Economic History Association

Two Views of the British Industrial Revolution Author(s): Peter Temin Source: The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 57, No. 1 (Mar., 1997), pp. 63-82 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Economic History Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2951107 Accessed: 05/11/2010 10:18
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of theBritishIndustrial Revolution TwoViews

TEMIN PETER today.The Revolution in the literature Therearetwoviewsof theBritishIndustrial Revolution as a broadchangein the moretraditional description sees the Industrial has been Revolution view of the Industrial British economy andsociety.Thisbroad Revolution as the resultof challenged by CraftsandHarleywho see the Industrial a test of theseviews in only a few industries. Thisarticlepresents technical change withmanygoods.Britishtradedata modelof intemational trade usingtheRicardian betweenthe two views of the are used to implementthe test and discriminate Industrial Revolution.

in theliterature Industrial Revolution There aretwoviewsof theBritish

is represented by the views of description today.Themoretraditional Revolutionas a T. S. AshtonandDavid S. Landes.It sees the Industrial broadchangein the Britisheconomyandsociety.In Ashton'smemorable Thisbroadview of the phrase,"A wave of gadgetssweptoverEngland."2 hasbeenchallenged andC. recently by N. F.R. Crafts Industrial Revolution KnickHarley. sees the Industrial Revolution as Thisnew schoolof thought as the resultof technicalchangein a few a much narrower phenomenon, Thenew industries, werecottonandiron.All others obviously, industries. weremiredin premodem backwardness.3 It mayseemas if thechoicebetween thesetwo views is a matter of taste, since the literature is almostexclusivelyaboutthe two modemindustries view of theIndustrial Revolution. Thatappears to singledoutby thenarrow in the literature. In fact,the loosenessof our be how this choiceis treated hasencouraged a few peopleto takethe views of Crafts current conception thatthe change to theextreme. RondoCameron notedby andHarley argues theseauthors was so smallrelativeto the wholeeconomythatit no longer Revolution.4 deservesthe title of Industrial

The Journal of EconomicHistory,Vol. 57, No. 1 (Mar. 1997). c The EconomicHistory Association. All rightsreserved. ISSN0022-0507. of Economics,Massachusetts Peter Temin is Professor, Department Instituteof Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139. Thisis a shortened version of theworking of thesametitle,NBERHistorical paper Paper 81 (March 1996).I thankWilsonW.Thaiforresearch assistance andparticipants in seminars at Harvard, Yale, of BritishColumbia andthe University forhelpfulcomments. 2Ashton, Industrial Revolution, p. 42. 3Mokyr, "Editor's Introduction," pp.6-7, distinguishes fourviews of the Industrial Revolution. My divisioncorresponds to his macroeconomic roughly andtechnological schools. 4Cameron, ConciseEconomic History, pp. 16567.

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But it is seldom that an empirical question cannot be tested. True, productivity indexes are hard to calculate for obscure industries. It is necessary to search for other data that will let the historiandiscriminate between these two views. Tradedata provide the informationneeded to discriminate betweenthese two views. I will use a Ricardian tradeto formulate a testable modelof international Revolution.In this model, the hypothesisaboutthe natureof the Industrial view of the Industrial traditional RevolutionimpliesthatBritainshouldhave been exportingothermanufactures-thatis, manufactured productsother than cotton textiles and iron bars. In the more modernview, by contrast, Britainshouldhave been importing these samegoods in the earlynineteenth century.Tradedataallow us to see which is the case. Theplanof this articleis as follows. The firstsectionarguesthatthereare two distinctviews of the Industrial The second Revolutionin the literature. sectionwill describethe Ricardian model of international tradewith many goods and formulatethe hypothesisto be tested. The third section will describe the British trade data and implement the test of the previous section. A final section concludes.
TWOVIEWSOFTHEINDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The traditional view of the BritishIndustrial Revolutioncan be found in countlesstexts. T. S. Ashton'sclassicexpositionclearlydescribed a general change in British economy and society. He was very expansive in his descriptionsof technicalchange:"Inventors, and contrivers,industrialists, entrepreneurs-itis not easy to distinguishone fromanotherat a period of rapid change-came from every social class and from all parts of the the statement country." Expanding quotedaboveabout"awave of gadgets," Ashtonsaid, "Itwas not only gadgets,however,but innovationsof various kinds-in agriculture,transport,manufacture,trade, and finance-that for whichit is difficultto find a parallelat any surgedup with a suddenness othertime or place."5 This view was widespreadduringthe 1950s and 1960s. David Landes expressed it well in an authoritativebook.6 The well-known growth estimates of Phyllis Deane and W. A. Cole confirmedthe view of widespread change and appearedto provide a firm basis for the qualitative Morecurrent workby Joel Mokyrsupportsthe pervasiveness expositions.7 of technological changein Britainat this time.8But in a recentsurveyof the
5Ashton, IndustrialRevolution, pp. 13, 42. 6Landes, PrometheusUnbound, pp. 41, 105. 7Hartwell,Industrial Revolution;Matthias,First Industrial Nation; Deane, First Industrial Revolution;and Deaneand Cole, BritishEconomicGrowth.
8Mokyr, Lever, chap. 10.

Two Viewsof the IndustrialRevolution

TABLE1

65

GROWTH,1780-1860 CONTRIBUTIONS TO NATIONALPRODUCTIVITY (percentage per annum) Sector Cotton Worsteds Woolens Iron Canalsand railroads Shipping Sum of modernized Agriculture All others Total McCloskey 0.18 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.09 0.14 0.52 0.12 0.55 1.19 Crafts 0.18 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.09 0.14 0.52 0.12 0.07 0.71 Harley 0.13 0.05 0.02 0.02 0.09 0.03 0.34 0.19 0.02 0.55

Revolution," p. 114; Crafts,BritishEconomic Growth,p. 86; and Sources: McCloskey,"Industrial the Industrial Revolution,"p. 200. Harley,"Reassessing

economic history K. O'Brienlabeledthis view "old-hat" literature, Patrick but that "is still being read and continuesto be writtenby an unrepentant economichistorians."9 elderlygenerationof Anglo-American The growthrateof the Britishnationalproductwas adjusteddownward in a gradual process.C. KnickHarleyrevisedthe growthrateof manufacturing downwardin 1982. N. F. R. Craftsextended these estimates into a productin his revisionof DeaneandCole's estimatesof the Britishnational 1985 book. Craftsand Harleypresentedtheir"final"version in 1992.10 of the The implicationsof the new estimatesfor the conceptualization IndustrialRevolution can be seen in an exercise introducedby D. N. He calculatedthe productivitygains of what he called the McCloskey."1 modernizedsectorsfrom industrysources.Then he weightedthe gains by the share of the industries in gross production and added them. The productivity gain of all other sectors (except agriculture,which was was obtained this total from the rateof estimatedseparately) by subtracting in the economyas a whole. The calculations areshown growthof production in the first columnof Table 1. Craftsreproduced McCloskey'scalculationsin his book and noted that the bottom line, the estimatedrate of growthof the economy as a whole, came from Deane and Cole. Since Craftswas revisingthese estimates,he substitutedhis new estimatesas shown in the second column of Table 1. None of the industryestimates were changed; only the growth of the unidentified,residual sector. As can be seen, the contributionof "other
90'Brien,"Introduction," p. 7. O'Brien'sexpositionfocusedon the growthrateduringthe British IndustrialRevolution, but estimatesof income growth cannot be separatedfrom the underlying conceptionof the Industrial Revolution,as shown below. '0Harley, "BritishIndustrialization"; Deane and Cole, BritishEconomic Growth;Crafts,British Economic Growth; Crafts,and Harley,"Output Growth." "McCloskey,"Industrial Revolution," p. 114.

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sectors"to economic growthfell from 0.55 percenta yearto 0.07 percent. Revolution'. . . should not be In Crafts's words: "[T]he term 'Industrial in manufacturtaken to imply a widespread,rapidgrowthof productivity
ing.
pl2

Quite the contrary.As Craftsrepeatedthroughouthis discussion, the IndustrialRevolution in this view was a decidedly localized affair. The All else-other industriesaffectedwere textiles, iron, and transportation. for the first andotherservices-were technologically stagnant manufactures half of the nineteenthcentury.This conclusioncontrastsstronglywith the assertionsof Ashton and Landes. Crafts recognizedthat his new estimatescreateda paradox.If British manufacturingwas in general so backwardand British agricultureso progressive-as we know from other sources-then why did Britainnot in the earlynineteenth goods and importmanufactures export agricultural
century?13

the natureof this paradox.The traditional to understand It is important view implied that Britainhad a comparative advantagein manufacturing. view by assertingthatmost Craftshaddeniedthe premiseof this traditional was backward and inefficient.EvidencethatBritish Britishmanufacturing then impliedthatBritain was moreproductivethancontinental agriculture It is no wonderthatprevious had a comparativeadvantagein agriculture. thisparadox; it does not exist in the hadnot confronted economichistorians view of the Industrial Revolution. traditional The resolutionof the paradoxcame in two propositions.First, Crafts thatmost Britishindustry confirmed the existenceof paradox by reiterating "experienced low levels of labor productivity and slow productivity growth-it is possible that there was virtually no advance during 1780-1860." Second, he resolved the problem by assertingthat "rapid
growth in key manufacturing sectors . . . gave Britain a substantial

in those activities."14 In otherwords, industrializing advantage comparative in Britainhada comparative advantage cottonand iron,not manufacturing as a whole. were not The clearimplication of Crafts'sview is thatothermanufactures advantagein manufacturing exportedbecauseBritainlackeda comparative in general.In fact,thejuxtaposition of evidence of a productiveagriculture with thatof backward outsideof textiles and ironprovided manufacturing evidence that Britain had a comparative disadvantagein these other of theparadoximpliesthatBritain Thatis, Crafts'sresolution manufactures.
"2Crafts, BritishEconomicGrowth, p. 86, emphasisin the original.Crafts'sestimatesreducedthe impliedrateof productivity changein all othersectorsfrom0.65 percentper yearto 0.08 percentper year.He addedin a footnotethateven this new, low estimatecould be an overestimate. 13Crafts,"BritishIndustrialization." I4lbid., p. 425.

Two Viewsof the IndustrialRevolution

67

should have been importingother manufactures along with agricultural goods. Craftsand Harleyrecentlyrevised and restatedtheirnew views in light of the ensuing discussion. Their definitive views reduced the rate of economicgrowthduring the Industrial Revolutioneven further thanCrafts's initial estimates.15 Harleyincorporated these estimatesinto McCloskey's exercise, as shown in the third column of Table 1. Harley revised McCloskey'sestimates of productivity growthin themodemsectoras Crafts hadnot done,reducing theiraggregate contribution to economicgrowth.But becausethe rateof growthof the totaleconomywas estimatedto be so low, the contributionof other sectors fell to the vanishing point, from 0.07 percentper yearto 0.02 percentper year.16 Harley embedded the Crafts-Harley view into a computablegeneral equilibriummodel of the Britisheconomy in the earlynineteenthcentury. He distinguished fourproducing sectorsin Britain:modem manufacturing, agriculture, services,and otherindustry. (The lattertwo sectorsare the "all other"sectorof Table 1). Britainexportsthe productsof modernmanufacturing and imports agricultural goods in this model; services and other 17 manufactures are not traded. Harley asserted that this model demonstratesthe consistency of the view. But manyproductsof othermanufactures Crafts-Harley were easily traded,as will emergebelow. Unless othermanufacturing startedout from a position of great comparativeadvantage-a presumptionbelied by the abundant historical evidenceof the eighteenth centuryand explicitly denied by Crafts-the ability to export other manufacturing would have been rapidlyerodedby technical progressin cotton,iron,andeven agriculture. If agricultural in the earlynineteenthcentury,therefore, goods were imported then othermanufactures shouldhave been as well. In the literature surveynotedabove,O'Brienseemedto concludethatthe gap between "old-hat"and new-fangled economic history can never be bridged. The problemis thatthe dataneededto constructnationalincome aggregates do not exist for many parts of British industryin the early nineteenthcentury.Microeconomicand macroeconomicstudies, O'Brien to assert,will just have to go theirown ways. appeared

"Craftsand Harley,"Output Growth." "6Crafts recentlyrevised downwardeven furtherhis estimateof productivitychange by taking account of the growth of humancapital. If Harley estimatedthe rate of productivitychange of individual in Table1 fromprices(as McCloskeydid), these estimateswould not be affected industries by the consideration of human capitalin the overalltotal.Thiswouldturnthe residual category of other activitiesnegative.This changemakesthe test proposedbelow even sharper thanwith the estimated ratesin Table 1. Crafts,"Exogenousor EndogenousGrowth?" 17Harley,"Reassessing the Industrial Revolution."

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Insteadof bangingour head againstthe stone wall of unavailabledata,I proposeto shift the termsof debateto a differentkind of data.18Craftsand Harley have suggested some implicationsof the new view for Britain's international trade.Tradedataareavailablein greatdetail;can they help us Revolution? to disentanglethe natureof the Industrial
A RICARDIAN MODEL OF INTERNATIONALTRADE

view for Britain's international The implicationsof the Crafts-Harley trade can be used to formulatea test of these views. A model is needed to derive a test, more formal than Crafts's verbal exposition and more transparentthan Harley's computablegeneral equilibriummodel. The Ricardianmodel of international tradewith many goods poses the issues clearly. A Ricardian model with many goods was analyzed by Dornbusch, Fischer,and Samuelsonin 1977, and I follow theirexpositionhere.19They arguedthatthe manygoods can be seen as spreadout along a continuumof comparativeadvantageand dealt with by their location along this continuum.The historical of this modelwill be to identifythe location application in this continuum. of specific goods Imagine two "countries":Britain and everywhere else. For ease of exposition,I will referto the rest of the world as if it were a single foreign country. Since this is a Ricardianmodel, there is only one factor of labor.This factorcan be seen as a Hicksiangood by assuming production: factorsof production thatthe relativepriceof different does not change.The model therefore does not say thattherewere no otherfactorsof production but only thatchangesin the relativeprice of these factorscan be ignored.20 This would not be suitablefor consideration of, say, the repealof the Corn but it a to focus on the effects of productivity Laws, provides good way changesover almosta century.2' Eachcountry bothproducesandconsumesa largevarietyof goods made fromthis single factorof production. These goods can be numberedfrom 1 to N. The technologyof each countrycan be describedby the laborneeded to produce each good. The laborrequirement to producethe nth good in
"8Berg and Hudson,"Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution," also recommend shiftingthe terms of debateaboutthe Industrial Revolution,albeitin a differentdirectionthandevelopedhere. 19Dornbusch, Fischerand Samuelson,"Comparative Advantage." is worthnotingthatBritainwas not pressingagainstland scarcityat this time. Acres of arable 20It rosealmostby half in the firsthalf of the nineteenth centurywhile the agricultural laborforce stayed constant.Allen, "Agriculture," pp. 104-07. 2"More formally,the assumption of a single factorof production andchangingtechnologyis more appropriate to the questionat handthana model with severalfactorsand stabletechnology.A model with manyfactorsand changingtechnologywould have so manydegreesof freedomthatno useable test could be derivedfromit.

Two Viewsof the IndustrialRevolution

69

Britain is an, where an is the numberof hours of British labor needed to produce a single unit of the nth good. Following the convention of internationaltrade, a*n representsthe hours of foreign labor needed to producethe nth good in the foreigncountry. The ratioof the laborneededto producethe good in the foreigncountry andin Britainis a *n/an. The goods can be re-indexedby this ratio,starting with the good for which the relativequantityof foreign laborneeded for productionis the highest (so the ratio,a *n/an, is the highest).
al /al>a2 la2>a3 /a3>>aN/aN

(1)

goods by the relativecosts of producing of tradeis detennined Thepattern modelcosts aresimplythe wages And in this Ricardian in the two countries. labor.Let w be the Britishwage; w*, the of the sole factorof production: foreign wage. Then the cost of producinggood i in Britainis wai;the cost in the foreign country,w *a*. Any good for which w *a* > wai will be producedin Britainbecause its productioncosts are cheaperin Britain. costs for this as a*i/ai > w/w*.Production canbe rewritten This inequality in Britainandexported the good will be produced good arelower in Britain; for which any Conversely, country. to the foreign good,j, a7*jaj < w/w* will be producedin the foreigncountryand importedinto Britain.The numberlist of goods ing schemefor goods ensuresthatthereis a pointin the ordered such thatall goods to the left with lower numbersareproducedin Britain. All the goods with highernumbersareproducedabroad.This is illustrated in Figure 1, where the downward-slopingcurve,A, shows a */a for each good. It also shows the index of the last Britishexportat any w/w*. The model needs a demand side to determinewages. Assume that consumersspend a constantshareof their income on each good and that tastes are the same in both countries.The wage in each countryis deterin turnby the rangeof minedby the demandfor labor,which is determined goods producedin thatcountry.If the rangeof domesticgoods increasesat any relativewage, thenthe demandfor domesticlaborrises. This raises the ratio of domestic to foreignwages, leadingto a positive relationbetween This is shownas B, the domestically. w/w* andthe rangeof goods produced between upwardsloping curve in Figure 1. CurveA shows the interaction curve B, in the numberof exportsand relativewages in the goods market; the labor market.The division between exportedand importedgoods is where curvesA andB cross, at xo.22
costs and movementsdo not affectthe allocationof productionin this model. Transport 22Capital a band of nontraded goods between they only introduce uniform tariffsdo not affect the argument; exportsandimports.The patternof tradedid not varymuchat a time thattariffswere falling rapidly, tariffshadlittleeffecton the overallpatternof trade.Exportsof servicesare thatindividual suggesting ignored,following Harley.

70
a
/a,w/w 5

Temin

BB

exports

x2

xO

xI

imports

index

1 FIGURE

Consider now the effectof technicalchangein Britain.I assumethatthere is no technical change outside of Britain, that is, no change in labor productivityin the foreign country.Alternatively,one could say that the IndustrialRevolutiondid not spreadoutsideBritainin the first half of the nineteenth century. This is roughly correct-at least for continental Europe-and it connectsthe model to the estimatesof productivitychange reportedin Table 1.23 Therearetwo cases. If the technicalchangeis general,thatis, it reduces A in Figure1 shiftsupward, a *,/a,for all i. Curve ai for all i, thenit increases at the samerelativewage. Britain the of by increasing range goods exported This is shownas A 'in Figure1. The point dividingimportsand exportson curve A, now A moves to the right. This increasein the range of goods producedin Britainincreasesthe demandfor laborin Britainand reduces rise Britishwages consequently the demandfor laborin the foreigncountry. is reachedwhere A new equilibrium relativeto wages in the foreigncountry.
231fproductivitywas growinguniformlyin othercountries,then this rate of change needs to be deductedfromthe ratesderivedfromthe final columnof Table 1 to get relativerates.This does not changethe orderof changein thevarioussectorsof the Britisheconomy. LikeCrafts'srecentreduction in the overallrateof productivity changein Britain,it only strengthens the argument here. Since there is only one factorof production, totalfactorproductivity andlaborproductivity arethe same.As noted above, I am assumingthat laborstandsfor a Hicksiangood and thatthe relativeprices of different factorsof production See note 20. did not changesubstantially.

Two Viewsof theIndustrial Revolution

71

curveB intersects the new A 'curve,atx,. At the new equilibrium, Britain is exporting goodsthathadpreviously beennontraded or imported. If, by contrast, technical changeis restricted to a few goods,thepicture is more complicated. The simplestcase is when productivity changeis to a goodalready confined exported by Britain. Assume,for example,that advancesin the Britishcotton textile industriescausedpeople to shift demandfromothergoods to Britishtextiles.24 Thenthe B curveshiftsup andto theleftbecause trade balance at anyw/w*is achieved withtheexport of fewerBritish goods.Thenew curveis shownas B 'in Figure1;the new is to the left of the original equilibrium pointon curveA, atx2. A more complexcase is when the changein productivity changesthe order of goodsalongcurve A, movinga goodfrom,say,the imported range to the exported.This changeforces us to renumber all the othergoods, givingthemall higher numbers. Forthosegoodscloseto the intersection of A and B, this changein the ordercould move them out of the rangeof intotherange of imports exports (ornontraded goods).Intermsof thegoods the equilibrium themselves, has movedto the left as in Figure1. if a Britishsectorhasnegativetechnical Conversely, change-that is, if it stagnates whiletherestof the economyprogresses-then it will move to the rightin the array. on its starting Depending pointandthe extentof its technicallag, it couldcrossthe dividingline in Figure1 andchangefrom or import.This case describesthe Craftsand Harley exportto nontraded conclusionshownin the last columnof Table1. The rateof productivity was not only slower than in modem change in other manufacturing industries but also thanin agriculture. If we assumethatproductivity was then the absenceof productivity rising in othercountries, changefor 80 years shown in the final columnof Table 1 surelywould have eroded whatever Britain comparative advantage mighthavehadin thesegoods. All of the subcasesof restricted technicalchangemove in the same direction. Britain the exportsfewernontextile goodsthanbefore,although in Figure1 is too simpleto describeall of the subcases.It representation followsthatif thereweremorethanone of thesedevelopments underway, the effects would cumulate.Rapidadvancesin Britishtextiles and no thenaretwo separate productivity changein othermanufacturing causesfor the number of Britishexported goodsto fall. uniformand restricted Summarizing, technicalchangehave opposite for the movementof dividingpointsin equation1. General implications technicalchangemoves the dividingline betweenexportsand nontraded restricted technical goodsto theright; technical change,to the left. General
24Since the modelhasassumed constant of incomespenton eachgood,this is equivalent shares to forBritishtextileswas elastic. sayingthatthedemand

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change causes the list of exportsto rise, while restricted technicalchange causes it to fall. This differenceprovidesa test of historicalviews. Thetest is whichgoods areexported andimported, not how muchof each good is traded. The conclusions just reached referto changesin the location of equilibria of goods. The empirical alongthis continuum evidenceneeded to discriminatebetween the two kinds of productivitychange consists of listing exportedand importedgoods, not calculationsof theirmagnitudes. To discover changes in the lists of exports and imports,lists need to be compiledfor differentdatesduringBritain'sindustrialization. To createthis test we need to identifygoods in the arrayof equation1. Thereare threecategoriesof Britishgoods: exports,nontraded goods, and imports. Following Harley, we identify exports with modem British goods with services not relatedto trade,and imports industry,nontraded with agriculture. But Harleyhas a fourthgood in his model thatis the one of most interest here.The questionis whereto put Harley'sfourthcategory, othermanufactures. The discussion of the preceding section implies that there are two differentanswers. In the broad view of the IndustrialRevolution, other were similarto modem manufactures; technicalchangewas manufactures widespread. Exports of many manufacturedgoods should have been In the narrow othermanufactures were doing expanding. view, by contrast, far worse than agriculture. Harley assumed they were not tradedin his computable generalequilibrium model,but as notedabove,this is implausiin the Crafts-Harley view shouldhavebeen imports ble. Othermanufactures of the economy. There are several reasons why the Crafts-Harley view implies other As cottonchangedfroman importto an export manufactures were imports. in the eighteenthcentury,the rangeof othermanufactures exportedshould have fallen.25Furthertechnical progress in cotton textiles that greatly increased the consumption of theirproductsin the nineteenthcenturyeven after cotton textiles had moved to be first in the index of British goods magnified this effect. And as the residual sectors stagnatedrelative to agriculturein the nineteenthcentury,their costs of productionin Britain musthaverisensharply relativeto the cost of growingfood in Britain.Since theproducts of theseothersectors-to the agricultural goodswereimported, extentthattheyweretraded at all-should havebeen imported as well. Even if other manufactureswere not importedat the start of the nineteenth the ratesof productivity century, changeshown in the last columnof Table 1 surelywould have madethem importsby midcentury. The Ricardian modelconsequently a simpletest to discriminate generates between the two views of the British Industrial Revolution. Were other
25Ashton, EconomicHistoryof Britain,p. 154; and Cameron, ConciseEconomicHistory,p. 160.

Two Viewsof the IndustrialRevolution

73

thenthe view thattechnical If exported, exportedor imported? manufactures change was widespreadamong British industriesin the early nineteenth were imported,then the But if the othermanufactures centuryis confirmed. conclusion that technical change was restrictedto a very few modem industrieswhile other industriesstayed mired in premodem production techniquesis confirmed. also gives information.In the The path of tradein other manufactures view shown in the last column of Table 1, these activities Crafts-Harley were not experiencingtechnicalchange in the first half of the nineteenth and agriculcentury. The productivitygap between other manufactures ture-not to mention modem industry-was growing rapidly. Other Revolution, should even if exportedearly in the Industrial manufactures, have foundtheirrelativecosts rising andtheirexportsfalling. They should aboutthe relative have gone fromexportsto imports.This is not a statement rate of growth of these exports; it rather is whether individual goods changedfrombeing exportedto being imported. Revolution,therefore,can be tested by The two views of the Industrial looking at marginalBritishexports.I do not claim thatthe patternof trade in thesegoods describesthe Industrial only thatit providesa test Revolution, between two views of this event. Was Britain losing its comparative it? exportsat the marginor maintaining advantagein othermanufacturing hadprogressed for a while, were othermanufactures After industrialization exportedas the AshtonandLandesview implies or importedas the CraftsHarleyview implies? It may seem odd to test major views of the IndustrialRevolution by activities.Not only shouldmajorhistoricalevents have lookingat marginal largecauses,but the tests aboutthem,it seems, shouldinvolve the principal activitiesas well. Unhappily, this is not the case. Differentstorieshave been presented to explain the same events. To be plausible, they all have to explain the majoraspectsof these events. It is only in the detailsthatthey differ, although, as describedabove, these differencesmay imply other, The devil, as they say, is in the details.26 more important disagreements.
TO DISCRIMINATE BETWEEN TWOVIEWS USINGTHEMODEL

Some dimensionsof Britishtradeas summarized by RalphDavis appear in Britishexportsis easily in Table2.27The dominant place of manufactures and initiallygrowing shareof fromthe firstrow. The important apparent
I used in a very differentcontext in Did MonetaryForces Cause the 26Thisis the same argument GreatDepression? intermediate decades,with resultsclose to those Davis also surveyed Revolution. 27Davis, Industrial shown in Table2.

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TABLE 2 SHARES OF TOTAL AND MANUFACTURING EXPORTS

Sector Manufacturing/total Cotton/manufacturing Woolens/manufacturing Iron/manufacturing Other/manufacturing

1794-1796 86 18 27 11 44

(percentage) 1814-1816 82 49 21 2 28

1834-1836 91 53 17 2 28

1854-1856 81 42 15 7 36

Source: Davis, Industrial Revolution, pp. 95-101.

in totalmanufactures is clearfromthe next row.Iron cottonmanufactures in the narratives of the Industrial for all theirimportance manufactures, werenevera major exports. Revolution, partof Britishmanufacturing outsideof these dominant The questionhere is what was happening industries. Manufacturing exportsotherthancotton,woolens,andironare 2. Theywerequitesubstantial, shownin thelastrowof Table andtheyshow no evidenceof beingpushedasideby cottonexports-as woolenswere. I went to the Parliamentary to finddataon exportsof individual Papers in detail. I commodities.Not every year containedtrade information hadto choseyearsforwhichI founddetaileddata,whichdid consequently to the yearsDavishadsurveyed. Thetrendsshown not alwayscorrespond in Table 2 were very clear in my data as well, and I do not think any information was lost in the changeof dates. I used data for three-year periodsaround1810, 1830, and 1850,anda few otheryearsbetweenthe first two to investigate and changesin the earlystagesof industrialization the Napoleonic Wars. during of othermanufactures Table3 showsexports forthreeyearscentered on shownin Table1. 1850, close to the end of the periodof the calculations Thetablelistsall manufacturing otherthanthoseidentified in Table exports 2. Theyaresorted of exports. Thequantities exported are by themagnitude shown for information were used to check data against only. They my to the test performed here.The evidence Davis's butthey arenot relevant to be citedin Table3 is the list of different products. Linenwas a major exported. export.Silkmanufactures alsoweresteadily Turningto metals, we find hardwareand cutlery,brass and copper andtin andpewtercontinuing to be exported. manufactures, Otherexports includeearthenware, of haberdashery, apparel, soap,andhats.The interest this list is the absenceof an organizing principle.Therewere exportsof manydifferent sorts. 4 showsthecorrelation Table between theexports goodsfor of individual categoriesthatexistedin bothyearsfor severaldifferent years.Thereis a of otherexportschangedmorein the two suspicionthatthe composition

Revolution Two Viewsof theIndustrial

3 TABLE

75

1850-1852 OF OTHER EXPORTS MANUFACTURES, Export

Linens

Value (poundssterling)
4,694,567

andcutlery Hardwares manufactures Brassandcopper andmillinery Haberdashery Silkmanufactures of all sorts Earthenware andmillwork Machinery Tin andpewterwaresandtin plates slops,andNegroclothing Apparel, Beerandale Armsandammunition of all sorts Stationary/stationery wares Apothecary Leadandshot of all sorts Glass/glass jewelry,andwatches Plate,platedware, Soapandcandles colorsandmaterials Painters' Books,printed wares andupholstery Cabinet
Cordage

2,556,441 1,830,793 1,463,191 1,193,537 975,855 970,077 904,275 892,105 513,044 505,096 373,987 354,962 339,773 296,331 286,738 275,200 237,880 234,190 155,407
155,127

andharness saddlery Leather Hatsof all othersorts Musicalinstruments andparasols Umbrellas of all sorts Carriages
Spirits

121,401 106,933 85,006 72,928 57,018

52,843

Fishingtackles Hats,beaverandfelt andopticalinstruments Mathematical andunwrought wrought, Spelter, Breadandbiscuit andsnuff Tobacco(manufactured) Papers,1852 (196), vol. 28, pt. 1. Source:U.K.,Parliamentary

41,607 34,351 34,289 22,097 15,529 14,762

before1831thanafter.Theevidencedoes not confinnthis view.28 decades Breakingup the earlier period-critical years in both the Industrial to a peacetimeeconomy-into subperiods Revolutionandthe conversion lower partof Table4. With the possible in the gives the resultsshown of the initialyearsof peace,thereis no evidenceof muchchange exception of otherexports.This is truedespitethe inclusionof Irish in the structure exportsin the totalsafter1826. was not backward, industry thatmuchof otherBritish Beforeconcluding thesesamearticles that out if it For tums imports. we needto lookat British in greater andespeciallyif theywerebeingimported werebeingimported, follow. not would the conclusion were exported, thanthey quantities
the laterdataarein realvalues.This 28The datafrom1811to 1813 arein officialvalues,whereas There also arefewerobservations to know. butit is hard thecorrelation, doesnotseemto haveaffected wereidentified. exports in thedatafrom1811to 1813becausefewerindividual

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TABLE 4

EXPORTS AMONGOTHERMANUFACTURING CORRELATIONS Years 1811-1813 and 1830-1832 1830-1832 and 1850-1852 1811-8113 and 1816-1818 1816-1818 and 1821-1823 1821-1823 and 1826-1828 1826-1828 and 1830-1832 Numberof Observations 18 28 15 21 21 28 Correlation 0.95 0.93 0.78 0.90 0.97 0.98

Papers, 1812-13 (100), vol. 11, pt. 1; ibid., 1818 (147), vol. 12, pt. 1.; Source:U.K.,Parliamentary ibid., 1823 (220), vol. 12, pt. 1; ibid.,1828(130), vol. 16, pt. 1; ibid., 1831-32 (310), vol. 26, pt. 1; ibid., 1852 (196), vol. 28, pt. 1.

Table 5 shows the compositionof British importsin the same years as outsidethe modem sector and productivity Table3. The effect of stagnating shouldhave beenmost evidentby 1850. But therewas, as noted agriculture for exportsin Table4, little variationin the compositionof Britishimports over the first half of the nineteenthcentury. It can be seen easily thatthe importsarenot of the same goods thatwere being exported, with a few exceptions. Silk was imported in greater quantitiesthan it was exported.This was not an activity in which Britain Linenwas importedin the years 1811 advantage. a comparative maintained countedas importsby 1830, and no were longer linens but Irish to 1813, therewere few otherlinenimports.Most of the flax shown as importsmust have gone to Ireland. sugar,tea, or indigo.They,and Thereis no mysterywhy Britainimported consumedin Britain,would not have been the manyothertropicalproducts The set of prices or changesin productivity. exportedunderanyreasonable importsfor the test performedhere are corn, hides, agricultural important and wool (sheep's). They were importedfrom westernEuropeand could These productsare the productsthat have been exportedfrom Britain.29 in the nineteenth Britainshould have exportedbefore othermanufactures view.30 centuryaccordingto the Crafts-Harley exportswere imported None of the myriadotherBritishmanufacturing in a wide varietyof advantage a clearcomparative at all. Britainmaintained the firsthalf of the nineteenthcentury. throughout industries manufacturing growthof cotton-textile They held theirown in the face of the spectacular exports duringthose years. Thereis no hint that these other commodities were being pushedoff the list of exportsby the growthof cotton exports. Exceptfor the NapoleonicWarperiod,they keptpace with cotton exports.
29Davis, IndustrialRevolution,pp. 114-24. do not tradein that 30Not,however,accordingto Harley'sCGE model since othermanufactures model.

Revolution Two Viewsof theIndustrial

TABLE 5 1850-1852 VALUEOF IMPORTS,

77

Import Wool,cotton Sugar Corn,meal,andflour Tea Silk Coffee Flax,andtow or codillaof hempandflax Wool,sheep's Hides,rawortanned anddust Cochineal, granilla, Oil madder root,andgarancine Madder, Guano Tallow Indigo Woodandtimber Dye andhardwoods or undressed Hemp,dressed Spelter Wines Spirits Seeds Woollenmanufactures Rice,cleanedor in thehusk Bacon Potatoes Currants Cottonmanufactures Cheese andpartwrought Copper, unwrought Butter Brimstone Tobaccoandsnuff SkinsandFurs andcubicnitre Saltpetre Ironin bars,unwrought Gum Oil seedcakes Glass Lard Ashes,pearlandpot Bark Turpentine Pork,saltedor fresh Quicksilver Tin Sago Raisins Lead,pig andsheet Borax Terra japonicaandcutch Hairor goats'wool, manufactures of husksandshells,andchocolate Cocoa,cocoa-nut Tar Bonesof animals andfish (exceptwhalefins) Cinnamon Beef, saltedor fresh andneedlework Embroidery oreandregulus Copper

Value (pounds sterling) 23,670,472 10,762,045 9,167,600 5,796,086 5,163,865 3,480,594 3,123,329 2,049,348 1,999,233 1,909,848 1,793,320 1,687,568 1,476,940 1,333,889 1,191,495 1,153,477 1,104,308 990,917 957,540 927,721 902,351 719,017 710,414 668,585 653,214 562,595 559,919 548,065 537,322 477,778 466,357 383,691 367,685 367,269 355,564 336,706 298,147 296,993 270,110 258,790 238,077 213,708 213,561 210,692 201,669 200,801 178,329 170,443 169,024 164,565 150,035 148,473 145,973 142,819 140,049 132,648 122,855 114,999 113,166

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5-continued TABLE Import Value (poundssterling) 106,630 103,463 95,928 94,911 94,779 93,744 82,816 81,441 80,320 74,845 73,690 73,661 70,912 69,277 66,799 63,159 60,405 60,144 59,705 57,562 57,222 54,153 53,452 53,196 49,140 46,160 44,661 44,048 43,735 41,082 40,639 35,144 33,865 28,935 25,468 24,685 22,812 2,122

Cloves Animals,living;viz. oxen, bulls, cows, andcalves Watches Safflower Boots, shoes and calashes,and boot fronts Pepp.er Lace, thread,and cushionor pillow lace Leathergloves Shumac Orangesand lemons Yarn,worstedor silk andworsted Clocks Rhubarb Whalefins Valonia Hair,horse Fish, of Britishtaking Nutmegs Almondsof all sorts Linens Pimento Liquorice juice and paste Senna Cork Rags, &c. for paper Wax, bees' Teeth,elephants' Bristles Cassialignea Mace Ginger Animals,living; viz. sheepand lambs Books, boundor unbound Hams Annatto Isinglass Figs Barillaand alkali Source:U.K., Parliamentary Papers, 1852 (196), vol. 28, pt. 1.

to It is not surprisingthat Britainsold a wide variety of manufactures in tropicalexportswas so advantage tropicalcountries.Theircomparative Thereis littlesurprise, therefore,that largethatthey specializedcompletely. It in for wool. is important, Britain exportedhats to Australia exchange however,thatBritaindid the same for westernEurope.31 The shaping of hats was still done by hand at midcentury,but this well before then. A hathandicraft had been surrounded by mechanization of the fur makerin Londonemployed1,500people in 1840. Thepreparation andwool to makethe felt for hatswas thoroughly mechanized, using steampowered machinery.And the dyeing of the finished hat was done on
and garments, pp. 101, 125. Davis's categoryis Hats,haberdashery, Revolution, 31Davis, Industrial so forth, so it is not absolutelycertainthat hats were exportedto WestemEurope.I use it as my example,althoughotheritemsof Davis's list could be cited as well.

Two Viewsof the IndustrialRevolution

79

thatallowedover 100 hatsto be dyedat once. Laborproductivity machinery consequentlywas high.32 Thereis an exceptionthatprovesthe rule. Table5 shows thattherewere woolens andcotton.But they were approxismall importsof manufactured of the exportsof those commoditiesshown in the amounts matelyone-tenth down the list in Table 5 exception.Further the hardly are They 2. Table the come watchesandclocks.As Landesnotedin his book on thatindustry, were fallingbehindtheircontinental andwatchmakers Englishclockmakers Productivitystagnated in this competitors in the nineteenth century.34 by midcentury.35 and it hadbecome an importindustry industry, merrily however,was continuing The exportof most othermanufactures, along. The lesson of the constantrank orderof these exports is that the various industrieswere keepingpace with each other.The shareof cotton exports peaked in the 1830s as shown in textiles in total manufacturing the sharefromthe period 1814 to 1816 to in fall slight was a There Table2. exportsas a whole kept pace the period 1854 to 1856. Othermanufacturing with cotton exports during these 40 years, and exports of individual industriesdid so as well. evidencein this test is the identityof exportsand Althoughthe empirical imports as shown in Tables 3 and 5, the productivityadvance in British They should have lowered theirprices relativeto imnports. manufacturing net the in deterioration" "severe recognizedthis did. Albertlmlahcorrectly barterterms of trade as a signal of British success, not distress. It is no fell rapidlyin response to surprisethat the price of cotton manufactures which productivitygrowth. But even the price of woolen manufactures, were decliningas a shareof Britishexports(Table2), fell almost as rapidly as the price of exportsas a whole.36 view of the Industrial "old-hat" It follows, therefore,thatthe traditional Revolution is more accuratethanthe new, restrictedimage. OtherBritish or at least,they were not all were not inefficientandstagnant, manufactures extendedalso manufactures cotton motivated that so backward.The spirit arms,and apparel. and haberdashery, to activitiesas variedas hardware It follows also thatthe calculationsshown in the last column of Table 1 The low rate of productivitychange cannot be acceptedas authoritative. shown for otheractivitiesis too low. Theremust have been more technical progressoutside the listed sectors in Table 1 to producethe results shown here.
Days. 32Dodd, IndustrialRevolution,p. 101. 33Davis, Revolution. 34Landes, earlierin the yearsthanin Table5 show thatclocksandwatcheswerenot imported forearlier 35Data nineteenthcentury. EconomicElements,pp. 93-102, 211-12. 36lmlah,

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CONCLUSIONS

Thistestconfirms thetraditional view thatthe Industrial Revolution saw changes in more than a few industries.Technicalchange was hardly uniforim-a point concededby every historian-but it was widespread. Britain becametheworkshop of theworld,notjustthecottonfactoryof the world. Scattereddescriptionssuggest the existence of a patternin other With few exceptions,there were no factorieslike the manufactures.36 factories. there wereneworganizations of workalong famous cotton Instead the lines identifiedby CharlesSabel and Jonathan Zeitlin.37 "Flexible of as a description of French industrializaspecialization" hasbeenthought Revolution tion.38 Perhaps it alsodescribes a significant partof theIndustrial in Britain. will be neededto confirmor refutesuggestions like this. Moreresearch The test performed hereshowsthatincreases in Britishproductivity were notconfined to cottonandironin thefirsthalfof thenineteenth The century. view of theIndustrial be banished Revolution cannot "old-hat" by callingit to fill in its all too names.It lives amongus, andit deservesmoreattention evidentgaps.
36For example, Berg,Age. 37Sabel andZeitlin,"Historical Alternatives." 38Piore andSabel,SecondIndustrial Divide.

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. The Industrial Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971 [1948].

in Britain, Berg, Maxine. The Age of Manufactures: Innovationand Work Industry, 1700-1820. Ottawa, NJ:BamesandNoble, 1985. Berg, Maxine, and Pat Hudson."Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution." Economic HistoryReview45, no. 4 (1992):24-50. A Concise Rondo. Cameron, Economic History of the Worldfrom PaleolithicTimesto the Present,Secondedition.Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press, 1993. Crafts,N. F. R. British EconomicGrowthduring the IndustrialRevolution.Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985.
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History19, no. 3 (1989):415-28. . "Exogenous or Endogenous Growth? The Industrial Revolution Reconsidered." Journalof Economic History55, no. 4 (1995):745-72.

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Crafts, N. F. R., and C. K. Harley. "OutputGrowthand the IndustrialRevolution: A Restatement of the Crafts-Harley View."EconomicHistoryReview45, no. 4 (1992): 703-30. Davis, Ralph.TheIndustrialRevolutionand British OverseasTrade.Leicester:Leicester UniversityPress, 1979. Deane, Phyllis. TheFirstIndustrial Revolution.Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1965. Deane, Phyllis, and W. A. Cole. British Economic Growth, 1688-1959. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1962. Dodd, George. Days at the Factories. London: Charles Knight, 1843. Reprintedby AugustusKelley, 1967. Dornbusch, R., S. Fischer and P. Samuelson. "Comparative Advantage, Trade, and Paymentsin a RicardianModel with a Continuumof Goods."AmericanEconomic Review 67, no. 5 (1977): 823-39. Harley, C. Knick. "BritishIndustrialization before 1841: Evidence of Slower Growth during the IndustrialRevolution."Journal of Economic History 42, no. 2 (1982): 267-89. . "Reassessing the Industrial A MacroView."In TheBritishIndustrial Revolution: Revolution: An EconomicPerspective,editedby Joel Mokyr, 171-226. Boulder,CO: WestviewPress, 1993. Hartwell, R, M. TheIndustrial Revolution andEconomicGrowth. London:Methuen,1971. Imlah, Albert H. Economic Elements in the Pax Britannica. Cambridge,MA: Harvard UniversityPress, 1958. Landes,David S. PrometheusUnbound:TechnologicalChangeand IndustrialDevelopmentin Western Europe from 1750 to thePresent. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969. . Revolutionin Time:Clocks and the Makingof the Modern World.Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress, 1983. Matthias,Peter.TheFirst IndustrialNation. London:Methuen, 1969. McCloskey, D. N. "TheIndustrial Revolution 1780-1860: A Survey."In TheEconomic Historyof Britainsince 1700, editedby R. C. FloudandD. N. McCloskey,I, 103-27. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1981. McKendrick, Neil. "Josiah Wedgwood: An Eighteenth-Century Entrepreneurin andMarketing EconomicHistoryReview 12, no. 3 (1960): Salesmanship Techniques." 408-24. Mokyr,Joel. TheLeverof Riches:Technological and EconomicProgress. New Creativity York:OxfordUniversityPress, 1990. . "Editor'sIntroduction: The New Economic History and the IndustrialRevolution."In TheBritishIndustrialRevolution: An EconomicPerspective,editedby Joel Mokyr, 1-131. Boulder,CO: WestviewPress, 1993. Modem Conceptionsof the Industrial O'Brien,PatrickK. "Introduction: Revolution."In The Industrial Revolution and British Society, edited by PatrickK. O'Brien and Roland Quinault,1-30. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress, 1993. Piore, Michael, and CharlesSabel. TheSecondIndustrialDivide. New York:Free Press, 1984. Zeitlin."Historical Sabel, Charles,andJonathan Alternatives to MassProduction: Politics, andTechnology in Nineteenth-Century Markets, Past and Present Industrialization." 108, no. 1 (1985): 133-76. Temin, Peter. Did MonetaryForces Cause the GreatDepression? New York:Norton, 1976.

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_____.*

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fromGreatBritain," Parliamentary Papers 1818(147) Vol. 12. Pt. 1.

. "FinanceAccounts: An Account of the Value of the Imports into and the Exports

fromGreatBritain," Parliamentary Papers 1823(146) Vol. 13. Pt. 1.

______-.

"FinanceAccounts: An Account of the Value of the Imports into and the Exports

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. "FinanceAccounts: An Account of the Value of the Imports into and the Exports

fromGreatBritain," Parliamentary Papers 1831-32 (131) Vol.26. Pt. 1.

. "FinanceAccounts: An Account of the Value of the Imports into and the Exports

fromGreatBritain," Parliamentary Papers 1852(196) Vol.28. Pt. 1.