2009 Allan Ludman and Stephen Marshak W.W.

Norton & Company

CHAPTER 7
USING METAMORPHIC ROCKS TO INTERPRET EARTH HISTORY
PURPOSE To become familiar with metamorphic rock textures and mineral assemblages To use metamorphic rocks to interpret conditions in metamorphic environments. MATERIALS NEEDED A set of metamorphic rocks. A magnifying glass or hand lens and, ideally, a microscope and thin sections of metamorphic rocks. Standard supplies for identifying minerals (streak plate, glass plate, etc.) 7.1 INTRODUCTION Metamorphism occurs within the Earth when rocks exposed to physical and chemical conditions significantly different from those under which they first formed change in response to the new conditions in the solid state without melting or disaggregating. Everything about a rock may change: its color, mineralogy, texture, even its chemical composition. Minerals may react with one another to produce new ones (in the solid state), the texture may change as grains become larger or smaller (in the solid state!), or both textural and mineralogy may change. Metamorphic rocks provide information about conditions between the surface and depths where melting takes place, filling a gap between the areas from which we get information from sedimentary and igneous rocks. Erosion of kilometers of overlying rock has revealed metamorphic rocks at the core of every continent and the cores of mountain systems. The stories that metamorphic rocks tell are fascinating once we know how to read them. For example, metamorphic rocks help us understand
conditions when continental plates collide. Erosion has removed the upper parts of the Appalachians, Rockies, Alps, Urals, and other ancient mountain systems, revealing their intensely metamorphosed roots. Metamorphic minerals in these mountains help us estimate the T and P conditions beneath the modern Himalayas and Andes, mountains that are still growing today. the effect of enormous amounts of heat released when billions of tons of granitic magma formed the Sierra Nevada batholiths. Metamorphic changes near the granite contact help estimate conditions during intrusion and field mapping shows how far metamorphism extended into the host rock. Mapping also shows how far hydrothermal fluids carried potentially valuable mineral deposits from the cooling magma. the effects of meteorite impacts Studies of rocks around Meteor Crater in Arizona led geologists to recognize that meteorite impacts produce unique metamorphic minerals and textures. Supported by studies of

rocks from lunar craters, these help identify ancient meteorite impact sites on Earth where erosion has removed all signs of the original crater.

7.2 Agents of Metamorphism Changes in the physical and chemical environment heat, pressure, and chemically active (hydrothermal) fluids cause metamorphism and are called agents of metamorphism. Added heat breaks bonds in minerals, freeing ions to migrate to seeds of new minerals more stable at the new temperature. Two kinds of pressure affect rocks differently. Lithostatic pressure results from the burial of rocks within the Earth and, like atmospheric pressure and hydrostatic pressure in the oceans, is equal in all directions. In differential stress (or directed pressure) pressure is greater in some directions than in others as happens in the jaws of a vise or when two plates collide. Increased lithostatic pressure compacts a mineral but doesnt change its shape, whereas directed pressure flattens grains in one direction and elongates them in others (Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1 Effects of lithostatic and directed pressures
Surface

Change with Progressive burial

Deep Crust b. Directed Pressure Greater pressure in one direction than others Spherical grain is flattened

a. Lithostatic Pressure Pressure acts equally from all directions; Grain remains spherical but gets smaller

The chemical environment is changed by hydrothermal fluids, generally superheated steam escaping from cooling magma or from deep-seated metamorphic reactions. The steam can dissolve ions or add new ions but a rocks chemical composition changes in either case. 7.3 INTERPRETING METAMORPHIC HISTORY The nature of a metamorphic rock is controlled by (1) the parent rock that was metamorphosed; (2) how the agents of metamorphism were applied (e.g, by an impacting meteorite, intruding magma, colliding plates, etc.); and (3) the intensity of metamorphism, including the temperature, amount and type of pressure, and depth to which the rock was subjected. Geologists studying metamorphic rocks want to learn about all three factors. What was the original rock? What kind of metamorphism was

involved? How hot did the rock get? How great was the pressure? How much did the rock change? As with igneous and sedimentary rocks, the clues lie in a metamorphic rocks mineralogy and texture. 7.3.1 Identifying The Parent Rock: Metamorphic Mineral Assemblages The minerals in a metamorphic rock are the most stable arrangement of ions under the new metamorphic conditions. Parent rock mineralogy controls to a great extent what metamorphic minerals can form, and metamorphic minerals can therefore be used to interpret the composition of the original rock.
EXERCISE 7.1 METAMORPHIC MINERALS AS A KEY TO PARENT ROCK COMPOSITION a. Identify the minerals in the four metamorphic rocks provided by your instructor and record the data in the following table. Add the mineral compositions from Table 3.1. Table 7.1 Estimating parent rock composition from metamorphic minerals Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3 Specimen 4

c. Is it likely that any of these metamorphic rocks came from the same parent rock? Explain.

Minerals & Composition b. Based on the minerals and their chemical compositions, what were the most abundant elements in the parent rock of each of these specimens?

There are essentially four basic kinds of parent rock, based on chemical composition: Aluminous rocks (shales, mudstones): composed mostly of clay minerals rich in aluminum, silicon, oxygen, iron, magnesium, and potassium.

Calcareous rocks (limestones, dolostones): composed mostly of calcium, magnesium, carbon, and oxygen. If quartz is present, add silicon and oxygen; for clay minerals add small amounts of aluminum, silicon, iron, and magnesium. Mafic rocks (basalt, gabbro): composed mostly of calcium, iron, magnesium, silicon, and oxygen with aluminum in the plagioclase feldspar. Quartzofeldspathic rocks (granite, rhyolite, arkose, sandstone): composed mostly of silicon, oxygen, aluminum, potassium, sodium, with only minor iron, magnesium, and calcium.
EXERCISE 7.2: IDENTIFYING THE PARENT MATERIAL OF A METAMORPHIC ROCK Compare the mineral contents and most abundant ions from the four rocks in Exercise 7.1 with the information about the four chemical groups of metamorphic rock. What types of parent rock produced the four specimens you studied? Specimen 1 Specimen 2 Specimen 3 Specimen 4

It is relatively easy to determine parent rock chemistry, but it is not always possible to name the parent rock precisely. For example, metamorphosed granite and metamorphosed arkosic sandstone are both quartofeldspathic and could have identical metamorphic mineral assemblages. Metamorphosed basalt and gabbro, both mafic, could have the same metamorphic minerals. The parent rock can be identified if metamorphism only changed a rock slightly, preserving some original textural features. If metamorphism was so intense that it erased all signs of the original texture, we can only deduce which of the four broad chemical groups the parent rock belonged to. 7.3.2 Determining The Type Of Metamorphism: Metamorphic Mineral Alignment And Field Relationships Geologic processes apply the agents of metamorphism in different ways, resulting in six types of metamorphism (Table 7.2). It is important to know which type was involved because correct estimates of metamorphic intensity depend on textural clues that, in turn, depend on how the rock was metamorphosed. For example, grain size generally gets larger with increasing regional or contact metamorphism, but typically gets smaller with increasing dynamic metamorphism. A combination of texture and field relationships allows us to interpret which type of metamorphism was involved.

Table 7.2 Types of metamorphism

Agent(s) of Metamorphism Heat How the agents of metamorphism are applied Type of Metamorphism Contact (thermal) Burial

Heat from a cooling magma affects rocks adjacent to the intrusive body or lava flow Gravity causes increased lithostatic pressure as rocks are Lithostatic Pressure buried deeper in the Earth; the insulating effect of + some heat overlying material causes the buried rock to be heated Two large blocks of rock grind past one another in a fault Differential stress + zone. Moving blocks generate the directed pressure; heat some heat comes from friction and position in the Earth. Lithosphere plates collide. Subduction or continentHeat, lithostatic and continent collision creates intense directed pressure; heat directed pressures comes from friction and position within the Earth Superheated steam released from cooling magma or from Chemically active metamorphic reactions carries dissolved ions to surrounding (hydrothermal) fluids rock, changing their composition. When a meteorite hits the Earth, its kinetic energy Heat, directed pressure is converted instantaneously to heat and directed pressure. * Rare. Will not be discussed further in this chapter

Dynamic

Regional

Metasomatism Impact*

Table 7.2 shows that differential stress is an agent of regional and dynamic metamorphism but not of contact or burial metamorphism. The first step in determining the type of metamorphism is therefore to look for evidence that differential stress was (or was not) involved. The clue is that differential stress causes elongate and platy minerals to be aligned in metamorphic rocks. You can demonstrate this by inserting plastic chips and pieces of coffee stirrers into PlayDoh at random orientations. Apply differential stress by flattening the PlayDoh with a book and the randomly oriented metamorphic minerals become aligned. Metamorphic rocks with aligned platy and rod-shaped minerals must have experienced differential stress and, therefore, either regional or dynamic metamorphism (Table 7.2). Metamorphic rocks with randomly oriented platy or rod-like minerals did not experience directed pressure, and therefore underwent contact or burial metamorphism. 7.3.2a Metamorphic textures 1: Aligned vs randomly oriented grains Mineral alignment caused by differential stress can be either foliation or lineation (Figure 7.2). Foliation is the parallel alignment of platy grains that gives some metamorphic rocks a sheetlike appearance. Foliation is most effective with minerals like micas and chlorite, and typically produces a bright sheen when the parallel flakes reflect light simultaneously (Figure 7.2a). Coarse-grained foliated rocks are called schists and this kind of foliation is commonly referred to as schistosity. Elongate minerals like amphiboles show a different kind of foliation in which the long axes of the rod-like grains all lie within a single plane even though the individual rods may have any orientation within that plane 5

(Figure 7.2b). Lineation occurs when the long axes of individual rod-shaped mineral grains are aligned parallel to one another (Figure 7.2c).

Figure 7.2 Mineral alignment: Foliation and lineation

Plane of Foliation

a. Foliation of sheet-like grains (micas) in an aluminous schist. Muscovite flakes are aligned parallel to one another like pages in a book. As a result, they reflect light at the same time, producing a sheen.

b. Foliation defined by alignment of the long axes of rod-shaped minerals (e.g. amphibole). The rods are not parallel to one another, but their long axes all lie in the same planethe plane of foliation

c. Lineation: Rod-shaped minerals are aligned parallel to one another, producing a streaky appearance on some surfaces and a dotted pattern on others.

Metamorphic rocks without aligned minerals have a granoblastic texture (Figure 7.3). Granoblastic rocks lack alignment because either they were not affected by directed pressure, or they dont have platy or rod-shaped minerals that could be aligned. Platy or rod-like minerals with a granoblastic texture, indicate contact or burial metamorphism is indicated because the grains would have been aligned by differential stress in the other types of metamorphism. If a granoblastic texture involves equidimensional grains, they might or might not have experienced differential stress during metamorphism. Without minerals that could be foliated or lineated, we cant be sure of the type of metamorphism.

Figure 7.3 Granoblastic texture (No preferred mineral alignment)

1 cm

5 cm a. Interlocking calcite, garnet (brown) and pyroxene (dark green) in coarse-grained marble 1 cm b. Photomicrograph showing interlocking calcite grains in a different marble. 1 mm

. Interlocking quartz grains in quartzite

d. Photomicrograph showing interlocking quartz grains in quartzite

7.3.2b Metamorphic textures #2: Recognizing the effects of dynamic metamorphism Figure 7.4 shows how a coarse-grained granite changed with progressively more intense dynamic metamorphism in a 380 Ma fault zone. Initially angular potassic feldspar grains were stretched (Figure 7.4b) and then smeared into elongate streaks with ovoid remnants of the original crystals (Figure 7.4c). The appearance of having been smeared is characteristic of rocks that experienced dynamic metamorphism, whether the original rock was a granite with angular crystals, a coarse conglomerate with rounded clasts, a limestone, or a shale.

Figure 7.4 Effects of dynamic metamorphism on the texture of a coarse-grained granite (from the Norumbega fault system, east-central Maine)

a. Unfaulted granite showing original coarse-grained igneous texture

b. Low-grade dynamic metamorphism: Potassic feldspars(pink) are stretched and aligned parallel to the pen; quartz grains (gray) have coalesced to form continuous ribbons

c. High-grade dynamic metamorphism: granitic mylonite in which grain size of the original granite has been reduced to form a dark, very fine-grained matrix with remnant feldspars smeared into ovoid grains

EXERCISE 7.3 MINERAL ALIGNMENT AND TYPE OF METAMORPHISM a. Summarize the relationship between mineral alignment and type of metamorphism, by checking the appropriate box(es) in each row in the following table:
Texture Foliation Lineation Granoblastic with micas Granoblastic without micas Layered but not foliated Regional Metamorphism Contact Metamorphism Cant tell from just the texture alone

Layered and foliated

b. Examine the metamorphic rocks in your study set. Which are foliated? Lineated? Granoblastic? Answer in the appropriate column of the metamorphic rock study sheets at the end of this chapter What can you infer about the type of metamorphism that produced each sample?

7.3.2c Field relationships Field relationships provide evidence about the type of metamorphism that can not be gotten from a sample in a laboratory. For example, granoblastic metamorphic rocks adjacent to an igneous intrusion almost certainly resulted from contact metamorphism. The presence of meteorite craters and linear fault zones makes it easy to recognize the impact and dynamic metamorphism involved in their formation. Regional metamorphism is aptly named; it is distributed over broad areas where two plates collided. For example, episodes of regional metamorphism affected the entire Appalachian Mountain system from Newfoundland to Alabama during successive collisions that built what is now eastern North America. 7.3.3 Determining Metamorphic Intensity: Mineralogy and Texture Metamorphic grade describes the intensity of metamorphism and the degree to which it has changed. Low grade rocks experienced low metamorphic intensity, have changed little, and preserve much of the character of their parent rocks. Moderate grade rocks retain fewer aspects of their parent rocks, and high grade rocks have changed so much that no traces of the parent rock remain other than overall chemical composition. Texture and mineralogy combine to help interpret the intensity of metamorphism. 7.3.3a Textural evidence for metamorphic intensity Grain size: As mentioned earlier, grain size generally increases with increasing metamorphism during regional, burial, and contact metamorphism. The longer the rock remains at its peak metamorphic temperature, the more solid-state ionic migration can occur and the larger the metamorphic minerals can grow. Figure 7.5 shows some fine-grained parent rocks. Compare these with their high-grade metamorphic equivalents as indicated to realize how much texture can change.

Figure 7.5 Fine-grained parent rocks of common metamorphic rocks

2.5 cm a. Hand specimen of micritic limestone Compare with metamorphic equivalent in Figure 7.3a

0.5 mm b. Photomicrograph of micritic limestone Compare with metamorphic equivalent in Figure 7.3b

c. Hand sample of mudstone; compare with metamorphic equivalent (Figure 7.2a)

Porphyroblastic texture is the metamorphic equivalent of the igneous porphyritic texture some grains (porphyroblasts)are larger than the others (Figure 7.6). This does not mean that the metamorphic rock cooled at different rates as would be the case for an igneous rock. Rather, there were only a few crystal seeds for the porphyroblast minerals and these swept up all the appropriate ions. In Figure 7.6, large, nearly perfectly shaped garnet porphyroblasts grew in a foliated, medium-grained aluminous rock made up mostly of finer grained muscovite flakes. Grain shape: You saw earlier that flattening and smearing occur in dynamic metamorphism. The more flattened and elongated the grains are, the higher the grade of dynamic metamorphism. Remember that intense dynamic metamorphism makes grains smaller. Unless the rock has been completely recrystallized to the finer grain size, a few larger grains will remain among the finer ones and their shapes will reveal the type of metamorphism (Figure 7.4c). Individual grains in the most intensely 10

recrystallized dynamically metamorphosed rocks are so small they cannot even be seen with a microscope and some rocks look like volcanic glass.
Figure 7.6 Porphyroblastic texture

2.5 cm

Garnet porphyroblasts

Gneissic texture mineral segregation and layering: Chemical segregation may occur at very high metamorphic grades, during which previously homogeneous rocks separate into light- and darkcolored layers containing different minerals. In most cases, minerals in one of the types of layers are foliated and those in the other are granoblastic. This combination of layering and foliation is called a gneissic texture and rocks exhibiting it are called gneisses (Figure 7.7). Gneisses represent the highest grade of regional metamorphism in many areas. 7.3.3b Mineral evidence for intensity of metamorphism Some minerals are stable only at relatively low temperature and pressure conditions (e.g., chlorite), others at moderate metamorphic conditions (e.g., biotite), and still others at intense conditions (e.g. sillimanite). As metamorphic temperatures and pressures change, these minerals become unstable and their ions combine with others to form minerals better suited for the new conditions. Mineral indicators of the intensity of metamorphism are called metamorphic index minerals (Table 7.2). Each compositional type has its own set of index minerals but that some minerals such as chlorite, biotite, and

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garnet, can occur in more than one type. The complete assemblage of minerals, however, makes it clear what the parent rock type was.
Figure 7.7 Gneissic texture
2.0 cm 10 cm 2.5 cm

a. Quartzofeldspathic gneiss K- and Na-feldspars Dark Layers: biotite

b. Calc-silicate gneiss Wollastonite (CaSiO3) Ca-Al garnet, pyroxene

c. Mafic gneissLight layers: quartz, Ca-Na Plagioclase feldspar Pyroxenes

Table 7.2 Mineral assemblages as indicators of metamorphic intensity Parent Rock Type Increasing Metamorphic Intensity Low grade Medium grade High grade

Impossible to determine based on mineralogy alone Quartzofeldspathic

Muscovite Muscovite Aluminous Chlorite Muscovite Biotite Biotite

Muscovite Biotite

Sillimanite K- feldspar

Fe-Mg Garnet Fe-Mg Garnet Fe-Mg garnet Staurolite Kyanite or Sillimanite

Calcite Calcareous Talc

Calcite Tremolite Olivine

Calcite Diopside Ca-Al garnet Hornblende Ca-Na Plag Fe-Mg Garnet

Diopside Wollastonite Ca-Al Garnet Pyroxene Ca Plag Fe-Mg Garnet

Chlorite Mafic Na-Plag. Epidote

Actinolite Na-Ca Plag.

Some minerals, including quartz, potassic and plagioclase feldspars, are stable over a wide range of metamorphic conditions. As a result, they are not helpful in determining conditions of metamorphism even though they are important constituents of metamorphic rocks.

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7.4 METAMORPHIC ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Metamorphic rock classification is based on a combination of mineralogy and texture, but not quite the same way as for igneous or sedimentary rocks. Table 7.3 is a simplified classification scheme for most common metamorphic rocks. To use it, first identify the minerals in a metamorphic rock to determine the compositional type (refer to Table 7.2), and place the rock in the correct column in Table 7.3. Move downward through the table until you come to the row with the appropriate texture. In some cases there will be only one choice and youve named the rock. In others, there are a few possibilities. Check the following brief descriptions to make the correct identification.
Table 7.3 Simplified classification scheme for metamorphic rocks Texture Composition Aluminous
Slate

Calcareous

Mafic
Greenschist

Quartzofeldspathic

Increasing intensity and grain size

Phyllite

Calcareous Schist

Hornblende Schist

Foliated
Schist

Amphibolite

Foliated and Layered Foliated, layered, smeared

Gneiss

Calc-silicate gneiss

Mafic gneiss

Gneiss

Protomylonite

Mylonite

Ultramylonite

Increasing metamorphic intensity and smaller grain size Marble Granofels (Calc-silicate granofels) Greenstone Mafic granofels Quartzite Quartzofeldspathic granofels Hornfels, if definitely the result of contact metamorphism

Non-foliated

Slate A low-grade metamorphosed shale or mudstone composed largely of foliated flakes of muscovite too small to be seen with the naked eye. The foliation is revealed by slates tendency to split into thin slabs parallel to the foliation. Commonly gray, black, red, green. Phyllite A slightly more intensely metamorphosed shale or mudstone (or slate) composed largely of foliated flakes of muscovite chlorite biotite. Grains are larger than those in slate but may still

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be too small to be seen without magnification. Foliation is revealed by the sheen resulting from reflection of light from the aligned platy minerals. Schist A more intensely metamorphosed rock with a strong foliation defined by mica or other platy minerals large enough to be identified with the naked eye. Porphyroblasts of other metamorphic minerals may be present. Note: Depending on what the foliated minerals are, the rock may be an aluminous schist (micas, chlorite), a mafic schist (chlorite, talc, hornblende), or a calcareous schist (Ca-micas, Ca-amphiboles) Gneiss A high-grade metamorphic rock of any composition in which minerals have segregated into light and dark layers, one of which is foliated. Mylonite Dynamically metamorphosed rock; foliation defined by flattened and stretched grains. Granofels Any metamorphic rock in which mineral grains are randomly oriented Greenschist A low-grade mafic metamorphic rock composed of chlorite and plagioclase feldspar with epidote actinolite. Foliation is defined by alignment of chlorite and actinolite. Greenstone A non-foliated equivalent of greenschist. Hornblende schist (aka amphibolite) A higher-grade version of greenschist, in which foliated and often lineated hornblende crystals replace the lower-grade chlorite-epidote-actinolite assemblage. Quartzite A monomineralic granoblastic metamorphic rock composed of quartz Marble A granoblastic calcareous metamorphic rock composed mostly of calcite or dolomite. May also contain some of the calcareous index minerals. EXERCISE 7.4: INTERPRETING METAMORPHIC ROCK HISTORY

Examine the specimens of metamorphic rock and determine as much as possible about the history of each. Fill in your observations and conclusions in the metamorphic rock study sheets at the end of the chapter.
EXERCISE 7.5: GEOLOBIC REASONING: A METAMORPHIC ENIGMA You have just developed a new set of skills that will enable you to look at metamorphic rocks in the field or laboratory and squeeze as much information as possible from them about their history. Now youre ready for a little detective work and geological reasoning Figure 7.8 is a map showing the distribution of rocks of different metamorphic intensities. The local geologist has mapped a concentric pattern in which the highest metamorphic grade is in the center of the area, surrounded by rocks of progressively lower grade. All metamorphic rocks have a granoblastic texture, with the coarsest grains found in the central region. Although the granoblastic texture suggests contact metamorphism, the geologist has found no igneous rock anywhere in the region.

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Suggest an explanation for this metamorphic pattern based on your knowledge of metamorphism and metamorphic rocks.

Figure 7.8 Mapped distribution of rocks with varying metamorphic intensity

10

15 km

Unmetamorphosed

Low grade

Moderate grade

High grade

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NAME______________________________

Metamorphic Rock Study Sheet

Textural Features Metamorphism Intensity Type of Metamorphic Name

Sample

Minerals present

(compositional group)

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NAME______________________________

Metamorphic Rock Study Sheet

Textural Features Metamorphism Intensity Type of Metamorphic Name

Sample

Minerals present

(compositional group)

17