There Are Better Ways in FACTS

There are better ways in FACTS
ABB Power Systems, FACTS
Means to deliver more, high quality power.
Contents
1. Reliable Power Supply for Everyone

1.1 How Our Dependency on Electricity Arose 1.2 Efficient Transportation of Electricity 1.3 A Modern Power Supply Network
2. Keeping the Network Stable

2.1 A Fragile Distribution Network 2.2 Reactive Power 2.3 Reactive Power Compensated in Different Ways
3. Voltage Stability
3.1 A Main Junction 3.2 Old Synchronous Condensers Became Silent 3.3 Near Downtown Generation Could Shut Down 3.4 Kanpur SVCs Save the Grid
4. Reliable Power Transmission to Every Corner of the Network

4.1 Introduction 4.2 Long Lines Get Shorter 4.3 Parallel Lines 4.4 Damping of Power Oscillations 4.5 Undrground cable transmission
5. Metal Industry: The Invisible EAF
5.1 Reactive Power Compensation in the Industry 5.2 Increased Productivity for the Electric Arc Furnace 5.3 Flicker Mitigation 5.4 the Invisible Arc Furnace
6. Traction: A Demanding Load on The Grid

6.1 Trains Take Power Between Phases 6.2The Channel Tunnel Rail Link 6.3 London Underground 6.4 Svc Light for Active Filtering
7. Grid Integration of Wind Farms

7.1 Wind Farms 7.2 Grid Integration of Windfarms 7.3 Wind Power in Texas
Contents
8. Static Var Compensation, SVC

8.1 Introduction 8.2 A Boiling Ocean Becomes a Mere Ripple 8.3 Thyristor-Switched Capacitors TSC 8.4 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor TCR 8.5 Reactors and Capacitors Working Together
9. STATCOM and SVC Light

9.1 General 9.2 Technology and Principle 9.3 Statcom in Back-To-Back Configuration
10. Series Compensation SC, and TCSC

10.1 Introduction 10.2 Increased Capacity and Improved Voltage Stability 10.3 Increased Capacity and Maintained Angular Stability 10.4 Increased Capacity and Optimized Power Sharing Between Parallel Circuits 10.5 Over Voltage Protection of SC Banks 10.6 Controllable Series Compensation, TCSC
Theres a better way
1.
Reliable Power Supply for Everyone
1.
1.1 How Our Dependency on Electricity Arose 1.2 Efficient Transportation 1.3 A Modern Power Supply Network 1.1 How Our Dependency on Electricity Arose
hen we press a button or turn a switch we expect the lamp to light up, the motor to start or the heat to come on. If this does not happen we get irritated. Our accustomed behaviour pattern has been disrupted. Just 150 years ago we would have been petrified if pressing a button had such results. We have become so dependent on electric power that we cannot even imagine a life without it. But, someone may object, we have oil and petrol, after all. Our cars will continue to run and oil would still heat our houses. Without electricity we would not be able to manufacture the cars of today and the oil-fired boiler would not work. In this manner electric power and control are woven into every aspect of our present-day existence. Why electricity in particular; why not water, oil or gas? There are several reasons for this, but one of the most important is that electricity is easy to distribute. However, this has not always been the case.
Electric power - an expensive, roundabout way?
When electric power was introduced in the latter half of the nineteenth century, there were certainly a great many who had doubts about its future. Why should a simple
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1.
1.1 How Our Dependency on Electricity Arose (Cont.)

steam engine giving direct drive be replaced by a steam engine with a generator, highly dangerous copper conductors and an electric motor? Installation of such equipment presupposed that electric power was to be generated in the immediate vicinity of the user. The direct current that was generated had such a low voltage that long conveyance distances were out of the question. The number of electricity subscribers a power station had were naturally limited by this. For example, the electric power for the arc lighting at important cities railway stations was generated in a steam power station located just a few blocks away. Electricity was an exclusive and mostly inaccessible form of energy.
Modern Electric Power
Steam engine with a generator
How could this exclusive form of energy become the most important building block in our modern society? Around 1880 modern electric power was born. At several places around the world three-phase alternating current was introduced. Alternating current made it possible to step up voltage to a high level and down again to a low voltage that could be easily handled. The high voltage made it possible to send electric power several kilometers without excessive losses and the toy railway at home on the kitchen floor no longer needed to have 110 volts between its rails. Suddenly it was obvious how superior the principle of electrical distribution was. It was no longer necessary to produce electricity in the neighbourhood. Electric power could be produced where the source of energy was to be found. Hydro-electric power could be utilized by other consumers than saw mills and paper mills, and coal-fired power stations could be placed alongside harbours and coal pits. Electricity was available for everyone.
Available and Thus in Demand
The high voltage made it possible to send electric power several kilometres without excessive losses
The ready availability of electric power is not merely due to the fact that it can be distributed in a simple manner; it is also easy and convenient to use. Insert a plug in the wall and the motor will turn, the lamp will light up or the electric heater will glow. If oil is to be converted to corresponding forms of energy, unwieldy and evil-smelling machinery and arrangements are necessary. It is true that the
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1.
1.2 Efficient Transportation of Electricity

electric motor can in some cases be replaced by an internal combustion engine, the heater by an oil-fired boiler and the lamp by a paraffin lamp, but petrol-powered vacuum cleaners and washing machines are not the sort of thing we would like in our homes. Its easy availability has made us completely dependent on electric power. We now insist on access to electricity. We cannot accept the electric tap being shut off just because there is no water left in the hydro-electric power stations reservoir or because a number of nuclear power stations have been shut down for repairs or environmental reasons. We take it for granted that the supply of electric energy is stable and reliable.
A National Grid that is Dependable
Today our lights will not go out because a power station has stopped producing electricity. Other power stations in the nation-wide grid, or electrical network, increase their production, and if that is not enough, we import electricity from our neighboring countries. Unforeseen shortages are normally solved using backup resources. The hydro-electric power station has its dams, industry has its stocks, and perhaps we have money in the bank. However, electric power cannot be stored in an efficient manner. Instead, we have to supply our grid with power from a number of production units. If a sufficient number of power stations are linked in an electrical network, the grid itself can be regarded as a source of power, apparently independent of the individual power stations. This safety of electric power delivery is however not free of charge. The more electricity we transport the more losses we introduce. Improved transmission techniques for electric current can thus result in major energy savings benefiting both the environment and the economy. SVC/ (C)SC are techniques available for achieving such improvements.
Theres a better way
1.
1.3 A Modern Power Supply Network

Sweden is a relatively cold, highly industrialized country. Both these factors make it very dependent on energy. Translating Swedens energy consumption into oil, every Swede would need 5.6 tonnes of crude oil per year. That is nearly 3 tonnes less than what is consumed in the U.S.A., but it is over 10 times as much as Africa uses. Our imports of fossils fuels, however, are only 2.3 tonnes per person and year. The rest of our energy needs we cover through hydro power, nuclear power and burning wood.
Oil Or Electricity
Electric transmission replaces road tankers trundle up and down our far-flung country with about two million loads a year.
If we had neither nuclear power nor hydro-electric power, we would have to replace these by burning gas, oil or coal. We would need to bring in another medium-sized supertanker a day to our harbours, and in order to distribute this quantity of oil to industries and households, road tankers would have to trundle up and down our far-flung country with an extra two million loads a year. All this energy is today transmitted in the form of electricity in high-voltage lines and cables. Electric power transmission is thus a real boon, especially to the environment.
Theres a better way
1.
The Power Transmission Network in Scandinavia
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2.
Keeping the Network Stable
2.
2.1 A Fragile Distribution Network
2.1 A Fragile Distribution Network 2.2 Reactive Power 2.3 Reactive Power Compensated in Different Ways
dam B. Brown enjoyed his new life without doubts and worries about electrical blackouts and with the positive atmosphere that nowadays characterized his town. Even the approaching storm did not make him worry. He knew that nothing would interrupt the supply to his computer and with a steady office lighting there was nothing reminding him of the days of insecurity a year ago.
The yellow smoke from the black chimney was embedding the town.
Yes, it was a dreadful time for the town. They all suffered from the weak electricity supply. The only days when everything worked in an acceptable way was when the local power station was running, but those days you could not go out as the yellow smoke from the black chimney was embedding the town and the noise made it impossible to have a normal conversation within several blocks of the station. Finally, one and a half years ago, the environmental authority closed it down.
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2.
2.1 A Fragile Distribution Network (Cont.)

After that, the towns energy supplier introduced measures that would definitely solve the problems. The first measure was to increase the towns voltage by means of the transformers tap changers. At first the result seemed to be great. The citys lightning became clear and bright. After a few days however, a neighboring factory increased their production for a big order that they had received. This caused a total blackout of the whole area. The factorys production was severely disturbed and most of the material that was in production at the time of the blackout was turned to scrap. At this time the electricity supplier understood that there was a lack of reactive power. The kind of power that has never done any work, but has to be there so that work can be done. Capacitors! We need capacitors. The electricity supplier company had installed four large capacity banks at the incoming switch yard. Again the voltage was fine and the network seemed to be strong enough to supply the factories around the town with the electric energy they needed. The happiness did not last, however. Not this time either. There were complaints from a process industry some miles from the town, that their equipment tripped. When the capacitor banks were switched in and out they had generated important voltage peaks. The capacitor banks had to be switched in when the city woke up in the morning and out when it went to sleep in the evening.
Increasing the towns voltage by means of the transformers tap changers was not a good idea...
A severe blackout had switched off the town again.
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2.
2.1 A Fragile Distribution Network (Cont.)

Another and the most important disappointment came with the storm over the neighbour mountains. At the time for the storm, the towns network was heavily loaded by factories and air conditions and one of the external lines had reached its limit. A severe blackout had switched off the town again. Now the Town Council had met and a stormy discussion on whose responsibility and how to find a definite solution on the problem occurred. The Towns future was actually dependent on this, as there would not be any new industries settling down in an area where the electric network wasnt reliable. After some hours the discussions had calmed down and he, Adam B Brown, had got the responsibility to lead an investigation of the towns alternative. After having put off building a new line on both time and economical reasons, there had been two solutions left. Strengthen one of the feeding lines and give the town a super shock absorber that could see to it that no disturbances would jeopardize the voltage level. He had first met many suspicious minds but after showing results from other installations, the town council was convinced that the most important feeding line could increase its capacity by 30 % by means of series compensation and they had understood that the shock absorber for their town was something called SVC that really could save the town from blackouts at heavy disturbances. So after all the doubts they had decided to do both. Capacity-increasing series compensation on the most important external feeding line and an SVC to guarantee the local network stability. The telephone woke him from his pleasant daydreams. The southwest region energy office had received the information that the steel works in the area was going to invest in a STATCOM equipment. This was really good news. Now even the problem with flickering light in that area of the town would come to an end. Adam B. Brown sipped his coffee and smiled.
SVC works just like car shock absorber
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2.
2.2 Reactive Power
+

Reactive Power Has Never Done Any Work
Current Voltage
Adam B. Browns town in last chapter was suffering from lack of reactive power and control of reactive power. Reactive power has never done any work but without reactive power very little work will be done. Attempts to describe what reactive power is can make the reader more confused than enlightened. This is not because Reactive Power is a badly defined quantity, it is rather because it is a quantity that does not exist in our real world.
Pure Reactive Power.
90
In the LC-cirquit above, the alternating between electric and magnetic energy makes the anglar shift between voltage and current 90 Activ power: U I cos 90 = 0 Reactive power: U I sin 90 = U I
Running a marathon with your hands in the pockets is very tiring.
An electrical system with a capacitance and a reactance can be brought into oscillation. The system alternates between energy stored as an electrical field in the capacitor and a magnetic field in the reactor. The electric field is built up by a voltage over the capacitor. This voltage will drive a current through the reactor. When the electric field over the capacitor is neutralized all the energy is converted to a magnetic field in the reactor. The current is maintained by this magnetic field until all the energy has been transferred to the capacitor as an electric field, but now with reversed polarity. The system does not do any work, it just oscillates and will continue doing so infinitely if there is no resistance in the system. This is pure reactive power. A very intuitive reflection on the above is that a capacitor can build-up a field supported voltage and an inductor can drain this voltage in order to build up a magnetic field.
Humans and Reactive Power Compensation
The swinging movement of the body has to be compensated with arm movement.
In biological life we can see many examples of reactive power compensation. A marathon runner seldom has his hands in his pockets when he is running. He has to be able to swing his arms to compensate for the forward and return movement of his heavy legs. With his hands in his pockets he would have to use additional muscle power not only to move forward but to keep his body in balance. The runners heavy legs that have to swing to and fro can be compared with the inductance in a transmission or distribution network. The swinging arms can be regarded
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2.
2.3 Reactive Power Compensated in Different Ways

A transmission lines voltage level, stability and phase balance can nearly always be maintained by designing the network with an ample margin. However, a network like this would be poorly utilized in normal service and costs would be unnecessarily high. In reactive power compensation we have a means of control with which we can deal with certain eventualities in a better manner. By adding and removing reactive power, we can get an intensively utilized network to cope with both load variations and other disturbances without any deterioration in the quality of the electric power provided. When alternating current has to be transmitted and converted into mechanical work, reactive power is consumed. If there is a shortage of reactive power, the voltage will drop. The network voltage can thus be very effectively controlled by adding and removing reactive power.
Dynamic Shunt Compensation
The voltage drop over long lines can be kept down to a reasonable level and voltage variations due to the load on the line varying during the day and during the year can be kept within reasonable limits. Sudden over-voltages can be damped. Voltage collapses can be prevented. Lack of symmetry between the phases can be compensated. Distribution networks can cope with their local disturbances resulting from industries and network faults.
Series Compensation
A transmission line has an inductive reactance, which can be reduced if a capacitor is connected in series to the line. With Series compensation we can achieve:
Improved transmission capability Reduced need to add reactive power. Reduced risk that generators and other synchronous machines loose synchronism in the event of a serious short circuit. (Angular stability) The route of electric power into a transmission network is controlled. Improved voltage stability
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3.
Voltage Stability
3.
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.1 A Main Junction
Voltage stability
A Main Junction Old Synchronous Condensers became Silent Near Downtown Generation could Shut Down Kanpur SVCs Save the Grid
orway is known for its hydro power resources. Important resources at the location of some large hydro power stations does not mean that Norways power network doesnt suffer from stability problems far out in its distant, radial branches. In such locations as well as in meshed systems a disturbance like a loss of an important power line or a short-circuit can easily cause a blackout. The SVC is continuously supervising the voltage level and if there is a disturbance it quickly restores it. A main junction of several 300 kV and 420 lines is situated at Sylling not far from Norways capital Oslo. In 1993 in the Sylling substation, an SVC was installed and connected to the 420 kV line in order to assure a reliable power supply. The SVC replaced a large synchronous condenser, thereby upgrading the dynamic compensation to a lower
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3.
3.1 A Main Junction (Cont.)
Voltage Stability
cost than for a new condensor. The task of the SVC is to assure dynamic voltage control on the heavily loaded south-eastern part of the grid close to Oslo and thereby:
preventing voltage collapses in the grid at operational disturbances, such as loss of line or loss of generation. preventing overvoltages at loss of load detecting and damping of active power oscillation
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3.
3.2 Old Synchronous Condensers became Silent
San Francisco SVC
X
Voltage Stability
The power supply for San Francisco is a typical example of a network that has been built out in many steps comprising generation units within the area and various transmission lines and cables connecting to and from the Greater Bay Area.
115 kV 69 kV
Potrero
Newark
SVC
Recent years San Francisco has suffered from severe power supply disturbances and studies have shown that the areas current transmission infrastructure is insufficient to accommodate anticipated load growth over the near future. As a result of the studies, a number of alternative solutions have been considered:
1. Doing nothing and live with the disturbances. 2. Add means to stabilize and optimize the network at all different kinds of load and supply situations. 3. Build an HVDC submarine link to support the area. 4. Build new AC lines
As the area needed a solution quickly alternative 2. was the solution to go for. A key component in the work to stabilize and optimize the network was SVC.
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3.
3.2 Old Synchronous Condensers became Silent (Cont.)
Voltage Stability
Reactive power compensation was not a new means to control the grid voltage. Rotating synchronous compensators had been in use for many years in Newark, but as the environmental demands made the old, noisy compensators obsolete they were successfully replaced by a Static Var compensator. Another SVC system in the area, installed at Potrero, did not only have to deliver a certain amount of reactive power to the grid. It had to be extremely flexible as the San Francisco network includes a mix of cable distribution and overhead line distribution. If the main supply is by cables, the equipment has to consume the surplus reactive power that the cables produce. On the other hand, if the supply is via the overhead lines the SVC must deliver a great amount of reactive power.
Reactive Power
A Rotating Synchronous Compensator is a synchronous machine that is powered from the grid. It has no physical load and delivers reactive power back to the grid.
Common Control 3x75 MVAr
-100 / +240MVAr Totally the SVC in Potrero, together with the SVC-controlled capacitor banks, can deliver 465 MVAr and automatically, in a few seconds, switch over to consume 100 MVAr
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3.
3.3 Near Downtown Generation could Shut Down
Voltage Stability
For environmental considerations Austin Energy had to decommission their old oil and gas-fired power station near downtown Austin. When doing so Austin Energy had to secure the voltage level in the area by some other means. They had to stabilize the voltage on the transmission system feeding the city. In fact that had been the main reason for keeping the Holly power station in operation in spite of the plants environmental impact.
In this situation the realistic options were a conventional SVC with extensive dynamic control capacity or a compact STATCOM system. In the urban environment of Austin City, the ABBs STATCOM system SVC Light had important advantages. A STATCOM system delivers the same impact on the network as a larger SVC system. In addition, the STATCOM system does not need any space-consuming low frequency harmonics filters. All this means that the plant is small enough to be housed in a neat building. As this building is screened all electromagnetic disturbances are eliminated.
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3.
3.4 Kanpur SVCs Save the Grid
Voltage Stability
The Kanpur 400 kV substation is a part of Indias north regional grid which includes a large number of power plants, AC-transmission lines and the 800 km long Rehard - Delhi HVDC line, also supplied by ABB. Two ABB SVCs were installed at the Kanpur substation to maintain stable voltage under various operating and fault conditions, including mitigation of power oscillations.
System voltage (kV)
430 420 410 400 490 380 370 360 350 1:00 1:20 1:40 2:00 2:20 2:40 3:00 3:20
The SVCs at Kanpur helped in saving the system from cascade tripping. Curves showing voltage over the incident time. In 20 seconds the voltage was back to desired level.
Time(min.)
3:40
4:00
On July 2005, the North Regional Power System experienced a grid incident resulting in tripping of part of the regional system named Dadri, outage of the HVDC Rihand Delhi Bipolar line and some important 400 kV lines. The Inquiring Committee on the grid incident concludes that the SVCs at Kampur helped in saving the system from cascade tripping.
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4.
Reliable Power Transmission to Every Corner of the Network
4.
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Introduction Long Lines get Shorter Parallel Lines Damping of Power Oscillations Underground Cable Transmission
4.1 Introduction
line that is to transmit electric power over long distances cannot do this without suffering losses. Resistance losses always occur when we transmit current. Transmitting alternating current, a lack of reactive power can gives rise to important voltage drops . A small deviation from nominal voltage is often acceptable, but even that can cause long-term consequences for the service life of electric motors for instance. If the deviation increases too much, there could be a potential risk for voltage collapse.
Preventing and Reducing Risk for Voltage Collapse
Starting Current
Operating Current Operating Speed Induction motors require a starting current, which may be 6 - 8 times higher than the operating current
By voltage collapse we mean that the voltage drops so much that induction motors in the grid stall. A direct restart is impossible unless the grid circumstances are changed since the motors that have stopped require starting currents, which may be 6 - 8 times higher than the operating current. The result would be an even greater drop in voltage, and the collapse could spread to an even larger part of the grid. A voltage collapse can be caused by one or more of the
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4.

following circumstances:
High transmission reactance A supply line drops out Insufficient capacity to add reactive power The load consists of too many asynchronous motors Automatic tap-changers on distribution transformers Excitation limiters on synchronous machines
4.1 Introduction (Cont.)
When a voltage collapse occurs, depending on the causes, it can take from fractions of a second up to half an hour before the normal value of the voltage is reached. The voltage drop can be compensated by adding reactive power. The reactive power can be added at various spots and using different kinds of apparatus. If there is risk of a collapse, but one which develops slowly, circuit-breaker-switched shunt capacitors are generally sufficient. If the anticipated collapse is estimated to take place at a faster rate, thyristor-controlled SVCs are the obvious choice.
Network Compensation in Normal Service
PU diagram or nose curve. The upper part of the curve is the working area of the transmission system. The bifurcation point (tip of the nose) represents the point of no return. Often the transmission system is operated down to a voltage of some 95 % of rated voltage. From this working point, the distance down to the bifurcation point is what is left to cope with contingencies. By means of FACTS, the curve can be stretched out, as shown in the figure, thereby allowing for increased transfer of power.
U
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.4 0.8 1. 0 1.4 1.8 2.0
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4.

When networks were local it was natural that the generator provided the necessary reactive power, but when power networks were developed into a country-wide grids, the transmission of the reactive power, which then had to find room alongside the active power in the long lines, became a source of major losses and problems. With the help of rotating synchronous compensators and shunt-connected capacitors, reactive power started to be added locally to an ever greater extent. Today reactive power compensation is an important means of control in order to maintain a constant and stable voltage in all parts of a network. The need for reactive power in a transmission line depends on the lines length, voltage, current and frequency. When the current increases, the need for reactive power increases. If, on the other hand, the voltage is high, the lines own shunt capacitance will contribute reactive power and if the voltage is sufficiently high and the current low, the line will produce a surplus of reactive power.
Serial inductance Both inductance and capacitance are length dependent l
4.2 Long Lines get Shorter

U1 UN Uncompensated voltage Distance
G
U2
U1 Compensation with series capacitor

G
U2
When alternating current is transmitted in long lines two different kinds of voltage drops arise: active drops due to the lines resistance, I x R, and the reactive drops resulting from the lines reactance, I x X.
Capacitance is distance dependent shunt capacitance +Q Surplus of reactive power Shortage of reactive power -Q Line load An electric line of parallel conductors contributes with both capacitance and inductance to the circuits.
An EHV (Extra High Voltage) line that has no series capacitors is not often used for a load much higher than that when the reactive power balance is zero, i.e., when the lines inductance is exactly compensated by its own capacitance.
A long transmission line, which is lightly loaded, produces a surplus of reactive power.
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4.

Both Canada and the U.S.A. are industrial countries producing power, but also consuming it at an enormous rate. In Canada the capacity has to be matched to the energy requirement for heating households and industries during the cold winter months. In the U.S.A., where it is warmer, it is often the struggle of all the air conditioning equipment against the heat of the summer that determines power needs. Thus, in summer, Canada always has a surplus of energy that can be seized upon by all the power-hungry air conditioners in the U.S.A. In return, the U.S.A. can export power to Canada in the winter months. This is one of the reasons why the few transmission networks built across the border between the two countries are so intensively utilized. In 1989 Northern States Power (NSP) and the United Power Association (UPA) reached a 20-year agreement with Manitoba Hydro (MH) in Canada, with the aim of bringing about more seasonal trading. However, it soon became evident that the capacity of the existing lines was not sufficient. An extra 300 - 400 MW was necessary. Planning of a new 230 or 345 kV line between Manitoba in Canada and Minnesota in the U.S.A. commenced.
Compensation Instead of A New Line
USA
4.3 Parallel Lines
Canada
After further studies, however, it was realized that the additional power required could be achieved with the help of SVC and series compensation.
Canada Winnipeg USA
SVC
Forbes Duluth
Twin Cities
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4.

SVC improves the generation and transmission systems dynamic response to network disturbances. It also provides improvement during steady-state conditions by supplying adequate reactive power support. With the SVC in operation, the power transmission capability of the transmission system has been increased by some 200 MW. Without SVC, the power transmission capability of the NSP network would be severely limited, either due to excessive voltage fluctuations following certain fault situations in the underlying 345 kV system, or to severe overvoltages at loss of supply from HVDC lines coming from Manitoba.
Strategic Development of Power Transmission by Means of Series Compensated Lines
4.3 Parallel Lines (Cont.)
ARGENTINA
Buenos Aires
Argentina is a vast country where transmission over long distances is a must. Very early it was established that series compensation is a useful tool to accomplish safe and large scale transmission at very limited costs. The table below tells the story about the gradual development of transmission of distant hydropower to Buenos Aires, initiated more than thirty years ago. Of the total transmission capacity of 4600 MW in the year 2000 some 1850 MW can be allocated to the effect of series compensation.
Bahia Blanca
MW
6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Series Compensation 4th Line Series Compensation 3:rd Line Series Compensation 1:st and 2:nd Line
Strategic development of power transmission by means of series compensated lines. Blue signifies transfer capacity from the installed line and brown stands for added capacity thanks to series compensation.
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Steady State Stability
4.4 Damping of Power Oscillations (POD) (Cont.)
Steady state stability implies that a network that includes several generators permits these to maintain a synchronous speed without subjecting the rotors to oscillation. The stability limit is the maximum power that can be transmitted with synchronous stability. This figure is often the limiting factor for a lines or a power systems transmission capacity. It is true that instability may arise spontaneously in service if the load is very high, but the stability limit is often set at a considerably lower value. The stability limit is often established according to how heavily a network can be loaded without jeopardizing stability in the event of a short circuit.
Transmitted power Without compensation With compensation
If disturbances in the network result in such large load variations that there is a risk of instability, the mean power utilised must be lowered.
Risk of instability
Mean power with compensation
Mean power without compensation
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4.

Shunt compensation is often enough to cope with a short circuit between a phase and earth, but to deal with a short circuit between two or three phases, it is generally necessary to resort to series compensation or even thyristorconnected series compensation (TCSC). Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd (PGCIL) has installed two Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) on the Rourkela-Raipur double circuit 400 kV power transmission interconnector between the Eastern and Western regions of the grid.
Rourkela Raipur
The length of the interconnector amounts to 412 km. The TCSC provides damping of power oscillations between the regions, which would otherwise have limited the power transfer over the interconnector.
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4.

Transmission Stability Improvement by Means of TCSC and Sc in Brazil
Application Basics:
750 miles (1200 km) interconnection of Eletronortes (North) and Furnas (South) 500 kV power systems Transmission capacity of 1300 MW Interaction between two strong networks. Remedy: Single-line AC interconnection with one TCSC in each end, mitigating oscillations with POD functions
G G G
Since spring of 1999, Eletronorte of Brazil has been operating a Thyristor-controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC) and five fixed Series Capacitors (SC) supplied by ABB in Eletronortes 500 kV interconnector between its northern and southern power systems. All in all, ABB installed about 1100 Mvar of series capacitors.
Imperartriz
Trip 300 MW 500 MW
The TCSC counteracts power oscillations between the two power systems. It is physically located at Imperartriz, the northern end of the power corridor connecting the two systems, which were previously not interconnected. The series capacitors installed in the North-South Interconnection have the task of raising the steady-state and dynamic stability of the intertie.
No TC S C P OD active P line (MW) 800 600 400 200 0
T C S C-reactance X (Ohm) 10 0
North TC S C P OD active P line (MW) 800 600 400 200 0
+
0 20 40 60 time (s ec)
-10 -20 -30 -40 0 20 40 60 time (s ec)
20
40
60 time (s ec)
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4.

Long Underground and Submarine Cables
4.5 Underground Cable Transmission
A ground or submarine cable produces 20 to 40 times more reactive power than an overhead line for the same voltage. Consequently, considerable amounts of reactive power have to be absorbed, especially at low load. A common solution is compensation with shunt reactors, and excellent results can be achieved with thyristorcontrolled shunt reactors (TCR). A thyristor-controlled shunt reactor is so fast that the voltage can be kept constant without apparent disturbance despite large variations in transmitted power.
Urban Ehv Cable Grid
For a number of years, Singapore has been operating two SVCs of TCR type in its 230 kV urban cable transmission network. One SVC is rated at 0 - 100 Mvar (inductive) and the other is rated at 0-50 Mvar (inductive). The network in question is 100% cable based, with heavy reactive power generation as a consequence. The need for absorption of surplus reactive power is considerable, as well as complex, due to the variations in reactive power balance during varying load conditions ranging between peak load and light load. Before the advent of TCR, the need for reactive power absorption was solved by extensive use of shunt reactors at key points in the network, fixed as well as mechanicallyswitched. This had mainly the following disadvantages:
Frequent switching of reactors, with the associated switching transients, circuit breaker wear, and requirements for breaker maintenance. Limited dynamic capability in situations where fast operation of reactors would be advantageous from a system point of view. Only stepwise switching of reactive power possible, which imposed step voltage changes in the grid and did not enable optimum utilization of the power system with respect to loss minimizing and active power carrying capability.
230 kV
230 kV
66 kV
100 Mvar
5th 5 Mvar
TCR 50 Mvar
TCR 50 Mvar
TCR 50 Mvar
Two TCR (Thyristor Controlled Reactors), 230 kV, 0-100 Mvar and 0-50 Mvar
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In order to improve the system behaviour of the 230 kV cable network, it was decided to install the two TCR (Figure below). Their capability to continuously and quickly vary the reactive power absorption yield the following benefits to the grid:
Continuous compensation of load variations, enabling optimum utilization of the power system with respect to losses and active power carrying capability. No need for circuit breaker operations, enabling savings on maintenance costs as well as increased operational reliability. Smooth grid voltage control.
4.5 Underground Cable Transmission (Cont).
230 kV, 0-100 Mvar TCR
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5.
Metal Industry: The Invisible Electric Arc Furnace
5. Metal Industry: The Invisible Electric Arc Furnace

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Reactive Power Compensation in Industry Increased Productivity for the Electric Arc Furnace Flicker Mitigation The Invisible Arc Furnace 5.1 Reactive Power Compensation in the Industry
An example: Permitted ReacQ tive power consumption as part of subscribed power at: <10kV: 0.5 p.u. 20-40kV: 0.25 p.u. 70-140kV: 0.15 p.u. p.f. 0.99 0.97 0.87 The power factor is used to indicate the useful power content in the power supplied. Note that if the reactive power is 50% of the active power, the power factor (p.f.) is 0.87.
eavy industries often purchase power direct from the transmission network, at 70 to 130 kV or even higher. Agreements with power utilities include a maximum takeoff of both active and reactive power. If these limits are exceeded, a penalty fee is imposed. Thus heavy industry can put a price on reactive power.
Special Needs for Compensation in Industry
In the pulp and paper industry and the steel industry there are certain very special loads that require specially matched reactive power compensation. A rolling mill is often driven by large thyristor-controlled DC or cycloconverter drives. 10 to 50 thyristor-controlled converters may be the source of power for a paper machine. Thyristor converters that provide full current at low machine speed use up large quantities of reactive power. When at full speed, however, the reactive power consumption is practically zero. For large rolling mills, SVCs must be resorted to. Arc furnaces require access to large amounts of reactive power. An arc furnace also gives rise to unsymmetrical loading and therefore has to be compensated phase by phase. When an induction motor starts up, it can use 6 to 8 times more current than when in normal operation. Industrial networks with large induction motors are therefore frequently equipped with special shunt-connected starting capacitors. In addition, if the motors are sufficiently large and start sufficiently often in a weak network, thyristor-controlled compensation by means of SVC is often necessary.
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5.

Heavy industry is often a major consumer of reactive power and in an effort to compensate at the point of common coupling rather than load the line with the transmission of reactive power, compensation locally is arranged as far as possible. In process industries there is normally a reactive base load consisting of a very large number of AC motors. Within the steel industry, in addition, there are electric arc furnaces of various kinds that consume a great deal of reactive power. An example of these is the arc furnace used to melt scrap.
5.1 Reactive Power Compensation in the Industry (Cont.)
In the arc furnace the electrodes are short-circuited when they are lowered into the electrically conducting scrap. When all the scrap has dropped down into the melt, the electrodes follow, and a new phase with more even loading commences.
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5.

To parry the rapidly fluctuating consumption of reactive power of arc furnaces, an equally rapid compensating device is required. This is the task of the SVC. The purpose of the SVC is to:
Keep a good and stable power factor at the point of common connection, independently of the reactive power fluctuations from the furnace loads. Reduce flicker at the point of common connection to acceptable levels. Filter the harmonics generated by the furnaces. Stabilise the system voltage at the EAF load bus.
5.2 Increased Productivity in the Electric Arc Furnace
Stabilising the voltage at the EAF load bus at a high level usually means an increase of active power into the furnace, compared to the case without SVC. This in turn opens up for increased productivity of the metallurgical process.
An Example
Arc furnace
A steel mill in western USA operates an electric arc furnace rated at 60 MVA. Thanks to effective compensation using SVC, the EAF voltage can be kept at a high level and the melting power can be increase to as much as 69-70 MW (Figure 1). This can be utilized for increasing the steel output, or for producing the same amount as before, but in a shorter time.
Since the melting time per tonne is reduced in this manner, the electrode consumption per tonne steel will also be lower. Specific losses will decrease, too. Money to be saved! Furthermore, a high and stable power factor at the 230 kV point of common coupling will enable a more favourable power tariff.
MW 80
70 60 50
SVC switched on
The thyristor bridge in the SVC installation controls the total reactive power; it also distributes it between the phases and in a phase-wise manner for the sake of phase symmetry.
40 00:00
04:48
09:36
14:24
19:12
00:00
Time
Active power increase in electric arc furnace thanks to SVC.
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The SVC will not just enable productivity increases and a decrease of specific process costs. It also looks after power quality in the feeding grid. This means that it is for one thing a flicker compensator, performing to decrease the flicker level at the point of common connection with the power grid. In our present case, flicker reduction is achieved by a factor better than two. Another function is as a harmonic mitigator, maintaining an acceptable total harmonic distortion level at 230 kV.
Pst(95)
5.3 Flicker Mitigation
3,5 3 2,5 2 1,5 1 0,5 0 12:00 0:00 12:00 0:00

SVC on SVC off
Flicker reduction factor at the point of common coupling.
Time
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5.

Part of a newly commissioned steel plant in China is a very large electric arc furnace (EAF) for scrap based stainless steel production. Due to insufficient fault level of the 220 kV feeding grid, the plant cannot be started without corrective measures to ensure that the Grid Code is fulfilled with the EAF in operation. What is of concern is maintaining power quality in the grid. To ensure sufficient power quality with the EAF in operation, an SVC Light was installed and commissioned in parallel with the EAF. The primary task of the SVC Light is to suppress voltage flicker to acceptable levels, but also to yield a high and constant power factor, as well as limit harmonic distortion and negative phase sequence components generated by the EAF. Initially, a traditional SVC, i.e. an SVC based on thyristor control of shunt reactive devices, was considered for the task. It was found, however, that the flicker damping capability of such a device was insufficient for the purpose at hand, and an SVC Light, a device more powerful for the purpose, was decided on instead.
220 kV 160 MVA 35 kV
5.4 The Invisible Arc Furnace
140 MVA 25th 2 Mvar
2nd 3rd 30 Mvar 50 Mvar EAF +/- 82 Mvar
Single line diagram, SVC Light and EAF.
The EAF is rated at 35 kV, 140 MVA, one of the worlds largest installations of its kind. The SVC Light is rated at 35 kV, 0-164 Mvar capacitive, continuously variable, this also a very large installation.
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The SVC Light (Figure, previous page) is based on a voltage source converter (VSC), built up of IGBTs (insulated gate bipolar transistors). A single converter is utilised, thereby avoiding all paralleling of devices. The converter is directly connected to the 35 kV EAF bus, without any need for a step-down transformer or other complex magnetic interfaces. As DC link, high voltage DC capacitors are utilized. This all ensures a simple and compact buildup. The SVC Light control scheme is based on pulse-width modulation (PWM), thereby ensuring minimum need for harmonic filtering.
Flicker Mitigation
5.4 The Invisible Arc Furnace (Cont.)
Concerning flicker, data has been recorded for EAF operation both with and without SVC Light in service, as well as for background levels. From the data analysis, it turned out that the EAF while compensated by the SVC Light was not possible to detect above the background flicker level.
Pst 1.5 1 0.5 0
Flicker intensity: 1 EAF and SVC Light in operation 2 EAF in operation, uncompensated 3 Background flicker alone
20:50
06:10
The figure shows Pst data (a measure for flicker intensity) obtained from the whole measurement period. In the beginning, both the EAF and SVC Light are in operation. In the middle part of the plot, the EAF is operated standalone with increased flicker levels as a consequence. Finally, the last part of the plot covers the period for background flicker measurements. As can be seen from the plots, with the SVC in operation, the flicker emanating from the electric arc furnace actually disappears in the background noise, i.e. thanks to the SVC Light, the EAF has been made invisible from the electrical grids point of view.
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6.
Traction: A Demanding Load on the Grid
6.
Traction: a demanding load on the grid

Trains Take Power Between Phases The Channel Tunnel Rail Link London Underground Svc Light for Active Filtering
There are a number of different ways to feed traction systems with electric power. The most common scheme used in many electrification systems is to directly supply it by the fundamental frequency of the main power, i.e. 50 or 60 Hz. The transmission or sub-transmission voltages are then directly transformed by a power transformer to the traction voltage. Depending on the load there are two competing systems on the traction side. The Auto-Transformer scheme is commonly used for high speed lines. In the Auto-Transformer scheme, the traction winding is connected to ground in its midpoint. The other two ends of the winding are connected to the catenary wire and the feeder wire respectively. The grounded points are connected to the rail in both schemes. On the transmission network side the power transformer secondary winding is connected between two phases. Frequently, two isolated rail sections are fed from the same feeder station. In this case the power transformers are connected between different phases. The traction load is often relatively large, today it is common with power ratings in the range of 50-100 MW (Pload) per feeding transformer. These loads connected between two phases on the mains will create unbalances in the supply system voltage. By rule of thumb the unbalance, Uunbalance, is equal to
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4
6.1 Trains Take Power Between Phases
Auto-Transformer Scheme.
U unbalance =
Pload S ssc
A common requirement is that the negative phase sequence voltage resulting from an unbalanced load should not exceed 1%.
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6.
6.1 Trains take power between phases. (Cont,)

16 2/3 Cycles
In 16 2/3 cycles systems, a conversion system transforms 50/60 Hz. The conversion system loads the three-phase system symmetrically. Therefore restoring and maintaining balance between phases is not an issue. However, keeping catenary voltages high and stable, and limiting harmonic distortion, may still be issues to be taken into consideration when designing the system. For 50 and 60 cycles, X (inductive catenary reactance) dominates over R (catenary resistance). For 162/3 cycles, X is diminished and becomes approximately equal to R. This makes voltage control along the catenary less critical. Still, in cases of weak feeding, with feeding points far apart, or with feeding from only one side, trackside, singlephase SVC for 16 2/3 cycles might prove useful, for dynamic voltage support and harmonic mitigation.
Load Balancing by SVC
It can be shown that conventional SVC, perhaps surprisingly, also has the ability to balance active power flows
Load balancing and reactive power compensation by SVC.
even though it only contains reactive elements such as reactors and capacitors. An SVC is a device providing variable impedance. This is achieved by combining elements having fixed impedances, capacitors, with controlled reactors. In the reactors, the fundamental frequency component of the current is controlled by thyristor valves, giving apparent variable impedance (TCR, Thyristor Controlled Reactor).
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6.

Benefits From Utilizing FACTS in Rail Traction
6.1 Trains Take Power Between Phases. (Cont,)
By means of FACTS the following important benefits can be brought about for power grids feeding railway systems, as well as for rail traction loads themselves:
Dynamic balancing of non-symmetrical loads fed between two phases of three-phase grids; Dynamic mitigation of voltage fluctuations in feeding grids caused by heavy fluctuations of railway loads; Mitigation of harmonics injected into supply grids from traction devices; Power factor correction at the point of common coupling, with a high and stable power factor at all times, regardless of load changes and fluctuations; Dynamic voltage support of catenaries feeding high power locomotives, thereby maintaining traction capability despite weak feeding, without harmful voltage drops along the catenary; Dynamic voltage support of catenaries during outages of feeding points, thereby enabling adequate power infeed into locomotives, or, alternatively, with fewer infeed points required in the system; Dynamic voltage control and harmonic mitigation of AC supply systems for DC converter fed traction (typically underground and suburban trains).
In all these cases, time as well as money can be saved by not having to invest in costly and timeconsuming reinforcement of the railway feeding infrastructure such as building new transmission or sub-transmission lines, new power generation, and/or building new substations and infeed points.
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The 109 km Channel Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL) reduces travel time between London and Paris to about two hours, 20 minutes. Similarly, the link reduces travel time between London and Brussels to about two hours. The railway system is designed for frequently operating high speed trains but also for slower freight traffic. Modern trains have power ratings in the range of 10 MW, thus the power feeding system must be designed for large fluctuating loads. The traction feeding system is a modern direct supply of 50 Hz, 25 kV voltage. The auto transformer scheme is used, giving low voltage drop along the traction lines. Direct transformation from the power grid via transformers connected between two phases is used.
SVCs for Dynamic Voltage Support and Load Balancing
6.2 the Channel Tunnel Rail Link
The tunnel consists of 3 interconnected tubes: 1 rail track each way plus 1 service tunnel. Its length is 50 km of which 37 km are underwater. Its average depth is 50 m under the sea bed. Only 20 minutes of the Eurostar journey takes place in the tunnel.
Each one of the three traction feeding points between London and the Channel tunnel is supported by Static Var Compensators. Three of these SVCs are mainly for voltage support and the fourth is for load balancing.
Dynamic Voltage Support
The SVCs for voltage support are connected on the traction side of the power transformers. There are two identical SVC halves connected feeder to earth and catenary to earth. Each half SVC is rated at 25 kV, -5/+40 Mvar. These SVCs are single phase assemblies. The SVCs have three main purposes:
Voltage support in case of loss of one feeder station Steady state power factor control Steady state harmonic mitigation.
The prime reasons for the SVCs are to support the railway voltage and to maintain unity power factor seen from the super grid transformers during normal operation. This ensures that a low tariff for the active power can be used. Secondly, the SVCs are installed to mitigate harmonic pollution.
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6.

The SVC filters are designed not only to mitigate the SVC generation of harmonics but also harmonic generation from the traction loads. There are stringent requirements on the allowed contribution to the harmonic level at the connection points to the transmission grid from the traction system.
6.2 The Channel Tunnel Rail Link (Cont.)
Load balancer SVC This must balance the unsymmetrical load towards the supplying network Trackside booster SVC These SVC must provide the railway with single phase, reliable voltage even with one feeder station tripped
Dynamic Load Balancer
Close to one of the feeding stations is the Cross Channel HVDC located. The railway system is not allowed to contribute to the unbalance of the system voltage at this point. In order to fulfil this requirement, a load balancer has been installed, rated at 33 kV, -80/+170 Mvar. The traction load of up to 120 MW is connected between two phases. Without compensation, this load would give about 2% negative phase sequence voltage. In order to counteract the unbalanced load, the load balancer (an unsymmetrically controlled SVC) was installed. The load balancer transfers active power between the phases in order to create a balanced load seen from the super grid.
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6.
6.3 London Underground

The 22 kV and 11 kV electrical distribution system provides power to the London Underground Ltd. (LUL) network. LUL has closed down its old gas/oil fired power plants as part of a programme for switching over to taking its power from the London public grid. As the Underground load consists to a great extent of diode converters, special measures have had to be taken to ensure that distortion such as voltage fluctuations and harmonics does not reach out into the public grid to become a nuisance to other subscribers connected to the same grid.
Svcs for Dynamic Voltage Support and Harmonic Filtering
Extensive system studies have been undertaken to map sources of distortion and identify proper measures to be taken. As a result, a total of six Static Var Compensators (SVC) and ten Harmonic Filters have been specified and installed in critical points of the LUL 22 kV and 11 kV distribution grid. Due to the scarceness of space and vicinity to underground stations, special measures had to be taken to lay out the hardware in a compact way as well as ensure adequate confinement of noise and magnetic fields. Thus, iron core reactors were utilized for the TCR, which offered a more compact physical design than air core reactors. Likewise, due to the close vicinity of the SVCs to populated parts of the Metropolitan area, magnetic clearance becomes an issue of importance. In this respect, iron core reactors are superiour to air core reactors, as well. The magnetic field is required not to exceed 1.6 mT at the boundary of any of the SVCs. Measurements have confirmed that this requirement is indeed fulfilled. With the SVCs in operation, voltage fluctuations at the points of common connection to the public grid are confined to a specified maximum of 1%.
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6.
6.4 SVC Light for Active Filtering

Evron is a substation in the French rail system fed from the national power grid. An SVC Light is utilized for dynamic balancing of unsymmetry between phases caused by the mode of traction feeding, single-phase takeoff of power from a three-phase grid. The SVC Light also performs the task of active filtering of harmonics generated by thyristor and diode locomotives. Active filtering is enabled due to the high dynamic response inherent in the SVC Light concept. The reason for installing the SVC Light was to enable the fulfilling of the demands of the National Grid Code concerning voltage fluctuations, phase unbalance and harmonic distortion at the point of connection to the grid of the traction feeder. The alternative to the SVC Light was building a new transmission line, to increase the fault level of the power grid. In feasibility studies performed before the project, it was demonstrated that the SVC Light approach was less costly as well as less time consuming than building new transmission lines. Not having to build new lines was also very attractive from an environmental as well as concessional point of view. The ability of the SVC Light to act as an active filter was also an attractive feature of this technical solution, as it eliminated the need for comprehensive installations of passive, shunt filter banks.
90 kV
16.5 MVA
16.5 MVA
25 kV Catenary HP Filter
Rail SVC Light 16 Mvar Single-line diagram of the Evron 90 kV Load Balancer.
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6.

The Load Balancer is rated at 90 kV, 16 MVA. It is rated to accommodate a single-phase active load size of 17 MW. Its task is to confine the grid unbalance at 90 kV as follows:
1% for SSC 600 MVA (normal network conditions); 1.5% for 300 MVA SSC 600 MVA (abnormal (N-1) network conditions).
6.4 SVC Light for Active Filtering (Cont.)
A site view of the Load balancer
Load Balancing
Measurements performed since the installation of the SVC Light have shown a distinct improvement of voltage unbalance. With the SVC Light in operation, the voltage unbalance does not exceed 1%.
Voltage unbalance % 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 SVC Light disconnected
Measurement of voltage unbalance.
0.0 00.00
04.00
08.00
12.00
16.00
20.00
22.40
time
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6.

Active Filtering
6.4 SVC Light for Active Filtering (Cont.)

Network
SVC Light
Load
The active harmonic current suppression is based on generating harmonic currents in the SVC Light in phase opposition to the currents from the load. This is done by modulating the converter terminal fundamental voltages by higher frequencies. Filtering performance and the order of harmonics possible to handle are strongly related to the converter switching frequency. In the Evron case, the active filtering is effective up to and including the 9th harmonic.
Load (kA) 0.2 0.1 0.0 -0.1 -0.2 Network (kA) 0.2 0.1 0.0 -0.1 -0.2 0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03
In this upper graph, the total load current in all three phases at the point of common coupling is displayed, ridden with low order harmonics. The current in one phase is zero.
This lower graph shows the balanced and filtered currents in the three phases. Please note the three symmetric, 120 degrees displaced phase currents. What remains of distortion in the waveforms is some ripple emanating from the load and from the SVC Light. 0.04 time (sec)
Load balancing in conjunction with active filtering.
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7.
Grid Integration of Wind Farms
7.
Grid integration of Wind Farms
7.1 Wind Farms 7.2 Grid Integration of Wind Farms 7.3 Wind Power in Texas
7.1 Wind Farms
Wind turbines produce power as a function of the wind velocity The need for dynamic voltage control and power factor control motivate an equipment that can guarantee the power quality delivered.
he dominating kind of wind turbine generator (WTG) is asynchronous, this since it is robust and cost effective. Ideally, they need to be connected to very stiff grids in order not to influence power quality in a detrimental way. This is not the case in reality, however. Quite on the contrary, wind power is usually connected far out in the grid, on sub-transmission or distribution levels, where the grid was not originally designed to transfer power from the system extremities back into the grid. Comprehensive cable networks add another dimension, calling for additional elaborate reactive power control. The overall scope of reactive power control should encompass the wind farm just as well as the cables, to bring about a well-regulated reactive power balance of the whole system, answering to the same demands on reactive power regulation as any other medium to large generator serving the grid.
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7.
7.2 Grid Integration of Wind Farms

When a fault occurs in a power system the faulty part will be disconnected from the system. Thus if the fault occurs on the feeder to which the wind farm is connected it will be disconnected. But, if the wind farm is connected to the non-faulted part of the system it is desirable that the wind farm stays connected during the fault. As soon as the faulty feeder has been disconnected the wind turbine generators should return into operation in order not to cause consequential loss of generation in addition to generating units connected through the faulty feeder. If consequential loss of generation should occur it may lead to a system collapse.
G G G G G G G Grid SVC
Therefore the wind farm connection must be designed so that the wind farm is capable of continuous uninterrupted operation during events when the voltage is being depressed during the time required to disconnect a faulty feeder (fault ride-through capability).
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7.2 Grid Integration of Wind Farms. (Cont.)

When the electrical network is weak the behaviour of the wind farm at network faults will be strongly improved by reactive power support at the grid connection point. An SVC can be provided as a reactive power source located close to the farm. This approach has a number of advantages:
Full compensation of wind farm and cable in one system Fulfilling the national Grid Code Control of reactive power, even without the wind farm in operation Lower wind farm complexity High wind farm availability Improvement of dynamic voltage stability in the grid Wind farm plus cable plus SVC act together to offer MW and MVAr in the grid, just like any other major source of generation.
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7.
7.3 Wind Power in Texas

The McCamey area is a sparsely populated part of western Texas where the penetration of wind power production has grown to 750 MW and is expected to grow to well over 1 GW in the next few years. This corresponds to some 80% wind power penetration.
69 kV
To improve and maintain system stability, four SVCs have been installed in the area, each rated at -40/+50 Mvar and directly connected to grid nodes at 69 kV or 35 kV. No power transformer is needed for these voltages. The primary function of the devices is to provide reliable reactive power support to the wind farms under steady state conditions as well as transient disturbances in the network. In the planning stage, two possible approaches to fulfil the dynamic var demand were investigated: either a number of distributed, small SVCs or a few larger SVCs at selected key points in the grid. The latter option was chosen, for several reasons:
Few, larger SVCs cost less than many small SVCs. Less total area demand. Less total need for service and maintenance.
5th 7th 15th 20 Mvar 17 Mvar 13 Mvar
TCR 90 Mvar
Single-line diagram, Crane 69 kV, -40/+50 Mvar SVC.
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7.3 Wind Power in Texas (Cont.)
To improve and maintain system stability, in The McCamey area, four SVCs have been installed, each rated at -40/+50 Mvar and directly connected to grid nodes at 69 kV or 35 kV.

A key benefit in the project was that all four SVCs could be connected to the grid without any need for step-down transformers. This was true not only for 35 kV, but also for 69 kV.
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8.
Static Var Compensation, SVC
8.
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5

Introduction A Boiling Ocean Becomes a Mere Ripple Thyristor-Switched Capacitors TSC Thyristor-Controlled Reactor TCR Reactors and Capacitors Working Together
8.1 Introduction
eactive power should preferably be balanced locally at the point of consumption. However, this does not mean that the transmission network remains unaffected by local load disturbances. A sudden increase in load at a major consumer of active power leads to the line current increasing as well, and thereby the lines requirement of reactive power too. This load increase should be compensated instantaneously, much faster than is possible with a circuit-breaker. In addition, a circuit-breaker, for reasons of cost, cannot work with steps that are too small, and this may lead to the line becoming over-compensated when a capacitor bank is connected in to the line. From this problem arises the demand for continuous control of the added or removed reactive power. With ABBs SVC reactive power can be switched in instantaneously to meet sudden load changes, or carefully matched for minor adjustments to complex processes.
With shunt compensation by means of SVC, the current is corrected so that it arrives at the same time as the voltage. Reactive power from the supply is balanced to the load. I U
Increased inductive load makes the current lagging
Added reactive power from the shunt capacitance resets the currents phase.
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8.
8.2 A Boiling Ocean Becomes a Mere Ripple

Svc Fast But Gentle
In extensive line networks there are points where producers and consumers of electric power meet. At such Points of Common Coupling (PCC) the risk of disturbances is very great. For example, a rolling mill starts up, the supply line is interrupted due to a lightning strike, an arc furnace is fired, etc. SVC is fast enough to compensate the exposed lines with so much reactive power that the voltage changes are reduced to a mere ripple. In SVC we have acquired a means of control that can add exactly as much reactive power as is necessary and it can furthermore be applied gently. SVC technology is based on fast switches that are not built up of mechanical moving parts, but of semiconductors. A semiconductor is a material that in certain circumstances conducts electric current and in others serves as an insulator. In a few millionths of a second the thyristor can change over from being an insulator to being a conductor. It is so fast that it can cut away a small part of the alternating currents half-waves, so that the amount of current that passes through the thyristor during a certain period is reduced.
Building Blocks for SVC
Through an electric pulse the thyristor can change over from insulator to conductor in a few millionths of a second. It is so fast that it can cut away part of the alternating currents half-waves so that the amount of current passing through the thyristor during a certain period is reduced.
SVC is a concept consisting of various building blocks that can either be used individually or in more or less complex combinations. In this manner a great deal can be achieved; everything from a simple on/off switching capacitor to steplessly controlled systems with very sophisticated control features in order both to provide and absorb reactive power. We have already noted that capacitors are used to add reactive power to a network.
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8.
8.3 Thyristor-Swiched Capacitors TSC
TSC

With the help of a thyristor bridge a capacitor bank can be switched in and out with an insignificant time-lag. By having several capacitor banks with different reactive capacities, the reactive power added can be controlled in steps. By combining the connection of the banks, more steps than the number of banks can be accomplished; two banks give four steps, three banks give eight steps, etc.
To get smooth current inception, the thyristors are only fired when the voltage across the valve goes through zero.
Added reactive power
When a capacitor bank is connected to the network, a current surge occurs. To reduce this surge, a small reactor is always placed in series with the capacitor bank and the thyristor bridge. To get smooth transit from non-conducting to conducting, the thyristors are only fired when the alternating voltage across the thyristors passes through zero. This saves the grid from transients.
By combining the connection of capacitor banks, more steps than the number of banks can be achieved. Here three banks give eight steps.
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8.
8.4 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor TCR

A reactor consumes reactive power. Thus the reactor is connected into the network when a surplus of reactive power is to be absorbed. The reactor does not permit any large current surges. It is therefore very suitable for placing in series with a thyristor valve. The combination of thyristors and reactors even permits the thyristor to fire outside the zero-crossings so that an arbitrary part of the current half-wave can be let through. With smart control equipment providing firing pulses at the right instant, the amount of reactive power that is removed from the network can thus be controlled steplessly.
Current through the reactors
To protect the thyristor valve from excessive short circuit currents it is placed between the two windings of the divided reactor.
The valves control
However, everything has its price. The thyristors deformation of the sine wave current leads to undesirable harmonics. The harmonics give rise to heat losses, particularly in transformers and reactors. The harmonics problem would be at its worst if the network that we compensated was single-phase. Then control would be carried out with a violent chopping effect per half-period. The three-phase network ensures that the harmonics content is reduced, and if we compensate with six phases or with a 12-pulse connection, subsequent harmonics will disappear.
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8.
8.4 Thyristor-Controlled Reactor TCR (Cont.)

12-Pulse Compensation Requires Explanation
By dividing up the compensation equipment through two secondary windings on the same transformer, one in phase with the line and one which displaces the phase 30, control using the thyristors can be made more finely chopped - twelve firing pulses are then spread over one period. This method is usually called twelve-pulse control and eliminates the need for the 5th and 7th harmonic filters.
TCR Controlling Reactive Power
By combining the thyristor-controlled reactor with a permanent shunt capacitor providing a surplus of reactive power, a step-less surplus of reactive power can be obtained. The thyristor-controlled reactor can continuously control how much of the added surplus is to be shunted away.
Reactive current into the grid A 12-pulse-connected TCR results in fewer harmonics in the network.
Reactive Power
time
Reactive Power No current through the reactor. All the reactive current is added to the grid Current through the reactor increases and the reactive current to the grid decreases
Diagram showing a sequence where the reactive current, fed to the grid from an SVC, decreases. One line diagram showing how the reactive current, fed to the grid from an SVC, is controlled.
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8.
8.5 Reactors and Capacitors Working Together

Using capacitor banks we can add reactive power to a network in steps, and with reactors we can absorb reactive power continuously. By combining these two components we can both add and remove reactive power steplessly. The thyristor-controlled reactor and one or more thyristor-switched capacitors are joined to the network. If reactive power is to be absorbed, the capacitor banks are turned off and the thyristor-controlled reactor does the whole job. If reactive power is to be generated, one or more capacitor steps are connected. The connected capacitor bank provides as much reactive power as is needed, or more. Any surplus is removed using the reactor so that the network is provided with exactly the right amount of reactive power.
Reactive Power Is Absorbed
Addition Of Reactive Power
Reactive Power Is Absorbed
Addition Of Reactive Power
+
Within a couple of cycles (40 ms) SVC has succeeded in compensating for the sudden drop in voltage. When the voltage later returns, the incoming flow of reactive power is shut off just as quickly and the voltage rapidly reassumes its original level. Voltage
=
Reference Level
time Q
=
Added reactive power V Voltage deviation time time
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57
9.
STATCOM and SVC Light
9.
9.1 General
9.1 General 9.2 Technology and Principle 9.3 Statcom in Back-To-Back Configuration
lectrical loads both generate and absorb reactive power. Since the load often varies considerably from one hour to another, the reactive power balance in a grid varies as well. The result can be unacceptable voltage variations, a voltage depression, or even a voltage collapse. Similarly to the SVC the STATCOM can provide instantaneous and continuously variable reactive power in response to grid voltage fluctuations, enhancing the grid voltage stability. Its performance can be dedicated to active harmonic filtering and voltage flicker mitigation.
STATCOM disconnected
Pst 1.5 1 0.5 0
The flicker emanating from an electric arc furnace actually disappears in the background noise, thanks to the STATCOM, the EAF has been made invisible from the electrical grids point of view. Field registration.
Load
STATCOM can be comparatively compact, its footprint is normally small compared with a standard SVC and its harmonics filters. ABB has branded this high performance STATCOM concept SVC Light. Installing a STATCOM at one or more suitable points in the network will increase the grid transfer capability through enhanced voltage stability, while maintaining a smooth voltage profile under different network conditions. The STATCOM provides additional versatility in terms of power quality improvement capabilities.
Active Filtering
Network
Active filtering and load balancing by means of SVC Light. For detailed information on the Evron installation see page 44. Field registration.
SVC Light can generate harmonic currents in phase opposition to the currents from the load. This is done by modulating the converter terminal voltages by higher frequencies. In the Evron case (page 44), the active filtering is effective up to and including the 9th harmonic.
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9.
9.2 Technology and Principle

The STATCOM operates according to the voltage source converter principle (VSC), which together with PWM (Pulsed Width Modulation) switching of IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors) gives it unequalled performance in terms of effective rating and response speed.
The high switching frequency of IGBT allows extremely fast control. By means of high frequency switching it can even control the shape of the voltage sine-curve.
U
+Ud
-Ud
A DC capacitor bank is utilized as DC voltage source.
SVC Light can be seen as a voltage source behind a reactance. Physically it is built as a three-level inverter operating on a constant DC-voltage. It provides reactive power generation as well as absorption purely by means of electronic processing of voltage and current waveforms in a voltage source converter (the grid will see it as a synchronous machine without inertia). This means that capacitor banks and shunt reactors are not needed for generation and absorption of reactive power, facilitating a compact design, a small footprint. The high switching frequency of IGBT allows extremely fast control, which can be used in areas such as mitigation of voltage flicker caused by electric arc furnaces, voltage balancing, harmonic filtering and robust grid voltage recovery support. A DC capacitor bank is utilized to support and stabilize the controlled DC voltage needed for the converter operation.
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9.
9.3 STATCOM in Back-To-Back Configuration

Voltage Source Converters (VSC) connected in back-toback configuration between two AC busbars have the capability to operate with active power allowing a dual purpose scheme to be feasible.
This Back-to-Back arrangement is useful for connecting two networks asynchronously with full control of voltage, frequency and phase angle. This Back-to-Back Light can even support the feeding and receiving network with reactive power and the receiving network with active power simultaneously.
Comparison: Classic SVC and STATCOM

Classic SVC
G
Iload Icomp R L load Q ~ U2 Load balancing Voltage control POD
STATCOM
G
Iload Icomp R L load Q~U Voltage control Load balancing Fast control Active filtering Flicker mitigation Low content of harmonics Smaller footprint
Voltage Source Converter
Controlled Switched inductor capacitors Vmax VN Vmin STATCOM
UAC
For equivalent performance at Vmin the classic SVC will be larger in nominal rating
STATCOM delivers the maximum compensation current independently of the voltage. Classic SVC
ICAP
IIND
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10.
Series Compensation, SC, and TCSC
10.
10.1 Introduction 10.2 Increased Capacity and Improved Voltage Stability 10.3 Increased Capacity and Maintained Angular Stability 10.4 Increased Capacity and Optimized Power Sharing Between Parallel Circuits 10.5 Over Voltage Protection of SC Banks 10.6 Controllable Series Compensation, TCSC 10.1 Introduction
ixed Series Compensation is since long the preferred solution when vast bulk transmission corridors are to be optimized. Inserting a capacitive reactance in series with a long (typically more than 200km) transmission line, reduces both the angular deviation between supplying generators and the receiving and the voltage drop. The result is increased loadability and stability.
P
Increased Capacity
Inserting a capacitive reactance in series with a long (typically more than 200km) transmission line, reduces the impedance and increases therefore the amount of power that can be transferred.
G1
PC
G1
=0
Increased Stabillity
Inserting a capacitive reactance in series with a long (typically more than 200km) transmission line reduces the angular deviation between supplying generators and the receiving.
G1
P
G2
2
C
G1
G2
1 2C
The fact that it is the current through the transmission line that directly drives the Mvar output from the capacitor, makes the compensation concept self regulating. This straightforward principle assures that Series Compensation is an extremely cost effective solution.
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10.
10.1 Introduction (Cont.)

Squeezing more power out of existing lines can eliminate the need to build new lines which all adds up to reduced environmental impact and significant cost and time savings. Series compensation provides:
Increased transmission capacity Increased voltage stability of the grid Increased transient (angular) stability of a power corridor Damping of the first swing Optimized power sharing between parallel circuits
Series Compensation scheme involving Thyristor Control allows for rapid dynamic modulation of the inserted reactance. At interconnecting points between transmission grids, this can provide strong damping torque on inter-area electromechanical oscillations. Therefore a TCSC rated at some 100 Mvar can make it possible to interconnect grids housing many thousands of MWs of generating capacity. Often the TCSC is here combined with fixed series compensation in order to increase the transient stability in the most cost effective way. The TCSC concept can provide inherent immunity against Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR), and thus allows for extended use of series capacitor in specific transmission grids comprising thermal generation. Series compensation can by means of TCSC allso provide:
Damping of active power oscillations Post-contingency stability improvements Dynamic power flow control Mitigation of any possible sub-syncronous resonance
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10.
10.2 Increased Capacity and Improved Voltage Stability

A high voltage overhead line contributes both capacitance and inductance to the circuits. Load and Voltage determine whether the line is consuming or generating reactive power.
Serial inductance Both inductance and capacitance are length dependent l
Capacitance is distance dependent shunt capacitance An electric line of parallel conductors contributes both capacitance and inductance to the circuits
Natural Loading occurs when generation and consumption of reactive power is the same. By means of series compensation this occurs at a significantly higher load.
Q (Mvar) Lightly loaded line gen600 erates reactive power C apa citive 400 200
SC
The figure shows that a long lightly loaded line generates reactive power; 550 Mvar at 0-load
500
Inductive 200 400 600 800 1000
1000
When the load increases, the inductive reactance of the line (T.L.) consumes more reactive power. The lines Natural Loading (900 MW) P ower flow occurs when generation and consumption of reactive power is the same. 1500 (MW) T.L. + SC Series capacitors generation of reactive power varies with power flow why the Natural Loading and the transfer capacity of the compensated line, (TL+SC) attain a level superior to the capacity of the uncompensated line.
Natural Loading (900 MW) occurs when generation and consumption of reactive power is the same.
500 km T.L. E = 500 kV
SC k = 50 %
Voltage stability may be looked upon as reactive power stability. From the figure it is apparent that a sudden change in the power flow would cause a greater change in the reactive power balance for the steep slope of the uncompensated line than it would for the compensated line. T.L.
Example showing how series compensation can increase natural loading and transfer capacity of a compensated line.
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10.
10.3 Increased Capacity and Maintained Angular Stability

With reference to the parameters of the figure below, the approximate transfer equation of a long transmission line may be written Pe = (EU sin /(X - XC )
=0 E Pe U
G1
X - XC
G2
Power transfer over transmission line
When power is transferred over long distances, it is essential that the synchronous machines of the receiving end (G2) remain in synchronism with the synchronous machines of the sending end (G1). The line inductance, X which increases with long lines, is a crucial parameter since it displaces the angle between E and U.
= angular difference between E and U E = Sending end voltage U = Receiving end voltage P = Transferred active power X = Line inductive reactance Xc = Compensating capacitive reactance Steady state active power transmission is achieved when the mechanical input power, Pm equals the active power, Pe at the angle 1 At 1 = /2 , sin equals 1 and this theoretical, maximum of steady state transfer gives a Pm = Pe = E U / X, which is not at all a very safe spot for continuous operation, since the system would lose synchronism for angles larger than /2. As seen in the figure the series compensation allows an increase of steady state transmission from Pm to Pm2 while the same angular displacement 1 is kept. Active power P = (EU sin) / X) plotted as a function of Power P Pe = (EU sin ) / X Pe with SC
Pe (EU/X)
Pe without SC Pm2 Pm
SC 1
/2
Angle
If series compensation is inserted in the transmission line, the total line inductance would be reduced resulting in an increase in maximum transmittable power and/or, which is important for the synchronous stability, the angular displacement would be reduced. The operator may instead decide to maintain the same level of transferred power and increase the synchronous stability by reducing the angular displacement to SC. Of course, one may also operate the system at values somewhere in between the two above mentioned extremes.
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10.
10.3 Increased Capacity and Maintained Angular Stability (Cont.)
d /dt
2 2

Improved First Swing Stability by Means of Series Compensation.
=0 E
Pe X
-XC
PM
The first swing following a fault is crucial when transient stability is studied. The swing equation may be written: d2/dt2=C(PM-Pe)........................ (1) C: Constant including inertia constant and angular speed. PM: Mechanical input power, which here is considered a constant. Pe = (EU sin )/X If the system is to retain stability after a severe fault, the angular displacement must not continue invariably. One condition that must be fulfilled is that there exists a time after the fault at which the angle stops expanding and turns around in the first of an oscillating sequence, which means that the following condition is valid: d/dt = 0 ..........................(2) Equation (1) tells us that acceleration (= d2/dt2) is 0 when PM = Pe. This is obviously so for the steady state condition but it is also valid for the dynamic case, where it means that acceleration turns into deceleration (after which the angle continuous to increase until d/dt =0). From (1) and (2) it can be shown that 1 4 for the integral 4 1 Stability requires the existence of an angle, 4 which satisfies equation (3). To retain stability 4 must be smaller than 5.
Turbine control is slow compared to transient phenomena. In consequence, the turbine output, PM may be regarded as a constant during the initial transients following a severe fault. The transfer equation for the electric power, Pe varies with the angular differences between E and U. The curve of Pe is plotted in the figure and steady state occurs when PM equals Pe at 1 At a three-phase fault of, say, one of two parallel lines, steady state is lost and electric power at 1 drops to the During-fault curve (Pe2). Since PM at this point is larger than Pe2, the turbines accelerate, building up kinetic energy while the angle increases along the curve until it reaches 2, where the fault is cleared and the working point is transferred to the After-fault curve (Pe3). The turbines now accelerate along Pe3 until 3 where Pe equals PM and the turbines start decelerating. Since at 3, the turbines decelerate from an accelerated level, the angular displacement continues to increase until it reaches an angle (4), at which the angle starts to decline.
Power
Point of no return Turbine output Fault Reconnection During-fault curve Pe2 1 2 3 /2 4 5

Angle
PM After-fault curve, Pe3
(PM - Pe) d = 0 .....................(3)
Active power plotted as a function of .
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10.
10.4 Increased Capacity and Optimized Power Sharing Between Parallel Circuits

Load Sharing
With Series Compensation for Load Sharing of parallel lines, an optimum of active power transfer and minimized transmission losses can be achieved. When active power is being transmitted over parallel transmission systems, the power flow will be divided between the systems in inverse proportion to the impedances of the parallel lines.
An Example:
A 400 kV transmission line has a natural loading of some 550 MW which is only 25 % of the natural loading of a 750 kV line.
2200 MW 750 kV The natural loading of a single 750 kV line is typically 2200MW 550 MW 400 kV The natural loading of a single 400 kV line is typically 550 MW or 25 % of the natural loading of the 750 kV line.
750 kV
P750 = P400/0.8 = 690 MW P400 = 550MW 400 kV
These two lines are connected as parallel lines between two networks. Assume that the impedance of the 750 kV line is in the order of 80 % of the impedance of the 400 kV line. Full utilization of the 750kV line will be problematic.
If the two lines above are arranged as parallel lines, only about 125 % of the power transferred in 400 kV line can be transferred in the 750 kV line.
X1=0.8 X2 X2
This unfavorable sharing is dictated by the rules of nature and as soon as the line having the lowest power transmission capacity reaches its limit, it automatically blocks the whole system even if other lines have unused capacity.
P1 P2 = X2 X1
............1.
The way to increase the power flow through the 750 kV line is obviously to decrease the impedance in the line (X1 ) by means of series compensation of the line.
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10.
10.4 Increased Capacity and Optimized Power Sharing Between Parallel Circuits (Cont.)

A possible amount of compensation is 70 % Using the relation 1. (previous page) we can get the natural loading P1 of the 750 kV line
550 750 kV R1 + jX1 P400 400 kV R2 + jX2 By means of SC the full transfer capacity of the 750 kV line could be utilized. 550MW P1 = 1 0.8 (1- 0.7) P750 ; P = 550/0.24 = 2290 MW 1 jXC
Transmission Losses
Bad current sharing over parallel lines may significantly increase power system losses. Again, the series capacitor is the remedy. See figure. The total losses are at a minimum when (X1 - XC) / X2 = R1 / R2 Sweden, with many generation plants up north and major population- and industrial areas some 1000 km further south, certainly needed series compensation to optimize transmission over the many parallel long distance lines. However, reduction of transmission losses was the major reason for installing the first series capacitor in the 1950s.
Geographical- and electrical map of Sweden. Without series compensation only 2/3 of the power transmitted today would be possible to transmit. Or there would have to be 12 instead of todays 8 lines.
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10.
10.5 Over-Voltage Protection of Capacitor Banks

How to Meet Future Increased Fault Currents
Needless to say, series compensation requires supervision and protection to perform in a reliable manner. The figure below, shows the two basic main circuit diagrams of series capacitors. V= Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) protects the capacitors against over-voltage. During ordinary conditions, all the power flows through the capacitor bank and when a fault arises, until fault clearance, the varistor limits the voltage across the capacitors.
To limit the necessary MOV energy absorption capability, a spark gap is normally used for immediate by-pass of the MOV (and the capacitors) at internal or severe external faults. The gap is normally used at demanding short circuit levels and duty cycles. To extinguish the arc the by-pass switch takes over in some 20 25 ms. In weaker locations of a grid and at less severe duty cycles a gapless MOV scheme is sometimes used. Here, the MOV must be designed to harbor the fault until the by-pass switch closes to by-pass the MOV. Main circuit diagrams of series capacitor.
Gap System
C
Gapless System
C
D G B
C: Capacitor, V: MOV, G: Spark gap, B: By-pass switch, D: Damping circuit
Design- and protective requirements of the SC depend on power system characteristics and operational principles Some definitions are useful.
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10.
10.5 Over-Voltage Protection of Capacitor Banks (Cont.)

A distinction is commonly made between internal and external faults, defined as follows: An internal fault is a fault that occurs within the compensated line section. An external fault is a fault that occurs outside the compensated line section.
C1
Internal fault relative to C1
External fault relative to C1
Definitions of internal and external faults
From a system performance point of view, the line impedance increases if the series capacitor is by-passed to protect the bank from over-voltage. The effect is not significant for internal faults, since the line section containing the series capacitor is, at least temporarily, removed from service to allow fault clearing. For external faults the impact on system stability is normally under control, after a by-pass, if the capacitor bank returns to operational service within 75 to 100 ms after fault clearance. Conventional spark gaps will ionize the air gap during operation and some 400 to 500 ms is required for air deionization before the series capacitors can be reinserted without causing flashover in the spark gap. Due to the relatively long time required for deionization, bypass at external faults is generally not recommended with traditional spark gap technology For this reason, historically it is common practice not to by-pass the series capacitor for external faults, even though this gives raise to increased component stresses due to transient recovery voltages and additional varistor costs. With the introduction of a new protection system external faults can normally be bypassed leaving way for a number of advantages.
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10.
C

The new fast protective device, CapThor, allows the Series Capacitors to withstand rough environmental conditions and, maybe even more important, it paves a way for a Series Capacitor which copes with growing and evolving power systems.
Voltage Across the Series Capacitor

U
CapThor
B t = 0 when a transmission line fault occurs, Z protects the SC from over voltage. t = 0.5 At a preset line current value, the bank is bypassed by Ts arc plasma injector (0,5 ms) t = 4 In less than 4 ms, Ts fast mechanical contact overtakes the current and de-ionization of the gap starts. t = 21 In some 21 ms, the bypass switch closes. With conventional technology, the gap would have conducted until this instant. t = 100 Fault clearing t < 200 The bypass switch reinserts the capacitors less than 100 ms after fault clearing. CapThor is now ready for immediate new bypass.
Currents
IZ Varistor conducting
IT
CapThor conducting
IB Breaker closed
0.5 t=0
21
100
t (ms) <200
The fast protective device, CapThor, a component of the new protection system, is an ultra-fast switch consisting of a combination of an Arc pre-strike Plasma Injector, API, and a fast mechanical contact for high currents, electrically connected in parallel to the API.
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10.

The API (Arc Plasma Injector) is only conducting until the mechanical contact takes over after some 4 milliseconds. Due to the short conduction time there will be limited air ionization in the API and consequently the deionization time is short compared with conventional spark gap technology. Since there is no risk for flashover in CapThor, the series capacitor is instantly ready for reinsertion after fault clearance. This added feature of the protection system may allow bypass and reinsertion of the series capacitor at external fault, without jeopardizing system stability. Hence the series capacitor will become less sensitive to increasing power system short circuit levels. Besides this possibility to attain a relative independance of increased fault levels, the new protection system offers a number of advantages compared to conventional techniques. Reduced stresses on system components such as capacitor dielectrics and line breakers due to Transient Recovery Voltages (TRV), which may be considerable for conventional series capacitors, are added values following from the ability to bypass the series capacitor at external faults. Conventional protection systems issues a by-pass failure protection, tripping the line circuit breakers if the bypass operation fails. With CapThor the mechanical contact can functionally replace the bypass switch at its failure, thus allowing the transmission line to remain in service. Contrary to conventional spark gaps, bypass of the series capacitor with CapThor is practically independent of the voltage across the capacitor bank. Finally but not least, contrary to conventional spark gaps, the hermetically enclosed design of CapThor, using continuously supervised pressurized air, makes the protection system humidity-safe and resistant to arctic, as well as desert conditions.
CapThor. The fully enclosed device.
CapThor. Arc plasma injector, API (Arc pre-strike Plasma Injector) igniting after some 0.5 ms and the mechanical contact closing after 4 ms
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10.
10.6 Controllable Series Compensation, TCSC

Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors add controllability, as thyristors are used to dynamically modulate the ohms provided by the inserted capacitor. TCSC is primarily used to provide inter-area damping of prospective low frequency electromechanical oscillations, but it also makes the whole Series Compensation scheme immune to Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR).
TCSC platform near the Brazilian town Imperatriz.
The thyristor control allows for rapid dynamic modulation of the inserted reactance.
Often the TCSC is, as here, combined with fixed series compensation in order to increase the transient stability in the most cost effective way.
A Series Compensation scheme involving Thyristor Control allows for rapid dynamic modulation of the inserted reactance. At interconnecting points between transmission grids, this modulation can provide strong damping torque on inter-area electromechanical oscillations. Therefore a TCSC rated at some 100 Mvar can make it possible to interconnect grids housing many thousands of MWs of generating capacity. Often the TCSC is combined with fixed series compensation in order to increase the transient stability in the most cost effective way. A TCSC equipped with the ABB developed SVR control scheme comes with inherent SSR (Sub Synchronous Resonance) immunity and thus allows for extended use of series capacitors in specific transmission grids comprising thermal generation. From a principal technology point of view, the TCSC resembles the conventional series capacitor.
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10.
10.6 Controllable Series Compensation, TCSC (Cont.)

Nearly all the power equipment is located on an insulated steel platform, including the thyristor valve that is used to control the current through the main capacitor bank. Likewise, the control and protection are located on ground potential together with other auxiliary systems. There are two bearing principles of the TCSC concept: 1. TCSC provides electromechanical damping between large electrical systems by changing the reactance of a specific interconnecting power line. TCSC provides a variable capacitive reactance.
U1
Two large power systems connected over a transmission line.
XL
XC
U2
2. TCSC eliminates a prospective subsynchronous resonance by changing its apparent impedance from capacitive to inductive for low frequences as seen by the line current. Both these objectives are achieved with the TCSC using control algorithms that work concurrently. The controls will function on the thyristor circuit (in parallel to the main capacitor bank) so that controlled charges are added to the main capacitor, making it a variable capacitor at the fundamental frequency but a virtual inductor at subsynchronous frequencies.
Damping of Power Oscillations
Interconnections between large generating areas may be subject to low frequency, active power oscillations at line faults and sudden changes in loads or generation. The oscillations may limit the transmission capability making search for suitable remedies necessary. Power System Stabilizers, PSS on generators, may have difficulties in dealing with the low frequency nature of the oscillations.
A TCSC is Employed to Damp the Oscillations.
From the well known transfer equation; P = (U1 U2 sin ) / (XL XC) it follows that the line impedance may be varied and therefore is controllable to counteract the active power oscillations.
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10.
10.6 Controllable Series Compensation, TCSC (Cont.)

Mitigation of Sub Synchronous Resonance
The introduction of series compensation improves power system behavior with respect to voltage stability and angular stability. However, under adverse conditions, electrical resonance may interact with mechanical torsional resonances in turbine-generator shaft systems. This phenomenon is known as Sub Synchronous Resonance (SSR). Today the SSR problem is well understood and taken into
Virtual rectance Transmition frequency band
TCSC can act like an inductive reactance for the low frequencies where SSR occur. For the power frequencies it perceives the series compensation as a capacitance. This is achieved by means of an ingenious control algorithm called Synchronous Voltage Reversal (SVR) 0
Inductive SSR frequency band
Ideal SVR
fN
0
Stator Rotor Frequency Increasing boost level
fN
Capacitive Impedance characteristics of a TCSC.
Fixed Capacitor
account when compensation is planned. Sometimes SSR conditions may even limit the degree of compensation of the series capacitor. The use of TCSC with an appropriate control system, such as the SVR, alleviates such restrictions. The SVR approach offers complete elimination of SSR risk throughout the potential subsynchronous frequency range, by making the apparent reactance of the TCSC inductive in the SSR frequency band.

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There are better ways in FACTS

ABB Power Systems, FACTS

Means to deliver more, high quality power.

1. Reliable Power Supply for Everyone

2. Keeping the Network Stable

4. Reliable Power Transmission to Every Corner of the Network

5. Metal Industry: The Invisible EAF

6. Traction: A Demanding Load on The Grid

7. Grid Integration of Wind Farms

8. Static Var Compensation, SVC

9. STATCOM and SVC Light

10. Series Compensation SC, and TCSC

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Reliable Power Supply for Everyone

Reliable Power Supply for Everyone

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Reliable Power Supply for Everyone

Steam engine with a generator

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Reliable Power Supply for Everyone

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Reliable Power Supply for Everyone

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Reliable Power Supply for Everyone

The Power Transmission Network in Scandinavia

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Keeping the Network Stable

Keeping the Network Stable

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Keeping the Network Stable

A severe blackout had switched off the town again.

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Keeping the Network Stable

SVC works just like car shock absorber

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Keeping the Network Stable

Running a marathon with your hands in the pockets is very tiring.

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Keeping the Network Stable

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Common Control 3x75 MVAr

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Reliable Power Transmission to Every Corner of the Network

Reliable Power Transmission to Every Corner of the Network

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Reliable Power Transmission to Every Corner of the Network

4.1 Introduction (Cont.)

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Reliable Power Transmission to Every Corner of the Network

4.2 Long Lines get Shorter

U1 Compensation with series capacitor

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Reliable Power Transmission to Every Corner of the Network

4.3 Parallel Lines

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Reliable Power Transmission to Every Corner of the Network

4.3 Parallel Lines (Cont.)

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Reliable Power Transmission to Every Corner of the Network