ICE-E

INFORMATION PACK
Insulation and structure of cold stores
Environmental impact of insulation and structure of cold store
The purpose of a cold store is to keep product cold as efficiently as possible, i.e. using as little energy as possible. This info pack is much larger buildings or, externally, under a weatherproof cover.

2. External insulation systems

The panels are fitted to the outside of the structure or racking system and are suitably protected from the weather. The panels also form the base for the roof weather protection which may comprise the panels themselves with all joints fully weatherproofed or roofing materials applied directly to the panels. The structure is generally supported by steel or concrete frames. The insulation can then either be suspended inside (Figure 1) or outside (Figure 2) the frame. The more usual external steel framework has the advantage of weatherproofing the insulation. If the insulation panels are on the outside (internal steelwork), thermal contraction and expansion caused by solar heating should be considered as this can cause vapour leaks between the panels.

The purpose of a cold store is to keep product cold as efficiently as possible

concerned with the aspects of insulation and structure which affect the environmental impact (global warming) of the cold store. Within this pack the following are considered: Size of store. Type and thickness of insulation. Solar radiation. Maintenance. Future technologies. For information on pipe insulation see the pipe lagging and insulation info pack.

Design and build

Structure
The insulation itself generally cannot provide the structure of the cold store. The insulation requires cladding, and the cold store may require a mechanical framework to hold the insulation and the roof in place. There are 2 general types of cold store;

Size of store
To understand the effect of the size of cold store we first need to consider the equation which dictates how much energy passes through into the cold store through its insulation. The equation of heat transfer through the insulation is given in equation 1. q = k A T/x where; q is the rate of heat transfer (W) A is the surface area of the insulation (m2) k is the heat thermal conductivity of the insulation (W/mK). Sometimes known as the k-value. (1)

1. Internal insulation systems

The insulating panels constitute either a selfsupporting structure to form the complete chamber or insulating panels are fitted to a structure which supports the panels. This form of construction is generally used for small stores. Such stores are constructed within

T is the difference in temperature between the cold store and its surroundings (K) x is the thickness of the insulation (m) From equation 1 we can see that the heat entering the cold store is proportional to the area of the insulation. As we increase the size of a cold store its volume increases at a greater rate than the surface area of the sides. To give an example, a cube of size 1 x 1 x 1 m has a volume of 1 m3 and the surface area of the 6 sides is 6 x 1 x 1 = 6 m2. If we increase the size of the cube to 2 x 2 x 2 m, it has a volume of 8 m3 and a surface area of 6 x 2 x Figure 1. External steelwork. Courtesy of IOR cold store code of practice [3] 2 = 24 m2. The volume has increased by a factor of 8 but the area only 4. Therefore if this was a cold store, we could store 8 times the amount of product for only 4 times the energy. It is therefore theoretically better to fill one large cold store than several small stores.

Insulation
From equation 1 we can see that the lower the thermal conductivity of the insulation, the lower the heat transfer. Therefore insulation should be chosen with as low a thermal conductivity as possible. Thicker insulation also reduces heat transfer, therefore insulation should be as thick as practical. Table 1 shows typical cold store insulation Figure 2. Internal steelwork. Courtesy of IOR cold store code of practice [3] materials and their respective thermal conductivities. Table 2 shows general properties of insulation materials. Cold stores produced before . Table 1. Typical cold store insulation materials and their respective thermal conductivities Insulation Polystyrene foam Polyurethane foam Glass/mineral wool Concrete (floor) Corkboard Polyisocyanurate Vacuum insulation panel (VIP) k (W/mK) 0.036 0.024 0.044 1.1 0.043 0.027 0.005 Not recommended applications High fire risk areas High fire risk areas

Table 2. General properties of insulation materials. General properties Resistance to damage Flash ignition temperature Recommended application Polyurethane Moderate 310 Polyisocyanurate Moderate 420 Expanded Polystyrene Good 350 Phenolic Poor 490 Mineral wool Poor Refer to manufactur er Chilled store, food production

Frozen store, chilled store

Frozen store, chilled store, food production

Frozen store, chilled store,

Frozen store, chilled store, food production

Freezers

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1970 typically used cork insulation panels on timber frame. In the 1970s insulation was often polystyrene. In the 1980s polyurethane panels started to be used. The amount of heat transfer is proportional to the temperature difference across the insulation, giving a higher heat transfer at frozen than chilled temperatures. This can be negated by using thicker insulation. Thicker panels will be more expensive involving higher capital costs but running costs will be lower. trucks, etc (Figure 4, courtesy of IOR cold store guide).

R values
Often insulation is described by an R-value instead of a k value. This is the opposite of the k-value in that it describes thermal resistance instead of thermal conductivity. It also includes the thickness of the insulation in its measurement (equation 2). R = x/k (2)

Often insulation is described by an R-value instead of a k value

Hence, a balance between the two is required at the design stage. The ICE-E models (http://www.khlim-inet.be/drupalice/models) can be used for this analysis. The usual practice is to build chill stores with 100 mm thick insulation panels and 150 mm thick panels for sub zero (freezers). Figure 3 shows heat loads predicted by the ICE-E model for an 8 m high frozen store, internal temperature -20C, external temperature +20C, with polyurethane insulation. Insulation of the floor is different to the walls as the floor is load bearing. In large frozen (below 0C) cold stores a heater to stop frost heave is generally fitted on top of the base slab, a vapour barrier, 150 mm thick of high density insulation material and finally a wearing floor. The wearing floor is capable of transmitting loads on to the insulation and the base slab without undue stresses such as the maximum distributed and point loads from racking installations, mezzanine floors, fork lift

Therefore the higher the R-value the better. This can be achieved by smaller k-values or larger insulation thicknesses. The ASHRAE handbook [2] suggest minimum R-values for different facilities and parts of the structure. They vary from zero where there was no insulation of the floor of a cooler to an R-value of 10.6 m2.K/W for the roof of a blast freezer.

Blowing agents
Foam insulation e.g. polyurethane and polyisocyanurate, requires a low thermal conductivity blowing agent in its manufacture. The blowing agent forms the cells and fills them with gas. CFC-11 was the standard blowing agent for a number of years until banned by the Montreal protocol for its ozone depletion potential (ODP). This was changed to HCFCs as a temporary solution. Replacing the blowing agents is not a simple process as the high ODP agents generally have the

Heat load through insulation (kW) 250

200

150

100 mm 150 mm 200 mm

100

300 mm

50

0 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 Cold store volume (m 3) 60000 70000 80000

Figure 3. Heat load through different thickness insulation relative to cold store volume.

Figure 4. Floor construction Courtesy of IOR cold store code of practice [3].

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lowest thermal conductivities. Some of the replacements may have other issues, for example flammability. Current alternatives for closed cells foams include HFC-245fa, HFC134a, and cyclopentane, which is a hydrocarbon (HC). Open cell foams typically use water as the blowing agent, which, when blended with isocyanate, produces carbon dioxide as the insulating gas within each cell. The type of blowing agent should be considered in any new purchase of insulation and an assessment of the drawbacks (environmental impact of the blowing agent and flammabililty) against the benefits (reduction in energy of the cold store). For example open cell foams have a higher thermal conductivity and vapour permeability than closed cell foams, but have lower global warming from the blowing agent. Polyurethane panels manufactured before 1995 are likely to contain high ODP blowing agents and therefore if removed from the cold store should be disposed of correctly. This is covered by EC Regulation No. 2037/2000 which relates to ozone depleting substances.

It is important to maintain the vapour seal at joints for example between the wall and the floor. This can be done with a silicone mastic. There is not much point in creating a perfect vapour seal for your cold store and then drilling holes in the cold store for services and not re-sealing. Therefore it is important to minimise the penetration into the vapour seal and then making good the vapour seal afterwards.

Fire
Risk of fire and flammability of the insulation should be considered. Manufactures of the insulation should be consulted for this information but a general guide is that; Glass/mineral wool is non flammable. Polyisocyanurate is less flammable than polyurethane. Polyurethane is flammable and should be installed in a flame and heat retardant structure.

Condensation
Condensation can cause problems to the insulation, increasing its conductivity. It can also reduce the strength of wood and corrodes metal. Any steelwork within the cold space suffers little problem from corrosion as the water content of the air is very low. Steelwork outside the cold space will need to be protected from corrosion. The roof void may suffer condensation if it is chilled below the dew point due to prolonged contact with cold surfaces. It can be avoided by ensuring that there is adequate air movement, for example by installing air vents on the roof ridge and at the bottom of the wall cladding to enable good air flow.

Cladding
The insulation requires cladding for a number of reasons including vapour seal, fire protection, hygiene, damage resistance, weather resistance and solar resistance. This is normally done in manufacture and therefore the insulation forms a panel which can be easily fitted together to form the structure of the cold store. The cladding is generally thin and the k-value high (compared to the insulation) and therefore the thermal effect of the cladding can be ignored, i.e. the cladding provides negligible thermal resistance. The interconnections between the panels making up the envelope come in various forms, dependent upon the manufacturer and the type of panel produced (Figure 1).

Solar heat transfer

Sun shining on the outside of the cold store it will heat the surface due to solar radiation. The outside of the insulation will then have a higher temperature than the ambient air temperature and therefore heat transfer will increase due to the increased temperature difference (equation 1). The colour of the surface exposed to the sun will affect the amount of solar radiation absorbed and thus its temperature. Lighter (white) and reflective

Vapour seal
It is important that the insulation has an adequate vapour seal. If not, water vapour can condense in the insulation, increasing its kvalue (reducing its R-value). In the case of freezers the water can freeze causing structural problems.

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coatings/paints will absorb less heat than darker (black) surfaces. The effect of this is greater when the sun is shining at its strongest on the surface. The cold store may also be positioned to reduce solar radiation. It may be possible to shade it by trees. In the Northern hemisphere the south side will receive the most solar radiation; therefore the most critical and smallest surfaces should ideally be positioned to face North.

Thermographic scans
Cold stores should be subjected to a regular infra red thermal imaging survey (thermographic scan) to check the thermal integrity of the envelope (either internal or external). This should be done during commissioning of the cold store, shortly before the expiry of the guarantee maintenance period or after 12 months of operation (whichever is sooner). Additional scans are recommended at five yearly intervals.

Maintenance
Adding insulation
It is possible to increase the insulation of a cold store already in use. Examples of this are; A warehouse for storing vegetables which perhaps originally had no refrigeration and therefore was not insulated. Refrigeration may have been added later and therefore insulation is an afterthought. A cold store originally used as a chiller, now being used as a freezer. An old cold store with inefficient insulation or insulation which has become ineffective with time, perhaps due to breaks in the moisture seal causing the panels to become wet. Adding insulation to previously un-insulated or badly insulated buildings can be done with spray applied polyurethane foam or insulated panels. Spray foam is perhaps the cheapest

Future technologies
Vacuum Insulated Panels (VIPs) offer greatly reduced thermal conductivity compared to commonly used insulation materials. The thermal conductivity of a VIP is typically 5 times lower than that of polyurethane foam but the real ratio does not exceed 3 in practical applications due to various thermal bridges [1]. Due to the high cost of VIPs over other insulation, they are currently only viable where the reduced thickness is valuable. This is not likely for a cold store where the thickness of insulation is small compared to the volume, however, it may be critical when adding extra insulation as a retro-fit. Phase change materials (PCMs) can be used to store heat (or cold). PCMs are materials that change phase at a specific temperature, absorbing or releasing large amounts of heat at that temperature. A simple and common PCM is ice, which absorbs a lot of heat at 0C whilst it is melting. A benefit of using PCMs is to allow the cold store to be turned off at certain times (perhaps when energy consumption is expensive or refrigeration inefficient) allowing the PCM to discharge and maintain the cold store at the correct temperature. PCMs can also be used to offset peak loads. During the night the refrigeration system can keep the store cold and charge the PCM. During the day the refrigeration plant can work in conjunction with the PCM to maintain store temperature. This allows the refrigeration plant to be sized on an average heat load, rather than peak heat load.

References
[1] Kacimi, A. and Labranque, G., 2011. Vacuum insulated panels (VIP) in insulated packaging. International Congress of Refrigeration, Prague. August 21-26. [2] Ashrae Handbook: Refrigeration systems and applications. American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and AirConditioning Engineers, Inc. Atlanta, USA. [3] IOR cold store code of practice. The Institute of Refrigeration. Surrey, UK.

way of adding insulation, however, unless properly clad it will not be weather proof, vapour proof or hygienic, unlike insulated panels. Adding insulation to previous insulation has the advantage of being able to done with little disruption to the cold store, as opposed to replacing insulation. If the roof is not adequately insulated it may be possible to add insulation. It is preferable to add this above the roof in the void if it exists, although it is possible to add insulation panels to the ceiling if there is no roof void. However it is important to remember that the ceiling voids often require adequate ventilation and therefore the insulation should not impede this ventilation.

The work associated with this information pack has been carried out in accordance with the highest academic standards and reasonable endeavours have been made to achieve the degree of reliability and accuracy appropriate to work of this kind. However, the ICE-E project does not have control over the use to which the results of this work may be put by the Company and the Company will therefore be deemed to have satisfied itself in every respect as to the suitability and fitness of the work for any particular purpose or application. In no circumstances will the ICE-E project, its servants or agents accept liability however caused arising from any error or inaccuracy in any operation, advice or report arising from this work, nor from any resulting damage, loss, expenses or claim. ICE-E 2012

For more information, please contact: Alan Foster (alan.foster@lsbu.ac.uk)