3.2 Implications for Practice

This study is the first of its kind to investigate the applicability of PL style to
Indonesia and to examine the construction of the relationship between leaders
and followers in the Indonesian context. The findings of this study are expected
to contribute to the enhancement of leadership and management practices in
Indonesia. A major finding of this study was the extent to which leadership
practices in Indonesia are paternalistic. As Indonesia is classified as a
collectivist culture, has high power distance and upholds humane orientation
behaviour (as indicated by Globe findings), the study findings that civil servants
are likely to accept a form of PL is not surprising. Their view that the leader
should be visible, authoritarian, benevolent and act morally is consistent with
these cultural values.

As was noted in the background of the study, Indonesia needs to foster
leadership education to combat the challenges that the country faces,
particularly given publicly expressed concern over KKN (or corruption, collusion
and nepotism). Therefore the implications of the study findings the need to re-
conceptualize leadership practice in the Indonesian government sector as well
as its broader implication for management practices within other Indonesian
organisations. Leadership efforts that are based on Western models of the
leader-follower relationship are likely to be rejected by those operating in the
collectivist Indonesian culture.

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The Role of PL in Management Practices
For current leaders operating in the Indonesian government sector, this study
offers insight into what effort allocation strategies are more likely to positively
influence the quality of their leadership capacity to deliver effective
management practices. For example, in Chapter One, it was discussed that
merit-based performance evaluation systems seem to be a paradox for most
Indonesian civil servants. While these were introduced to encourage
performance evaluations based on merit, in practice in the current systems
employees must achieve a level of maturity (seniority) before they qualify to be
evaluated on the basis of merit, and thus to receive promotions. Acting in this
way, Indonesian organisations are able to give lip service to Western
management practice, while continuing with practices of the past.

This study shows that although staff are likely to accept the Visible and
Authoritarian kinds of leadership style, the emphasis on Benevolent leadership
and Moral leadership were also highlighted by them as important aspects of
leadership styles that they want to see from their leaders. Regarding this
paradox, this preference suggests a desire for leaders to treat employees fairly.
This suggests that Indonesian employees would welcome promotion that was
truly merit-based. In conjunction with this, the benevolent integrity of the leader
could be expressed through a gentle-hints kind of leadership style, to ensure
that the civil servant being appraised feels confident and secure in the
relationship with the leader. In this way, an approach to performance evaluation
could be developed that involves a better balance of PL factors than the current
approach which emphasises some factors at the expense of others, and creates
conditions in which KKN can operate.

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This new fair leadership style would require adjustments by both staff and
leaders. Culturally, staff are likely to accept a managers decisions however
they are made, because of the value nrimo (accepting with compliance), which
subordinates always grant their immediate supervisor. The design of
management systems, along with efforts at leadership education, can
emphasize moral aspects of leadership such as impartialness, and thus be
better designed to eradicate KKN, especially the second K (collusion).

This leadership model will also give the leader a good idea of which strategies
may negatively influence the effectiveness of recruitment practices. The current
recruitment system practiced by the Indonesian government employs media
advertising to ensure that the process is highly transparent, thus attempting to
avoid KKN. In reality, there is a national rumour which is widely accepted that
many top position civil servants relatives (immediate and extended family) are
recommended by them to the decision makers in the recruitment process to be
considered as civil service candidates. This indicates that the Indonesian public
has a desire for leaders who display moral leadership even if they fear KKN
continues to be practiced in the civil service. The findings of this study also
suggest that followers expect leaders to demonstrate a high level of moral
capacity (Courage, Incorruptness, Impartialness, and Magnanimity) in their
organisations, and that followers will respond positively to this approach. It is
strongly suggested that in future recruitment processes, leaders are
encouraged to show this quality. Visible displays of integrity as a paternalistic
leader who is upholding the values of andhap-ashor are likely to be viewed
positively by the subordinates. If this moral deed is practiced well in the
recruitment process it can make the selection process operate more
professionally. This, in turn, could potentially yield extraordinary benefits to
public sector organisations, such as the ability appear attractive to the public
and to capture highly professional staff. Any suggestion of nepotism makes
work in public sector organisations unattractive to talented people.

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This study also offers valuable insights into the creation of more professional
human resources development (HRD) programs for civil servants in Indonesia.
As a result of the indirect influence of Soehartos style of leadership, the content
of training has been influenced by cultural values. At the present time trainers
used for programs are usually pensioned civil servants who have previously
served as top managers in government agencies who, consequently, base their
training on experiences from the past. HRD programs that discuss what
constitutes effective leadership have been heavily influenced by the ideology of
Javanese culture.

The findings of this study highlight the importance of PL which is characterised
by seven elements of leadership practices which could be introduced as a new
form of training. By appreciating the elements of PL which is culturally bound,
aspects such as Visible leadership would enable leaders to have a competitive
spirit, and Moral-leadership would enable leaders to avoid KKN. The model
helps trainers give a good idea of what constitutes an effective leader in the
modern Indonesian world.

The Role of the Paternalistic Leaders as Change Agent
It has been argued in Chapter Four that the leadership theory that was
developed during the industrial era is primarily concerned with the actions of
leaders, and tends to assume a classic top down approach. In contrast, the
findings of this research suggest that PL is shaped by cultural forces, and the
guiding idea behind this model is that the leader should maintain relationships
with their subordinates in a way that makes sense to both parties. The findings
indicate that in a collectivist culture some groups feel a degree of dependence
on leaders who are paternalistic, and the findings suggests that a Visible type of
leadership is effective in this cultural context, generating positive responses
from followers. This finding was supported by the research of Ifan, Dou Jr,
Manullang and Dou (2003), that during autonomy era in Indonesia, innovation at
the staff level could not be separated from the role of leaders who still guided
and fostered followers to think creatively.

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This leadership model has implications also for change management. Rost
(1991) defines leadership as a relationship between leaders and followers that
has the purpose of bringing about real change. Rost further argued that true
leadership involves change in the direction of the mutual purposes of the leader
and their followers. Real change will not happen if the relationship is
constructed in an unhealthy way. This study has implications for helping the
change process to occur easily. As discussed in Section 7.3., the discovery of
Visible, Authoritarian, Benevolent and Moral leadership in the study context is
not based on coercive or other unhealthy forces that Rost (1993) warns create
blockages to change. Rost (1991) also noted that moral leadership practices
should be fostered during the change process . He noted that:
While there is a requirement that the process of leadership be ethical
(non coercive, multidirectional, influence oriented, real, and mutual), the
changes that the leader and followers intend can fall along a continuum
of moralityp.124.

That is, the four components of Moral leadership can be used in conjunction
with Benevolent leadership as strategies to foster change within an
organisation. Benevolence can enhance the leaders credibility, especially in the
public sector context where acts of benevolent integritysuch as
communicating clearly, listening to concerns and exercising fairnesswill
impact on employee satisfaction (Dull 2010).

Visible leadership can also enable the change process to operate more
smoothly in Indonesian organisations. As was discussed in Section 7.2, the
subordinates manut (acceptance with compliance and respect towards
superiors) moves them to respond positively to absolute guidance and direction
from their superiors. Directive and highly visible strategies should be
implemented carefully, to ensure that the application of Visible leadership is
non-coercive, and in line with elements of Moral-leadership that are also
essential parts of the leadership relationship. Culturally this balance is already
embedded in the philosophy of Ing Madyo Mangun Karso (leaders should be
able to motivate their followers). It is commonly invoked as a philosophy that
encourage leaders to open their eyes to see that the world is full of change, and
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to embrace creativity and innovation in their work (Mulders 1994; Putrawan and
Akbar 2009).
Kegan and Lahey (2009) state:
to foster real change and development, both the leader and the
organisational culture must take a development stance . p.308.

The study findings and the current condition of the Indonesian government
sector suggest that subordinates want their leaders to accommodate their
needs and, at the same time, leaders want their subordinates to listen. These
competing expectations can operate to block needed change. Kegan and Lahey
(2009) suggest that part of the development stance is to recognise the
importance of changing mindsets that involve the head and the heart. In
other words, in order to bring real change, leadership development efforts that
encourage the application of PL in Indonesia should emphasize that success
depends on the leader and the followers willingness to make the change
happen smoothly. This is in line with McLeod (2006) stating that the public
sector should learn from private sector in Indonesia, especially with cutting
bureaucracy that intends to encourage competitiveness among themselves.
Therefore, the moral and non-coercive foundation of PL needs to be kept to the
forefront to avoid undesirable consequences for both leader and followers.

Implications for Expatriates and Indonesians Educated from Western
Countries when Operating in Indonesian Government Agencies
The findings raised in this study strongly recommend leaders who operate
within Indonesian organisations, especially in government sector, need to
consider carefully the tactics they employ in leadership. Leadership approaches
that work when dealing with Indonesians may be very different to those they
have practiced in other cultural contexts. This study suggests that acting in
ways that are visible, authoritarian, benevolent and moral will help them to work
with Indonesians. Those who come from a collectivist culture may find it easiest
to adjust their personal leadership preferences when working in Indonesia and
leaders with experience in these nations are likely to feel at home in Indonesian
organisations
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Globalisation also brings Western expatriates to work in Indonesia. Their
cultural preference is individualistic, so they may find it difficult to work with
Indonesian civil servants. The findings of the study suggest ways they can
adapt to the non-stated rules that govern the leader-followers relationship. As
individualistic expatriates, they may have an understanding of Transformational
leadership as practiced in their countries; with some adjustment they can
transform their leadership preference to the PL. As discussed earlier, some
surface level elements of PL are found in the transformational leadership model.
With an added understanding of cultural differences, they are likely to be able to
adopt similar strategies, though they will need to be aware that the high levels
of compliance and dependence that may result among followers are normal
responses within the Indonesian culture.

Nowadays, many young Indonesian civil servants are able to take up
opportunities for higher education in Western countries. When they return,
ideally they will transplant many good things about effective Western
management practices into their work place. Their efforts may, however, cause
them frustration, as organisational systems in the government sector are
characterised by rigid bureaucracy that is likely to contrast greatly with what
they have learnt to be best practice in organisational design and management.
The findings of this study suggest that, by educating them regarding the PL that
Indonesian civil servants are used to, and especially the importance of Visible
leadership and benevolent behaviour, they will be better able creatively
introduce ideas in ways that are acceptable to followers. If subordinates are
assured that their Western-educated leaders will show them concern in both
task-related or non task-related activities, they will be more likely to feel that
they are being treated with dimanusiakan (as humans rather than instruments
or objects). It has not been common for civil servants to receive this kind of
treatment, so it is likely that they will respond with motivation and commitment.

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PL in the Leadership Education
Leadership papers currently offered in tertiary education institutions in
Indonesia are still coloured by the dominance of Western leadership theory.
This is no doubt influenced by the fact that many Indonesian lecturers have
graduated from overseas and are teaching directly and directly that the model of
leadership theory they learnt and experienced while overseas is best practice.
The Ministry of Education has also played a role in developing leadership
curricula that is linked with Western models, so the teaching of leadership that
is based on assumptions of individualistic culture is difficult to avoid.

It is hoped that the findings of this study can be integrated to the existing
leadership curricula. It can be taught in conjunction with Transformational
leadership, which has played a part in PL theory development and is already
heavily emphasized in leadership education at the tertiary level.

Also, efforts in re-introducing the concepts of the Tri Pakarti Utama ideal, which
currently only serves as an education motto, could also serve as to foster an
appreciation for models of leadership that are adapted for the Indonesian
context.

Conclusion

PL is not without its problems. Even though this research concluded that PL is a
model that fits well with the culture of Indonesia, and especially with Javanese
culture, the practices of this form of leadership should be carefully thought out.
It is the view of the researcher that the elements of PL need to be practiced in a
balanced way. If one element, such as Benevolent leadership, is practiced
without the balancing force of Moral leadership, then leader-follower
relationships can be undermined rather than strengthened.

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This is an important lesson for those seeking to combat KKN. The form of PL
suggested by this study needs to be senjata makan tuan
16
particularly in relation
to Benevolent leadership. In terms of the application of this studys findings, the
practice of Benevolent leadership is characterised by demonstrating deep
concern for subordinates. However, when involved in recruitment, for example,
acting as a Moral leaderan example to followersis more appropriate given
the pressing need in Indonesia to avoid practices associated with collusion.

This moral form of benevolence also needs to be balanced with Visible
leadership: subordinates need to see their leaders practicing it. A recent review
on the transparency selection processes for civil servants indicated KKN is seen
as becoming broadly practiced (Erika 2008); many relatives (including family,
extended family, and special staff) of highly placed civil servants are given
preferential treatment with applications to become civil servants: this suggests
an unhealthy form of Benevolent leadership in the organisations included in the
review.

To summarize, although fundamentally Benevolent leadership can enhance the
practice of effective PL, the level in intensity of caring for subordinates should
be implemented wisely and PL as advocated in this study should be practiced in
a balanced way. The test of whether PL is being practiced in a balanced way is
whether the relationship remains healthy and free from coercion on either side

Another issue that needs to be addressed is the stratification of the civil
servants in Indonesia. The study highlighted that Visible leadership is
particularly important for those civil servants who have a relatively low level of
education and are not holding managerial positions. Their view that Visible
leadership is an important aspect of leadership can be seen as an extension of
the traditional value of hormat kawalan Gusti, Guru, Ratu lan wong tuwo loro.
This, in essence, guides those in lower strata to always show respect toward
their superiors. This principle operates in conjunction with what is considered

16
This phrase describes the need to for care, so that well-intentioned efforts do not
boomerang. An equivalent Western expression might be that, unless one is careful well
intentioned efforts might come back and bite you.
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the ideal leadership pattern in Javanese society, which is the bapak-anak
relationship (father-child). Those who are less educated and serve as non-
managerial staff, are willing to be referred to as anak or children in the
workplace. Therefore, the fact that as a son they need guidance and
direction is considered to be true.

The positive response to Visible Leadership of those holding managerial
positions who have high levels of education is another area where wisdom is
needed. As discussed earlier it seems that these employees are seeking to
ride on the coattails of their leaders, sharing in any success that the leader
has. They expect that the leader will feel an obligation to assist those anak who
qualify for promotion. While this may seem to create more opportunities for
KKN, particularly collusion, it seems that currently it operates as an incentive for
Indonesian civil servants at managerial levels to seek higher levels of
education. A limitation of this study was that no measure was made of the
respondents current levels of performance, so we do not know whether the
riding on coattails effect allows poor performers with high education to
succeed. Again, this is a situation where the behaviour associated with Visible
leadership could be either healthy or unhealthy, depending on whether the
leader has the Courage (Moral leadership) to confront poor performance.

On the other hand those who are highly educated, but not yet holding
managerial positions, did not hold a strong view of Visible leadership. This is
very understandable, as culturally they can be classified on the priyayi level
and are able to already seen as role models for those in lower status jobs
anyway. Therefore riding on the leaders coat tails is not their ideal.

7.3.3 Implications for Future Research

The goal of this study was to investigate the suitability of PL to Indonesia. Data
was collected to answer two research questions relating to this goal. The
information was studied and many interesting findings resulted from the
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examination of the data. The findings, although significant, have some
limitations. One limitation is that the findings are based on a relatively small
proportion of the total number of Indonesian civil servants, and focused on
those who were most likely to still uphold Javanese values.

Another limitation was in the design of the study. In order to address the
research questions, the study only considered one concept of the leadership
construct, PL. This focus on PL did not allow the researcher to explain in any
detail what the actual impact of PL is on management practices. Based on the
limitations of the study design suggestions are made for further research.

The first research question examined the extent to which Indonesian leadership
is Paternalistic. It was found that to a large extent Indonesian leadership is
Paternalistic and takes a form comprised of seven elements (1) Visible
leadership; (2) Authoritarian leadership; (3) Benevolent leadership; (4)
Incorruptness (Moral leadership); (5) Courage (Moral leadership); (6)
Impartialness (Moral leadership); and (7) Magnanimity (Moral leadership). This
research question was answered through the use of EFA which aims to
statistically verify the conceptualization of a construct of interest. Therefore,
prior to the validation of the construct of PL, further analyses such as
Confirmatory Factor Analysis should be carried out in order to strengthen the
prediction of whether or not the construct of PL that emerged in this study is as
it is in the population that was being studied. Further research could extend the
study to include civil servants in other provinces of Indonesia, and to
Indonesias private sector.

In addition, future research needs to be carried out to validate the occurrence of
PL in Indonesia. The second question examined how the leader-employee
relationship is constructed in the Indonesian context. This research question
was answered through using employee demographic information as a predictor
of whether or not there are differences in the mean responses to the factors
making up PL. Many significant findings were discovered and discussed.
However, the statistical methods used to analyse the data could not provide a
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complete picture of the complex relationship between leaders and followers, in
particular if the complexity of Javanese culture is considered. Further research
along these lines should use a variety of data collection methods. Quantitative
analysis can identify the pattern of leadership styles in Indonesia as well as the
construction of the leader and followers relationship. Qualitative studies can be
used to map specific leadership styles that are preferred by Indonesian civil
servants as well as exploring the construction of leaders-followers relationship.
A study in this format could be promoted in the future to investigate the question
at a deeper level. It would allow researchers who are interested in the PL
concepts to examine more closely the development of healthy relationships.
This could include case studies or interviews with key government leaders who
are seen to uphold the Javanese cultural values and who have established
healthy, balanced relationships with employees.

Having explored the respondents views on the aspects of PL from which Visible
leadership emerged, it would be appropriate for future research to explore this
unique leadership style on its own, not bounded to the concepts of PL.
Therefore it is hoped that in the future, if it is the case that Indonesian
leadership is solely highly characterised by the component of Visible leadership
as this study has discovered, expanding the construct of Visible leadership is
worthwhile, as it would help to foster better leadership education in Indonesia.

Future research into this subject should also include more aspects that can
affect the construction of relationship between leaders and employees, such as
employee performance, commitment and loyalty. The use of these measures
would enable a researcher to consider the effectiveness of PL in a way that was
not possible in this study. For example, if this study had utilised the employee
commitment variable, analysis would be able to show more than that the
leader-followers relationship was stable. It would also be able to indicate if
higher employee commitment also made a contribution to the shape of PL in
organisations.

202 | P age

Despite these limitations, the present study contributes greatly to the study of
PL. The PL construct emerged from research that took place within a Chinese
cultural context. This research opened a new window on the topic by extending
the application of PL to a non-Chinese culture. Future research in collectivist
countries is to be encouraged, so the implication of this study could be useful
for those who are frustrated with efforts to find and apply models of effective
leadership that are poorly fitted to the cultural context of their own countries.

203 | P age

7.4 Concluding Remarks

The findings of this study have expanded on the work of previous researchers in
the area of culturally-based leadership models. The study confirmed that the
PL model can work outside the country of origin, Taiwan. Also, this investigation
revealed that PL is empirically verified; findings are in accord with what scholars
who have studied the culture of Indonesia have described regarding Javanese
culture.

The leadership literature is dominated by a paradigm of leadership that is
originated from individualist cultures. Unless researchers look beyond this
paradigm they may be limited to fine tuning existing ideas of what leaders
need to do to increase the organisational effectiveness. The exploration of new
paradigms creates the possibility of greater insights.

The results of this study have established that visible leadership can play an
important role in PL. Leaders in some culturesparticularly Indonesianeed
to give attention to what is visible to followers. This study also shows that the
PL model is based on a relationship-based paradigm; the one where a
relationship designed to meet the mutual purposes shared by the leader and the
employee that is a key concept in making the organisational life healthy.

The need for a non-coercive leadership is a world-wide priority with an urgent
application to Indonesia. This will require an approach to leadership that takes
cultural context into account. The conclusions that arise from this research have
made an important and timely contribution to address this specific challenge.
Finally, the recommendations produced from the research clearly guide both
researchers and management practitioners towards acknowledging the
extraordinary benefits that emerge from of a deep understanding of the
complexities of PL.

204 | P age

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Appendices
Appendix 1 : Challenge of Leading in Javanese Culture

Challenge of Leading in Javanese Culture

Dodi W. Irawanto
a*
, Phil L. Ramsey
b
, James C. Ryan
c

a
Department of Management, Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia;
b
School of
Management, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand;
c
Department of
Management, Marketing and Public Administration, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, UAE

(Received 25 January 2009; final version received 22 April 2010)

Scholars in the field of management and culture have developed paradigms
regarding the importance of managing people across culture. While most
scholars agree that culture plays a vital role in an organization, it is has been
recognized that the research on the sub cultures within a national culture that
impact on an organization is very limited. One example is the impact of
Javanese culture in Indonesian organizations environments. Indonesia is
widely known as a multicultural country, with approximately 364 ethnicities. Of
these ethnicities, the Javanese have been recognized over time to be the most
culturally and politically dominant in Indonesia.In this article, the exploration of
Javanese culture, and its development over time are the central concern. The
values central to Javanese culture are identified and the relationship between
these values and Western perspectives of management practices such as
communication, change management, and conflict management are discussed.

Keywords : management; leadership; culture; Javanese values
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Appendix 2 : Tailoring Leadership Theory to Indonesian Culture

Tailoring Leadership Theory to Indonesian Culture
Dodi Wirawan, IRAWANTO
17

Phillip L., RAMSEY
18

James C., RYAN
19

Abstract
Leadership in Indonesia is facing a dilemma. Within the pressure of the
countrys instability over the past 10 years, there is an appearance that there is
a lack of leadership capabilities in this multicultural country. In order to tailor
effective leadership theory into the Indonesian environment, this article
discusses the importance of valuing leadership from cross cultural perspectives
by beginning with the Transformational leadership. The values similarities in the
Asian countries have bringing a generalization to the implementation of
leadership theory. Such as that in Taiwan which provided strong evidence for
the practice of paternalistic leadership. However there is no empirical evidence
on the leadership style preferred by Indonesians. To address these theoretical
weaknesses, this study presents a comparison of several characteristics of
Paternalistic leadership in Taiwan and Indonesia as a prerequisite for facilitating
the Paternalistic leadership effectiveness.
Keywords: Indonesian leadership, paternalistic leadership, culture,
authoritarianism, moral, benevolent.

17
Management Department, Brawijaya University, Malang, Indonesia
18
Management Department, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
19
Management Department, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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Appendix 3: Up-dated Paternalistic Leadership
Questionnaires

SECTION 1 : About Your Supervisor

PART A.
Please rate your IMMEDIATE SUPERVISOR on the items below with
the following 6-point scale.
N
e
v
e
r

S
e
l
d
o
m

S
o
m
e
t
i
m
e
s

O
f
t
e
n

U
s
u
a
l
l
y

A
l
w
a
y
s

1
My supervisor cares not only on my work but also
on my life
1 2 3 4 5 6
2
My supervisor sometimes shows his care to me
1 2 3 4 5 6
3
My supervisor very cares to the subordinates who have been
working for him for a long time
1 2 3 4 5 6
4
My supervisor understands my choice to accommodate my
private request
1 2 3 4 5 6
5
My supervisor helps me to finish my private problems
1 2 3 4 5 6
6
My supervisor will help me to understand the beginning of
problem on my unsatisfying performance
1 2 3 4 5 6
7
My supervisor trains and guides me when I feel having less
ability at work
1 2 3 4 5 6
8
My supervisor offers me a little help when I am really busy at
work
1 2 3 4 5 6
9
My supervisor will encourage me if I have problems at work
1 2 3 4 5 6
10
My supervisor helps me to make my long-term carrier plan in the
company.
1 2 3 4 5 6
11
My supervisor asks me to fully obey him
1 2 3 4 5 6
12
My supervisor would be annoyed if I oppose his ideas in front of
the public
1 2 3 4 5 6
13
My supervisor determines someone to become an example who
acts as he wants
1 2 3 4 5 6
14
My supervisor does not give me any information
1 2 3 4 5 6
15
My supervisor is just to make all decisions in my department
1 2 3 4 5 6
16
My supervisor always says something in a meeting
1 2 3 4 5 6
17
My supervisor looks as if he is frightening in front of sub-
ordinates
1 2 3 4 5 6
18
My supervisor brings a lot of pressures when we work
together
1 2 3 4 5 6
19
My supervisor is very tight to his subordinates
1 2 3 4 5 6
20
My supervisor likes to grumble when I fail to reach targets
1 2 3 4 5 6
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21
My supervisor asks his team to be better than other teams
1 2 3 4 5 6
22
My supervisor will disciplines me if I violating his principles
1 2 3 4 5 6
23
My supervisor records the print of my works from the head
to the toes
1 2 3 4 5 6
24
My supervisor asks me to immediately report all changes at
work to him
1 2 3 4 5 6
25
My supervisor has courage to report wrongdoings
1 2 3 4 5 6
26
My supervisor will protest on the unfair manner done to other
person
1 2 3 4 5 6
27
My supervisor will stand and fight against injustice
1 2 3 4 5 6
28
My supervisor does not mind if his opinion is not
accepted
1 2 3 4 5 6
29
My supervisor is tolerant on criticism
1 2 3 4 5 6
30
My supervisor is open minded and does not minds
when being offended
1 2 3 4 5 6
31
My supervisor does not use the companys facilities
for his interest
1 2 3 4 5 6
32
My supervisor does not ask the subordinates to do
private interest for him
1 2 3 4 5 6
33
My supervisor does not take any advantages on power of
authority for bribing
1 2 3 4 5 6
34
My supervisor is responsible on work
1 2 3 4 5 6
35
My supervisor is responsible on work and never
avoids from his works
1 2 3 4 5 6
36
My supervisor does not put his responsibility to other people
when he makes mistakes
1 2 3 4 5 6
37
My supervisor does not evaluate the subordinates
based on personal relationship
1 2 3 4 5 6
38
My supervisor does not give any extra attentions to
subordinates who are having special relationship with him
1 2 3 4 5 6
39
My supervisor does not cover my department mistakes
1 2 3 4 5 6
40
My supervisor acts as a model for me in all aspects
1 2 3 4 5 6
41
My supervisor will discipline himself before asking
other people to be disciplined
1 2 3 4 5 6
42
When my department facing difficult tasks my supervisor will
lead rather than follow
1 2 3 4 5 6

260 | P age

Appendix 4 : Bahasa Indonesian Version of the
Paternalistic Leadership Questionnaire

261 | P age

Kepemimpinan Organisasional

Kepada Yth. Bpk./Ibu, Sdr./I responden

Nama saya adalah Dodi Wirawan Irawanto, SE., M.Com., dosen pada Fakultas
Ekonomi, Universitas Brawijaya Malang. Saat ini saya sedang menempuh studi
Doktoral (S3) di College of Business, Massey University, New Zealand. Adapun
topik penelitian saya adalah Kepemimpinan dan Budaya Organisasional.

Survey ini adalah bagian dari studi S3 kami, dengan tujuan menganalisa
kepemimpinan paternalisitik dan respon bawahan di sektor pemerintahan di
Indonesia. Atas ijin dari Pemerintahan Provinsi Jawa Timur dan Daerah Istimewa
Jogyakarta, maka keterlibatan anda di dalam mengisi survey ini sangat kami
harapkan. Partisipasi anda akan membantu kami memahami bagaimana reaksi
individu terhadap kepemimpinan paternalistik di dalam memberikan kontribusi
pada dunia pengetahuan dan dunia praktis.

Untuk mengisi kuisioner ini dibutuhkan waktu sekitar 5-10menit. Jawaban yang
anda berikan akan terjamin kerahasisaannya dan hanya peneliti saja yang
mempunyai akses pada data. Keterlibatan anda tidak akan kami identifikasikan
dalam penelitian ini ataupun dalam bentuk publikasi lainnya. Informasi yang anda
berikan akan kami kode dengan angka saja. Lebih lanjut hasil survey akan diolah
menurut prosedur penelitian ilmiah sehingga informasi yang terkandung di dalam
hasil penelitian ini bertujuan untuk keperluan penelitian semata.

Survey ini telah dievaluasi oleh komite Etik untuk manusia di Massey University
dan telah dinyatakan mengandung resiko yang kecil. Konsekuensinya, survey ini
tidak di review secara penuh oleh Komisi Etik untuk manusia di Massey
University, sehingga peneliti bertanggung jawab atas segala akibat dari penelitian
ini. Jika anda mempunyai pertanyaan mengenai survey ini, anda bisa
menghubungi Professor Sylvia Rumball, Asisten Komisi Etik Massey University
(e-mail: humanethics@massey.ac.nz.)

Jika anda mempunyai masalah dan keraguan di dalam mengisi survey ini anda
bisa berkomunikasi dengan saya di 0341-552744/D.Irawanto@massey.ac.nz ;
supervisor saya : P.L.Ramsey@massey.ac.nz.

Terima kasih atas kerjasama anda. Salam sukses dalam segala aktivitas anda.

Hormat Saya

NIP. 132 304 302

262 | P age

BAGIAN 1: Informasi Tentang Anda

Bagian ini menanyakan mengenai informasi demografi anda. Mohon jawab
pertanyaan di bawah ini.
Bidang KeDinas-an ______________________
Lama kerja di posisi ini (tahun)
Lama kerja di Dinas/Bidang ini (tahun)
Tahun kelahiran anda ?
Jenis Kelamin L / P
Posisi anda di dalam organisasi
Staff tekhnis
Staff operasional
Staff umum
Pendidikan Terakhir Anda : D3/S1/S2/Lainnya _________
Pelatihan Yang Pernah Anda ikuti:
Dalam Negeri Luar Negeri Dua-duanya
Frekuensi Dipanggil/Berhadapan Dengan Supervisor anda
1 minggu sekali 1 bulan sekali Lainnya ________________

Berikut adalah 2 (dua) lembar dari bagian pertanyaan. Harap dibaca perlahan-
lahan dan perhatikan instruksi di tiap bagian dan jawablah dengan memberikan
tanda silang (x) atau cawing (v) pada nomor yang menurut anda sesuai dengan
perasaan anda. Setelah menjawab semua pertanyaan yang ada, masukkan
dalam amplop tertutup yang telah kami sediakan dan berikan kepada kordinator
survey yang telah ditunjuk.
263 | P age

BAGIAN 3 : Mengenai Supervisor Anda

Berikan nilai terhadap SUPERVISOR TERDEKAT anda pada item
dibawah ini dengan skala 6 poin 1 (tidak pernah) sampai dengan (6)
Selalu.
T
i
d
a
k

P
e
r
n
a
h

J
a
r
a
n
g

K
a
d
a
n
g
-
k
a
d
a
n
g
S
e
r
i
n
g

B
I
a
s
a
n
y
a

S
e
l
a
l
u

1
Supervisor saya peduli tidak saja pada kerja saya akan tetapi
juga pada hidup saya
1 2 3 4 5 6
2
Supervisor saya kadangkala menunjukkan perhatiannya kepada
saya
1 2 3 4 5 6
3
Supervisor saya sangat penuh perhatian terutama kepada
bawahan yang telah bekerja kepada dia dalam waktu yang lama
1 2 3 4 5 6
4
Supervisor saya meminta saya untuk secara total patuh
kepadanya
1 2 3 4 5 6
5
Supervisor saya akan menjadi jengkel jika saya menentang
idenya di depan umum
1 2 3 4 5 6
6
Supervisor saya akan menetapkan seseorang untuk menjadi
percontohan yang berakting seperti kemauanya
1 2 3 4 5 6
7
Supervisor saya mempunyai keberanian untuk melaporkan
kesalahan
1 2 3 4 5 6
8
Supervisor saya akan protes atas perlakuan tidak adil yang
dilakukan kepada orang lain
1 2 3 4 5 6
9
Supervisor saya akan berdiri dan bertempur melawan
ketidakadilan
1 2 3 4 5 6
10
Supervisor saya akan memahami pilihan saya dalam
mengakomodasi keinginan pribadi saya
1 2 3 4 5 6
11
Supervisor saya membantu saya menyelesaikan masalah
pribadi saya
1 2 3 4 5 6
12
Supervisor saya tidak memberikan informasi kepada saya
1 2 3 4 5 6
13
Supervisor saya secara semata-mata membuat semua
keputusan di departemen saya
1 2 3 4 5 6
14
Supervisor saya selalu mengatakan sesuatu di akhir rapat baik
itu idenya, ide peserta rapat atau apapun
1 2 3 4 5 6
15
Supervisor saya terlihat seolah-olah menakut-nakuti di depan
bawahan
1 2 3 4 5 6
16
Supervisor saya tidak keberatan jika opininya tidak diterima
1 2 3 4 5 6
17
Supervisor saya toleran terhadap kritik
1 2 3 4 5 6
18
Supervisor saya terbuka pikirannya dan tidak
mempermasalahkannya walau itu akan menyakiti hatinya
1 2 3 4 5 6
19
Supervisor saya akan membesarkan hati saya ketika saya
menghadapi masalah dalam bekerja
1 2 3 4 5 6
20
Supervisor saya akan membantu saya untuk memahami awal
permasalahan dari kinerja saya yang tidak memuaskan
1 2 3 4 5 6
21
Supervisor saya akan melatih dan membimbing saya ketika
saya merasa kurang berkemampuan dalam bekerja
1 2 3 4 5 6
264 | P age

(Lanjutan)
Berikan nilai terhadap SUPERVISOR TERDEKAT anda pada item
dibawah ini dengan skala 6 poin 1 (tidak pernah) sampai dengan (6)
Selalu.
T
i
d
a
k

P
e
r
n
a
h
J
a
r
a
n
g

K
a
d
a
n
g
-
k
a
d
a
n
g

S
e
r
i
n
g

B
i
a
s
a
n
y
a

S
e
l
a
l
u

22
Supervisor saya membawa banyak tekanan ketika kita bekerja
bersama-sama
1 2 3 4 5 6
23
Supervisor saya sangat ketat dengan bawahannya
1 2 3 4 5 6
24
Supervisor saya akan mengomel kepada saya ketika saya gagal
mencapai target
1 2 3 4 5 6
25
Supervisor saya tidak memanfaatkan fasilitas perusahaan untuk
kepentingan pribadi
1 2 3 4 5 6
26
Supervisor saya tidak akan meminta bawahan untuk melakukan
sesuatu hal untuk kepentingan pribadinya
1 2 3 4 5 6
27
Supervisor saya tidak mengambil keuntungan atas kekuatan
berkuasa untuk menyogok
1 2 3 4 5 6
28
Supervisor saya menawarkan bantuan seadanya ketika saya
terlalu sibuk pada pekerjaan
1 2 3 4 5 6
29
Supervisor saya membantu membuat rencana karier masa
panjang saya di perusahaan
1 2 3 4 5 6
30
Supervisor saya meminta unit kerja nya untuk lebih baik dari
unit kerja yang lain
1 2 3 4 5 6
31
Supervisor saya mengambil langkah disiplin atas pertentangan
atas prinsip nya
1 2 3 4 5 6
32
Supervisor saya mencatat jejak kerja saya dari kepala sampai
ujung jari kaki
1 2 3 4 5 6
33
Supervisor saya meminta saya untuk segera melapor segala
perubahan dalam pekerjaan kepadanya
1 2 3 4 5 6
34
Supervisor saya bertanggungjawab atas pekerjaan
1 2 3 4 5 6
35
Supervisor saya bertanggung jawab atas pekerjaan dan tidak
pernah menghindar dari pekerjaanya
1 2 3 4 5 6
36
Supervisor saya tidak melempar tanggung jawab kepada orang
lain ketika dia membuat kesalahan
1 2 3 4 5 6
37
Supervisor saya merupakan contoh bagi saya dalam segala
aspek
1 2 3 4 5 6
38
Supervisor saya akan berdisiplin diri dulu sebelum meminta
orang lain untuk disiplin
1 2 3 4 5 6
39
Saat unit kerja kami mengalami kesultian kerja supervisor saya
akan memimpin daripada mengikuti
1 2 3 4 5 6
40
Supervisor saya tidak mengevaluasi bawahan atas dasar
hubungan pribadi
1 2 3 4 5 6
41
Supervisor saya tidak memberikan perhatian extra kepada
bawahan yang mempunyai hubungan khusus dengannya
1 2 3 4 5 6
42
Supervisor saya tidak menutupi kesalahan untuk internal tim
bawahan
1 2 3 4 5 6

Terima kasih atas waktunya
265 | P age

Appendix 5 : Ethical Approval Letter

266 | P age

Appendix 6: Statement Regarding Ethics

Dear participant,

Thank you for participating in this academic research on culture, leadership and
organizational behaviors. My name is Dodi Wirawan Irawanto, SE, M.Com., and
I work for Brawijaya Universitys Faculty of Economics. Right now I am taking a
Doctoral (S3) study at Massey Universitys College of Business in New Zealand.
This survey is part of my Doctoral study with the objectives to examine the
paternalistic leadership and employee responses at Government sector in
Indonesia. With the permission granted to conduct research by East Java
Province and Special Region of Jogyakarta Province Assistant, your
contribution in fulfilling this survey is really appreciated. Your participation will
help us understand how individuals react to the paternalistic leadership, which
will contribute to not only knowledge accumulation but also practical application.
Before you start, feel free to ask any questions. It will take about 15-20 minutes
to fill out the questionnaire. Your answers are completely anonymous and only
the researcher will have access to the data. You will never be personally
identified in this research project or in any presentation or publication. The
information you provide will be coded by number only.
This survey questionnaire has been notified by the Massey University Human
Ethics Committee. The result of the survey will be analysed with the research
sci procedure thus the information contained in this study aimed at the research
only.
If you have any discomfort and questions regarding to this survey, you can
communicate with me at 0341-552744/D.Irawanto@massey.ac.nz ; my
supervisor : P.L.Ramsey@massey.ac.nz and Massey University Ethical
Committee humanethics@massey.ac.nz.
Thank you again for your cooperation! We wish you a remarkable success in
your work.
Regards,

Primary Researcher
267 | P age

Appendix 7: Permit for Conducting Research in
Indonesia

268 | P age

Appendix 8: Statistics for One-way ANOVA

a. Age
Dependent Variable Groups SS df MS F Sig. Eta
Visible Leadership Between Groups 5.266 5 1.053 1.075 0.373 n/a
Within Groups 673.059
Total 678.324
Authoritarian
Leadership
Between Groups 8.320 5 1.664 1.668 0.140 n/a
Total 693.737
Benevolent
Leadership
Total 702.548
Moral-incorruptness
Leadership
Total 698.797
Moral-courage
Leadership
Total 694.499
Moral-impartialness
Leadership
Total 696.497
Moral-magnanimity
Leadership
Total 707.446

b. Gender
Visible Leadership Between Groups 6.596 1 6.596 6.572 0.011 0.010
Total 688.021
Authoritarian
Leadership
Between Groups 5.680 1 5.680 5.703 0.017 0.008
Total 681.879
Benevolent
Leadership
Between Groups .961 1 0.961 0.970 0.325 n/a
Total 673.918
Moral-incorruptness
Leadership
Total 691.285
Moral-courage
Leadership
Between Groups 6.383 1 6.383 6.470 0.011 0.009
Total 676.319
Moral-impartialness
Leadership
Total 681.957
Moral-magnanimity
Leadership
Between Groups 5.118 1 5.118 5.151 0.024 0.008
Total 679.703

269 | P age

c. Position
Total 693.172
Authoritarian
Leadership
Between Groups .648 2 0.324 .322 0.725 n/a
Total 703.264
Benevolent
Leadership
Between Groups 1.584 2 0.792 .780 0.459 n/a
Total 709.411
Moral-incorruptness
Leadership
Total 690.312
Moral-courage
Leadership
Between Groups .290 2 0.145 .146 0.864 n/a
Total 694.635
Moral-impartialness
Leadership
Between Groups 1.522 2 0.761 .768 0.464 n/a
Total 691.989
Moral-magnanimity
Leadership
Between Groups 7.868 2 3.934 3.990 0.019 0.011
Total 695.083

d. Education
Total 695.501
Authoritarian
Leadership
Total 685.508
Benevolent
Leadership
Total 705.380
Moral-incorruptness
Leadership
Total 688.930
Moral-courage
Leadership
Total 691.851
Moral-impartialness
Leadership
Between Groups 18.789 4 4.697 4.786 0.001 0.0027
Total 694.021
Moral-magnanimity
Leadership
Total 705.514

270 | P age

e. Training Attended by Employee
Total 594.466
Authoritarian
Leadership
Total 603.383
Benevolent
Leadership
Total 595.533
Moral-incorruptness
Leadership
Total 592.623
Moral-courage
Leadership
Total 588.113
Moral-impartialness
Leadership
Total 570.750
Moral-magnanimity
Leadership
Total 565.569

f. Frequency of Meeting with Supervisors
Total 620.765
Authoritarian
Leadership
Total 615.611
Benevolent
Leadership
Total 636.299
Moral-incorruptness
Leadership
Total 633.744
Moral-courage
Leadership
Total 623.084
Moral-impartialness
Leadership
Total 628.760
Moral-magnanimity
Leadership
Total 647.164

271 | P age

g. Post-hoc Test: Tukey HSD Employee Position
a. Dependent Variable: Visible Leadership

Position Mean Std. Error
95% Confidence Interval
Lower Bound Upper Bound
Staff 0.067 0.044 -0.019 0.153
Section Head -0.193 0.090 -0.369 -0.017
Field Head -0.095 0.121 -0.333 0.143

Multiple Comparisons: Tukey HSD

Position A Position B
Mean
Difference A-B Std. Error Sig.
Tukey HSD Staff Section Head 0.2598002
*
0.09994979 0.026
Field Head 0.1622079 0.12888028 0.419
Section Head Staff -0.2598002
*
0.09994979 0.026
Field Head -0.0975922 0.15082870 0.794
Field Head Staff -0.1622079 0.12888028 0.419
Section Head 0.0975922 0.15082870 0.794

b. Dependent Variable: Moral magnanimity Leadership
Position Mean Std. Error
Staff 0.072 0.044 -0.014 0.158
Section Head -0.178 0.090 -0.354 -0.001
Field Head -0.145 0.121 -0.383 0.093


Position A Position B
Mean
Tukey HSD Staff Section Head 0.2496185
*
0.10005555 0.034
Field Head 0.2171668 0.12901665 0.212
Section Head Staff -0.2496185
*
0.10005555 0.034
Field Head -0.0324517 0.15098830 0.975
Field Head Staff -0.2171668 0.12901665 0.212
Section Head 0.0324517 0.15098830 0.975

272 | P age

h. Post-hoc Test: Tukey HSD Employee Education
a. Dependent Variable: Visible Leadership

Education Mean Std. Error
below high school 0.202 0.309 -0.405 0.809
high school 0.328 0.065 0.201 0.455
diploma -0.056 0.153 -0.356 0.243
bachelor -0.135 0.055 -0.242 -0.027
master -0.289 0.101 -0.487 -0.092


Education A Education B
Mean
DifferenceA-B Std. Error Sig.
Tukey
HSD
below high
school
high school -0.1265217 0.31565826 0.995
diploma 0.2583267 0.34457936 0.945
bachelor 0.3364991 0.31374591 0.821
master 0.4914163 0.32497417 0.555
high school below high
school
0.1265217 0.31565826 0.995
diploma 0.3848484 0.16573449 0.139
bachelor 0.4630208
*
0.08467281 0.000
master 0.6179379
*
0.11975473 0.000
diploma below high
school
-0.2583267 0.34457936 0.945
high school -0.3848484 0.16573449 0.139
bachelor 0.0781724 0.16206259 0.989
master 0.2330895 0.18285512 0.707
bachelor below high
school
-0.3364991 0.31374591 0.821
high school -0.4630208
*
0.08467281 0.000
diploma -0.0781724 0.16206259 0.989
master 0.1549171 0.11461919 0.659
master below high
school
-0.4914163 0.32497417 0.555
high school -0.6179379
*
0.11975473 0.000
diploma -0.2330895 0.18285512 0.707
bachelor -0.1549171 0.11461919 0.659

273 | P age

b. Dependent Variable: Moral impartialness Leadership

Education Mean Std. Error
below high school -0.722 0.313 -1.337 -0.107
high school -0.140 0.066 -0.269 -0.011
diploma -0.151 0.155 -0.455 0.153
bachelor 0.073 0.055 -0.035 0.182
master 0.262 0.102 0.062 0.463


Education A Education B
Mean
DifferenceA-B Std. Error Sig.
Tukey HSD below high
school
high school -0.5823332 0.32007625 0.363
diploma -0.5714079 0.34940213 0.475
bachelor -0.7955389 0.31813714 0.092
master -0.9845800
*
0.32952255 0.024
high school below high
school
0.5823332 0.32007625 0.363
diploma 0.0109253 0.16805413 1.000
bachelor -0.2132056 0.08585790 0.096
master -0.4022468
*
0.12143083 0.009
diploma below high
school
0.5714079 0.34940213 0.475
high school -0.0109253 0.16805413 1.000
bachelor -0.2241310 0.16433084 0.651
master -0.4131721 0.18541438 0.170
bachelor below high
school
0.7955389 0.31813714 0.092
high school 0.2132056 0.08585790 0.096
diploma 0.2241310 0.16433084 0.651
master -0.1890411 0.11622342 0.481
master below high
school
0.9845800
*
0.32952255 0.024
high school 0.4022468
*
0.12143083 0.009
diploma 0.4131721 0.18541438 0.170
bachelor 0.1890411 0.11622342 0.481

274 | P age

h. Post-hoc Test: Tukey HSD Frequency of Meeting with Supervisors
c. Dependent Variable : Visible Leadership

Frequency
Meet Spv Mean Std. Error
once a week -0.143 0.073 -.0286 0.000
once a month 0.338 0.096 0.149 0.527
everyday -0.052 0.054 -0.157 0.053


Frequency
Meet Spv A
Frequency
Meet Spv B
Mean
Tukey HSD once a week once a month -0.4808393
*
0.12056879 0.000
everyday -0.0910203 0.09038447 0.573
once a month once a week 0.4808393
*
0.12056879 0.000
everyday 0.3898189
*
0.11002914 0.001
everyday once a week 0.0910203 0.09038447 0.573
once a month -0.3898189
*
0.11002914 0.001

275 | P age

Appendix 9: Statistics for Two-way ANOVA

Dependent Variable: Visible leadership

Source SS df MS F Sig. Eta
Corrected Model 25.628
a
6 4.271 4.332 0.000 0.039
Intercept 0.028 1 0.028 0.028 0.867 0.000
Gender * Position 0.004 1 0.004 0.004 0.947 0.000
Gender * Education 0.413 1 0.413 0.419 0.518 0.001
Position* Education 8.614 1 8.614 8.737 0.003 0.013
Error 637.951 647 0.986
Total 663.606 654
Corrected Total 663.578 653

276 | P age

Appendix 10: The Paternalistic Relationship: Authenticity and
credibility as a source of healthy relationships

The Paternalistic Relationship: Authenticity and credibility as a source of healthy
relationships
Dodi W, Irawanto
20

Senior Lecturer - Department of Management, Brawijaya University, Indonesia
J l. M.T. Haryono No. 165, Malang, 65145, Indonesia

Phil, L, Ramsey
Senior Lecturer - School of Management, Massey University, New Zealand
Private bag 11222
Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand

David, M, Tweed
Senior Lecturer - School of Management, Massey University, New Zealand
Private bag 11222
Palmerston North, 4442, New Zealand

ABSTRACT
This article explores the how the Paternalistic Leadership model can be viewed as part
of a relationship-based paradigm of leadership, and can incorporate concepts such as
credibility and authenticity. The review highlights the need to understand paternalistic
leadership as an approach to establishing productive relationships within a cultural
context, with implications for researchers and practitioners in both collectivist and
individualistic cultures.
Keywords: paternalistic leadership, authentic, credibility

20
Corresponding author : dodiwirawan@hotmail.com
290 | P age

Appendix 11: National Culture and Leadership: Lesson from
Indonesia

National Culture and Leadership: Lesson from Indonesia
21

Abstract
Indonesia, once known primarily for its commodity exports of natural resources
and agriculture products, has grown rapidly into an important partner of Japan
and United States. Across its many islands, Indonesia consists of distinct
ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. The Javanese are the politically
dominant and largest ethnic group. As a unitary state and a nation, Indonesia
has developed a shared identity defined by a national language and the majority
Muslim population. In this paper, the findings of Hofstede and the GLOBEs
studies are used to identify important values of Indonesians, relating them to
leadership style in an organization setting. Indonesians place particular
emphasis on collective well being and show a strong humane orientation within
their society. The culture is assertive, and pays attention to maintaining
harmony. Effective leaders are expected to show compassion while using a
more paternalistic than autocratic leadership style. It is advisable that expatriate
managers need to avoid actions that are not suited to these values and
expectations.

Keywords : National culture, leadership, Indonesia

21
Senior Lecturer, Management Department, Faculty of Economics, Universitas Brawijaya, J l. Veteran,
Malang, Indonesia
308 | P age

Appendix 12: An Anal ysis of National Culture and Leadership
Practices in Indonesia

An Analysis of National Culture and Leadership Practices in Indonesia

Senior Lecturer
Management Department, Faculty of Economics, Brawijaya University, Malang
J l. M.T. Haryono No. 165, Malang, Indonesia
e-mail : dodiwirawan@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT
Managers around the world need ideas and support to meet many of the challenges of leading. Leadership
requires actions and strategies as well as convictions and ideas. Leadership occurs in relation with
followers. Leading Indonesian people is not the same as leading Westerners nor is it the same as leading
other Asian people. A leadership strategy effective in one culture can be counter-productive in another. In
this paper, the use findings of Hofstedes and the GLOBEs studies are used to identify important values
of Indonesians, relating them to Indonesian culture and leadership style in an organization setting.
Indonesians emphasis collective well being and show a strong humane orientation within their society.
The culture is assertive, and pays attention to maintaining harmony. Effective leaders are expected to
show compassion while using a more paternalistic than autocratic leadership style. It is advisable that
expatriate managers need to avoid actions that are not suited to these values and expectations.

Keywords : National Culture, Organizational Culture, Leadership, Indonesia

317 | P age

Appendix 13: Exploring Paternalistic Leadership and its
Application to the Indonesian Public Sector

Exploring Paternalistic Leadership and its application to the Indonesian Public
Sector

Abstract
On the basis of the triad model of Paternalistic leadership, this study attempts to explore
its applicability in the Indonesian setting. Using the Cheng et al. Paternalistic leadership
scale and measures of the hypothesis, an empirical study was conducted in a sample of
801 civil servants in an Indonesian government office. First, using confirmatory factor
analysis the results showed that there are core similarities with the Cheng et al. model
which has been tested in Taiwan. The Indonesian benevolent, moral-courage, moral-
impartialness, moral-incorruptness, and moral-magnanimity leadership behaviour is
substantially confirmed with the model adopted for this study. According to civil
servants perception it seems likely that Indonesian leaders are visible and authoritarian.
Despite the differences in the culture, the applicability of Paternalistic leadership
developed in Taiwan is somehow confirmed in the Indonesian setting, so it is hoped it
would be applicable in other Asian countries since Asian countries share similar cultural
values.

Keywords: Paternalistic leadership, J avanese, factor analysis

Paternalistic Leadership

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