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com

50YEARSOFDOUBLEENDED FERRYDESIGN

ByJohnW.Waterhouse,PE

SUMMARY Theauthor'scompany,ElliottBayDesignGroup(EBDG)anditspredecessorshavebeen designingdoubleendedferries,ranginginlengthfrom100'to460',since1953.Overthattime thecompanyhastriedmanydifferentspacearrangements,hullforms,propulsiontypesand structuraldesigns.Thispaperprovidesabriefreviewofthatdesignhistoryandillustrateshow thatknowledgeisappliedtonewferryprojects.Theuniquechallengesofadoubleendedferry arepresented,suchashullshapetooptimizepropulsionefficiencyandvehicledecklayoutto handleavarietyofvehicletypeswhileprovidingsafepassengerflowandsufficientallowance formechanicalsystems,lifesavingequipmentandcrewaccess.Choicesforpropulsion arrangementsarepresentedagainstrouteconsiderations.Adiscussiononcostestimationat earlystagesofthedesignusinghistoricaldataisincluded.Finally,somethoughtsonthefuture ofdoubleendedferrydesign,includingnovelhullformsandbasicvesselarrangements,willbe presented. INTRODUCTION "Legally,aferryisthecontinuationorprolongationofahighwayoveranavigablestream."[1] ThisquoteisfromthefirstTransactionsoftheSocietyofNavalArchitectsandMarineEngineers (SNAME),publishedin1893.Giventheimpactofferriesuponsociety,itshouldcomeasno surprisethattheyhavebeenatopicofinteresttomanynavalarchitectsformanyyears.The PacificNorthwestregionoftheUnitedStatescontainsamixofislands,rivers,peninsulasand lakes.Saltwaterandfreshwatertransportationrouteshavebeenacriticalpartofthe economicdevelopmentoftheregionbeginningwiththenativepeoplesandcontinuingtoday. Sincethearrivalofthefirstsettlersinthe1850's,powerdrivenferrieshavebeenacommon sight,linkingthevariouscommunitiesthroughthemovementofgoodsandpeople.Withthe adventoftheautomobile,anewtypeofvesselevolved.Nolongerwasasharpended,narrow vesselthatwouldliebroadsidetoapierappropriate.Theroutesandvehiclespushedvessel designtowardsaconfigurationwithabroaddeckareaforhandlingautosandsymmetricalends foreaseinloadingandunloading.Thus,thefirstdoubleendedcarferriesbegantoappearin the1930's.ManyoftheseearlyvesselswerebroughtuptoPugetSoundfromtheSan FranciscoBayArea,asnewerlargervesselswereintroducedtomeettheBayArea'sgrowing population. In1931anewnavalarchitecturefirmwascreatedwhenW.C.Nickumandhistwosons,Billand George,createdW.C.NickumandSons.Theirfirstsignificantcontractforcarferryworkwas therebuildingandrepoweringofseveralSanFranciscoBayferriesthatwererelocatedtoPuget SoundafterWorldWarII.TheirfirstcompletedesignwastheEVERGREENSTATEclassfor WashingtonStateFerries(WSF)in1953. Atapproximatelythesametime,anothernewnavalarchitecturefirmwasestablishedbyPhilip F.Spaulding,oneofwhosefirstcontractswastodesignthedoubleendedferryCROWNCITY forCoronadoIslandinSanDiego,California.Thetwofirmscompetedfiercelyforferrydesign contracts,oneoftenperformingthedetailengineeringforashipyardbuildingtotheother

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firm'splans.In1972thetwofirmsdecidedthatworkingtogethermademoresense,sothey mergedtocreateNickumandSpauldingAssociates.Thefirmcontinuedwithavarietyofferry projectsuntilamajorslumphitthecommercialmarineindustryinthe1980's.Withnovessels todesignorbuild,thePugetSoundareaexperiencedalossofshipyardsanddesigntalent.The assetsofNickumandSpauldingwerepurchasedfromtheprincipals,GeorgeNickumandPhil Spaulding,in1987.EstablishedasElliottBayDesignGroup,thefirmhascontinuedtobuild uponahistoryofferrydesign. Thepurposeofthispaperistosharesomeobservationsanddatagainedfrom50yearsof designingdoubleendedferries.SomeoftheissuesapplyingeneraltoothertypesofRoRoor RoPaxvessels,butthemajorfocuswillbeontheuniquechallengesofavesselthatis essentiallysymmetricaboutcenterlineandaboutmidships.Thediscussionisorganizedto parallelatypicaldesignevolution. OWNER'SREQUIREMENTS Thedesignofadoubleendedferry,aswithmostvessels,beginswithaconsiderationofthe owner'srequirements.Ashistoryhasshownus,thereisawiderangeofchoicesthatcanresult indeliveringgoodsandpassengersacrossbodiesofwater.Whatisadoubleendedferryand whychoosethisconfiguration?Forthepurposeofthispaper,adoubleendedferryisone wherevehiclesareloadedonandoffbothendsofthevesselandthedirectionoftravel switchessothebowbecomesthestern.Mostoperatorschoosethisconfigurationbecausethat iswhattheycurrentlyhaveintheirfleetandtheyarefamiliarwithit.Forsome,suchastheBC FerryCorporationthathasamixofdoubleendedandsingleendedvessels,itisbecausethey believethedoubleendedconfigurationoffersadvantages.Thesemaybegreatereconomy, improvedsafetyorbetteracceptancebytheclient.Wherethereisachoice,itbeginswithlookingat theroute. RoutesandOperatingSpeeds Thegreatestargumentforadoubleendedferryiswhentherouteisshortsuchasariver crossing.Thetimetomaneuverthevesselsoitcanbackintothedockbecomesasignificant portionoftheoveralltimebetweendepartures.Themaneuveringtimealsoconsumes additionalfuelandimposestherisk,howeversmall,ofanymaneuvergoingawry.Clearly,as theroutegetslongerthecontributionofmaneuveringtotheoverallschedulediminishes. However,theoperatorwillalwaysneedtoshifthisthinkingandreactionsastohowthevessel handlesavesselbackingdownhandlesdifferentlythanavesselgoingahead.Forthe operatorofthedoubleendedferry,hisvesselconfigurationisalwaysthesameallowingthe marinertoconcentrateontheexternaleffectsofwind,tideandcurrent. Otherfactorsthatmightinfluenceanoperatortoselectadoubleendedconfigurationarethe surroundingvesseltrafficandthenumberofvesselsontheroute.Whenweavingthrough shipping,thedoubleendedferry,withitspropulsionateachend,hasexcellentstoppingpower. Italsohassuperiormaneuverability,especiallyifusinganazimuthingorcycloidalpropulsion

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system.Theabilitytogodirectlyintoaslipandnothavingtopirouetteintheshippingchannel isalsocriticaltosafety.Thisisespeciallytruewhentheferryberthissubjecttohighcross currents,suchastheGuemesIslandroute.Theferrywedesignedforthatservicehas azimuthingdrivesatopposite'corners'ofthehull.Hence,thevesselcanreadily"crab"across thechanneldespite2to3knotsofcurrent. TerminalFacilities Themajorityofdoubleendedferrieswehavedesignedhaveroundedends.Thisconfiguration hasdevelopedtosuitthetypicalterminalconfigurationinthePacificNorthwestwhereasetof wingwallsservetoguidetheferryintotheendoftheberth.Arampisthenloweredtoreston theendofthevehicledeckandmooringlinesareusedtoconnecttheferrytotheramp.To keeptheferryintheslip,theenginesaretypicallyengaged,allowingtheshiptopushagainst thewingwallsandkeepalignedwiththeslipbymaneuveringtheoutboardrudder.Thereare alsosetsofdolphinslocatedtokeeptheferryfrompivotingexcessivelyduetoeithercurrentor windforces.Therampmaybesupportedeitherbyanoverheadbridgestructure,orbya combinationofbuoyantchamberandcables.Ifthelatter,thedeckoverhangandhullcutaway mustaccommodatethedock. ThetidalrangeintheSeattleareaisapproximately16'foraspringtide.Likeanyferry,the designersofdoubleendedferriesneedtoevaluatetheclearancesrequiredtofittheendsof theferryundertherampsforarangeoftidesandvesselloadings.Toaccommodatetheangle oftheramp,andtopreventlongvehiclesfrom'highcentering'ontherampattheextreme conditionofhightideandminimumoperatingcondition(maximumfreeboard),wetypically slopetheendofthevehicledeck.Attheotherextreme(lowtideandfullloadcondition),we considertherampslopeandreducedclearancesfortalltrucksenteringthevessel.Ineithercase thechangeintrimofthevesselasheavyvehiclesareloadedshouldbeconsideredinthesmaller ferries.Thisconcernresultsinshapingthehullswithfullerendsasthevesselgetssmaller. Anotherowner'srequirementthatshouldbeconsideredistheseparationofpassengersand vehiclesduringloadingandunloadingoperations.Inthelargervesselscarryingupwardsof 1000passengers,separationisimperativetocontroltheloadingandunloadingtimes.Of course,forsafetyreasonsitisalwaysdesirabletokeepfootpassengersandcarsapart,but mostsmallvesselsoperatefromsmallterminalsandhenceitishardertojustifytheexpenseof aseparateoverheadloadingbridge,especiallyiftheferryoperatesinanareaofhightidal ranges.Themaximumslopeforapassengerwalkwayis1:12witha5'levellandingevery30' accordingtothedisabilityregulationsintheUnitedStates[2].Thismakesaneffectiveslopeof 1:14,suggestingthata10'tidalrangewouldrequirea140'rampandlandingsystemjustto handlethetides. Iffootpassengersareloadedoverthevehicledeck,theyshouldbedirectedtoastairwayor elevatorassoonaspossibletogetthemuptothepassengerspaces.Thiscanhaveamajor impactonthedesignofthevehicledeckandconsequentlythewholevessel.

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VehicleSizesandMix Likeanyferrythatcarriesvehicles,thechoiceofwhattypesofvehiclesthevesselshould handleisofmajorimportance.Atonetimeintheabsenceofanofficialstandard,ourcompany basedthedesignonthe1965PlymouthFuryIIIsedanownedbyoneoftheprincipals.Inthe UnitedStateswehaveseenatrendtolargerandheaviervehicles,bothforpassengervehicles andfreightvehicles.Ferriesthatwereconstructedinthe1950's,suchastheEVERGREENSTATE withoverheadclearancesof13'[3],arenolongersuitableforhighwaystandardvehicles.Many ofourclients,suchasWashingtonStateFerries,designaroundtheirownstandardautomotive equivalentunit(AEQ)[Figure1],sotheycanestablishthecapacityoftheirvesselsinastandard

Standard Automobile Length Width Clearheight Distancebetweenfenders Nominaldistance betweenvehiclesides Weight AxleLoads, Auto AxleLoads, Truck
Figure1:AutomotiveEquivalentUnits

WSF 18.5 6.5 7.5 0.5 2 5550 2775 32,000 (perAASHTO std)

AMHS 17.66 6.5 10 2.33 3.5 8000 4000 19,000

manner.Giventhecurvedendsondoubleendedferries,thesizeofvehiclecanhaveacritical impactonallowancesforvehiclemaneuvering,especiallyiftherearemultiplevehicledecks withinterconnectingramps. NumberofPassengers Byvirtueofthedoubleend,passengerswillenterthevesselfromoneendandexitfromthe other.Inbetweentheymayneedvariousamenities,suchasseatingareas,diningspaces,food serviceareas,restrooms,playareasoropendeckareas.Itiseasyfortheinexperienced passengertogetturnedaround,sincetheshapeissymmetric,sothedesignershouldprovide visualcluestoorientthevisitoranddirectthemthroughthevessel.Itwasoncethepracticein WashingtonStateonApril1st(AprilFool'sDay)toswaptheendsofthevessel.Evenseasoned passengers,usedtofinding'theirspot'onthevessel,wouldgetfooledbythesimpleswitchin theends.Alas,inthesedaysofproperlyoperatedferries,suchwhimsyisnolongerpermitted. Becausepassengersmustflowthroughthevessel,thearrangementofspacestohandle seasonalchangesinthepassengerloadingcanbemoredifficult.Duringperiodsoflow ridership,itisadvantageousfortheoperatortocloseoffareas,thusminimizingthe maintenanceandimprovingthecrew'sabilitytomonitorthepassengers.Especiallyinthisage ofsecurityconcerns,thequestionofwherepassengerscancongregatemeritsvigorous discussionwiththeoperator.InthePacificNorthwest,giventhegenerallyshortrunsandopen endsonthevehicledecks,mostoperatorspermitpassengerstoremainintheirvehicles.This
ELLIOTTBAYDESIGNGROUP 50YearsofDoubleEndedFerryDesign By:JohnW.Waterhouse Page:4

hasthepotentialofcreatingapassengerhazardshouldafireoccuronthecardeck necessitatingtheevacuationofpassengers.Thebenefitofhavingthemremainintheirvehicles shouldtheychooseisthereductionofdelaysinunloadingduetofolksstragglingbacktotheir cars. ARRANGEMENTS Thecreationofthearrangementsisattheheartofanypassengervesseldesign.Thereare 1,000waystoarrangetheship.900ofthoseareawful,90ofthemareacceptableandonlyten arereallygood.Theartofvesseldesignistheartofcompromise.Theselectionofadouble endedconfigurationmerelypresentssomenewchallenges.Somebasiccharacteristicsfor variousferriesdesignedbymyfirmaregivenbelow[Figure2].

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Depthof Beamat Hullat Beam(ft) DWL(ft) Side(ft) 32.67 32.67 4.00 44.13 10.66 42.00 17.00 46.00 36.67 12.08 46.00 36.67 12.00 46.00 30.79 9.50 63.08 42.50 17.00 50.00 41.68 11.75 66.00 16.50 68.00 53.50 16.50 62.00 49.33 16.50 65.10 17.25 84.00 64.00 17.50 73.17 53.50 23.50 78.67 62.83 24.00 83.17 69.34 27.02 73.17 58.33 24.25 87.00 63.00 24.75 88.83 71.58 26.00 Design Prismatic Midships Design Displacement Coefficient Coefficient Speed(kts) (LT) 192.0 233.9 302.0

VesselName DANIELMATHENYV WHATCOMCHIEF COLUMBIANPRINCESS EAGLE HERON GUEMES HIYU WhatcomCountyNewFerry CHRISTINEANDERSON STEILACOOMII PATRICKDENNIS CROWNCITY ISLANDHOME TILLICUM CrossSound(7603) WSF130Car HYAK SPOKANE QUEENOFALBERNI

LOA(ft) 63.00 99.83 120.00 120.00 120.00 124.00 162.00 175.00 213.00 216.00 225.00 242.13 254.66 310.00 328.00 342.00 382.17 440.00 457.00

LBP(ft)

LWL(ft) 59.50 88.00

116.00 108.00 116.00 100.00 100.00 149.00 149.42 165.00 165.00 195.00 195.00 189.00 198.33 202.17 217.00 230.00 230.00 224.00 238.66 287.00 285.50 294.00 317.50 319.50 336.00 357.00 357.00 418.00 436.00 417.33 436.00

Design Draft(ft) 2.00 6.00 4.50 7.00 7.00 5.00 10.00 6.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 11.50 10.50 15.50 16.50 17.48 16.50 17.00 17.50

Block Coefficient

9.0 0.38 0.55 0.68 10.0 0.38 0.55 0.68 10.0 0.68 0.74 0.91 303.4 10.0 480.0 0.49 0.60 0.83 10.0 582.0 0.31 0.55 0.57 11.4 881.0 0.33 0.53 0.60 11.4 996.1 0.35 1,077.0 13.0 995.0 0.43 0.53 0.81 14.0 1,823.0 14.0 0.32 0.55 0.59 18.5 2,972.7 0.32 0.51 0.63 17.0 3,995.3 0.29 0.53 0.55 20.0 2,880.0 0.33 0.60 0.54 20.0 4,336.0 0.35 0.54 0.64 19.0 5,458.6

Figure2:HullFormTable

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VehicleDeck Thearrangementofthevehicledeckdictatestheprincipaldimensionsofthevesselandthe verticalaccessfootprint.Theshapeaboutmidshipsissymmetricwhiletheshapeoftheendsis dictatedbytheterminalandthewidthofthevehicleloadingramps.Thebeamamidshipsis dictatedbythenumberofcarlanes(andthewidthofthosecarlanes),thewidthofthecasing orcasings,theneedforaclearaccesspathforpassengerstogetfromtheirvehiclestothe stairsorelevators,andtheallowanceforstructureatthesides.Betweenmidshipsandthe endsthemaximumbeammaybecarriedforsomedistancebeforeitcurvesintomeetthe ends. Wehavelearnedthatcarferrieshaveincreasedinbeamovertime.Partofthisisduetolarger vehicles,andpartisduetoagreaterawarenessoftheneedforemergencyegress.Onefactor thatshouldbeappreciatedisthatwidervehiclelanesspeedtheloadingofvehicles.Wehave observedthatferriesinthesummertimesufferfromacombinationofmorevehicletrafficand personswhoareonvacationandnotexperiencedatdrivingonandoffferries.Theirtimidity cangreatlyimpacttheferryscheduleandcausediscontentamongpassengersandcrew.Wider lanessimplyhelpthetrafficflow.Similarly,wehavefoundthatifyouputapillar,stanchionor protrusionalongthevehiclelanes,driverswillstrikethemwiththeirvehicles,nomatterhow muchblackandyellowstripingisused. Accommodationsforpassengersareeitheronthemaindeck,typicalofsmallerferries,or abovethemaindeck.Wehavecontemplatedtheideaofhavingthepassengerdecklocated belowthevehicledeckforreasonsoffiresafety,sinceflameandheatrise,butthe disadvantagesofsuchanarrangementseemtooutweighanyadvantages.Tomovethe passengersupadeckrequiresstairsandatleastoneelevatorinlargervessels.Theseitemsare locatedeitherinacasingbetweenvehiclelanesoratthesideofvessels.Oftheferrydesigns wehaveprepared,havingacasinggenerallymakesmoresensethantryingtorouteitemsout tothevessel'sside. Thecasingcontainsstairs,elevators,airintake,machineryexhaustandaccesstospacesbelow deck.Thegoverningdimensionistypicallytheelevatorwidthplusrequiredstructure.Casing widthshaveincreasedovertime.Themostrecentvesseldesignshaveacasingwidthof7' comparedto4'ontheEVERGREENSTATEbuiltin1959,whichwasnotequippedwithelevators. Wehavedesignedvesselswithonecasingoncenterline,withonecasingoffsettooneside,and withtwocasinglinesplacedaboutthecenterline.Ingeneral,forcarferriesupto approximately40carcapacity,itmakessensetokeepthepassengercabinonthemaindeck andlocateittooneside.Forvesselsof40to80carcapacity,havingonecasingwithvehicle lanesoneithersideispreferred,withthepassengercabinlocatedabovethevehicledeck.For vesselswithacapacityof100carsorlarger,twocasingsprovidebetterstructuralarrangements andimprovedpassengerflowfromthevehiclesuptothepassengerdeck.

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In2003EBDGteamedwithTheGlostenAssociatesandJensenMaritimeAssociatestodesigna new130carferryforWashingtonState.AsoneofourtaskswepreparedaDeckArrangements Studythatlookedattendifferentconfigurationsforthevehicleparking,passengeraccess routes,crewaccessroutesanduptakes.Theowner'srequirementscalledforhandlingtrucks downthecenterlaneswithaclearheightof16'andtwodecklevelsoutboardtohandle automobilesofupto7.5'height.Theuppervehiclelevelswereconnectedtothemaindeckvia fixedramps,asisthepracticeinWashingtonState.Considerabletimewasspenttodetermine thebestslopesforthoserampsandtheabilityofvehiclesonthemaindecktomaneuver aroundtheramps.Amaximumacceptableslopeof12degreeswasselectedfortheramps. Thespaceundertherampswasusedforstowageoftherescueboats,decklockers,crew shelterandanchorwinch. HULLFORM Asstatedpreviously,thedoubleendedhullconfigurationistypicallychosentoeliminatethe needtoturnthevesselaround.However,theauthorbelievesthatthedoublehull configurationhassomeotheradvantages.Theseincludelowresistance,lowdirectional stability(hencequickhandling)andprotectionfromsidedamage. ThetypicalferrywehavedesignedhasaVhullamidshipswithanarrow,flatofbottomat baseline.Thesideshellflaresoutboardwithoneortwoknucklesbetweentheheavyguardat thedeckedgeandthebottom.Typically,thewaterlinebeamis80%ofthemaximumbeam. Thisshapeprovidesexcellentreservebuoyancyfordamagestabilityandaddswaterplanearea asthevesselheels,thusimprovingintactstability.Wherethereisadraftlimit,weincreasethe widthoftheflatofbottom.Shownbelowisthebodyplan[Figure3]forthe77.62mferrythat EBDGdeliveredin2007.
Figure3:BodyPlanforM/VISLANDHOME

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Attheendsthewaterlineshapetypicallynarrowstoafineentrance.Becausethewaterline beamdecreasesmorequicklythanthebeamatdeck,theeffectistocreatesubstantial sponsons.Thesearelocatedsufficientlyfarabovethebowwavetoavoidincreasedwetted surfaceasthebowwaveincreaseswithspeed.Theshapeofthesesponsonsalsoneedsto considerwaveslamminginroughweather,soacompromiseissometimesrequiredbetween calmwaterresistanceandspeedinwaves.Thelowerpartofthehullattheendsisfittedwitha skegtosupporttheshaftline(withtraditionalshaftingoncenterline)andtosupportthehullin drydock.Theskegshapeandvolumearecriticaltotheshapeofthebowwave,hencewe carefullyconsiderthesectionareashape,includingskegs.Thegraph[Figure4]showsthe normalizedsectionareacurvesforanumberofthevesseldesignswithwhichwehavebeen involved.
Normalized Section Area Curves

Percent of Midship Area

1.00 0.90 0.80

0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 0 1 2 Station 3 4 5

457' BC Ferry 440' Jumbo Class 328' Ferry (7603) 225' USCG Ferry 120' Skagit Cty Ferry 382' HYAK Class 213' Pierce Cty Ferry 460' Jumbo Mk II 328' ISSAQUAH Class

Figure4:Normalizedsectionareacurvesforvariousferries.

MostoftheferriesoperateataTaylorSpeedLengthratioofbetween0.9and1.0withthe averageat0.925.Comparingmodeltestdatawithinthisrange[Figure5],wecanseea significantvariationinresiduaryresistancedata.Thesolidlinerepresentstheresistancecurve fortheCClassferriesoperatedbytheBCFerryCorporation,clearlyoneofthemostefficient hullswehavedesigned.Recently,BCFerrieshavebeendevelopinganewclassoflargedouble endedferriesbasedontheCclasshullshape,atestamenttothelowresistanceofthehull,asit willbeusedona20plusnauticalmileroutewherefuelefficiencyiscritical.

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Residuary Resistance (lbs/LT) 16

Residuary Resistance

14

12

10

342' Ferry 328' Cross-Sound HYAK C-Class SPOKANE 384' Ferry ISSAQUAH WSF 130 ISLAND HOME Whatcom Cty Fy Power (WSF 130) Power (C-Class)

0 0.600

0.650

0.700

0.750

0.800

0.850

0.900

0.950

1.000

1.050

1.100

1.150

Taylor Speed-Length Ratio

Figure5:ResiduaryResistanceCurvesforVariousFerries

Duringthedesignofthe130carferryforWashingtonState,thedesignteamretained FRIENDSHIPSystemsGmbHofPotsdam,GermanytoinvestigateCFDoptimizationofthehull. Theirhullformproducedsomeimprovementsasshownbythedashedlineinthechart,butit wasamoldedshapewithcompoundcurvatureandhencemoredifficulttoconstruct. STRUCTURE Mostdoubleendedferriesoperateinrelativelyshelteredroutes,sowaveinducedbendingand longitudinalstrengtharegenerallynotgoverningfactors.Wherewehavedesignedaferryfor anexposedroute,suchasthe457'CClassforBCFerries,weuseda14'designwave,whichis conservativeevenfortheStraitsofGeorgia.Forthe80mISLANDHOMEferry,whichcansee roughwinterconditions,thedesignwavewas2.08m,whileonPugetSoundthe130carferry wasdesignedforanextremewaveheightof13.3'. Thestructuralsystemforadoubleendedferrymustaccomplishthreemajorthings:1)handle thevehiclewheelloads,accountingforfatigueduetoadesignlifeof40to60years,2)provide sufficientrackingstrengthtosupportthepassengerdecks,and3)havealogicalmodulesothat thevehicledeckframingworkswiththeseatpitchinthepassengercabintoensurethat windowmullionsdon'tobstructthepassengerview.Thechartshowsthevariousframing dimensionswehaveused[Figure6].

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VesselName

FrameSpacing(in.)

EAGLE 24 GUEMES 24 HIYU 24H PATRICKDENNIS 24 TILLICUM 27H HYAK 27H SPOKANE 28 QUEENOFCOQUITLAM 28.5H CHRISTINEANDERSON 36H QUEENOFALBERNI 28.5H STEILACOOMII 36H 30H WhatcomCountyNewFerry WSF130Car 27H ISLANDHOME 28H H=halfframesIWOtrucklanes C=Cortensteel(ASTMA572),yield=46,800psi

MainDeckPlating (#/sqft) 17.85 20.4C 12.9 20.4C 12.3 12.8 15.3 15.3C 15.3 15.6C 15.3C 15.6C 20.4

Figure6:BasicVehicleDeckStructure

WEIGHTSANDSTABILITY Oneofthechallengesinanyvesseldesignprojectistoestimatetheweightofthevessel, especiallyatanearlystageofthedesign. WeightEstimation Whenweexaminesomeofthedataweseethatthereisrelativelygoodcorrelationforearly parametricestimatingforthisclassofferries.[Figure7]Thedatapointfurthestawayfromthe regressionlineisthe130carferryforWashingtonState.BasedondatafortheJumboMarkII ferry,a140.20mclassandthis39.62mdesign,theirvesselsareheavierthanwehave traditionallyseen,perhapsduetoadditionalpassengerdecks.

4500

Lightship Weight v. Cubic Number

Lightship Weight (LT)

4000 y = 0.3618x - 5.1228 3500

3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 -500 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000

LOA x Beam x Depth/100 (cubic feet)

Figure7:VesselLightshipWeight ELLIOTTBAYDESIGNGROUP 50YearsofDoubleEndedFerryDesign By:JohnW.Waterhouse Page:11

WhenweexamineVCGagainsthulldepth,weseetwogroupsofdata[Figure8].Thelefthand clusterrepresentsthosesmallerferrieswiththeirpassengeraccommodationsonthemain deck,whiletherighthandgrouprepresentsthelargerferriesthattypicallyhavefulllength superstructureandoneormoreupperpassengerdecks.

35

Lightship VCG vs. Hull Depth

Lightship VCG (ft)

30 25 20 15 10 5 0

10

15

20

25

30

Depth of Hull at Side (ft)

Figure8:VCGinProportiontoHullDepth

Inadditiontothelightshipestimate,wealsoneedtoplanforweightgrowthoverthelifeofthe vessel.Givenmoderncoatings,wecanreasonablyexpectalifeof60yearsforamodernferry, knowingthatamidliferepowerwilllikelyberequired.Ferriesaremorelikelytobephasedout foreconomicreasons,ratherthantechnicalobsolescence.Thiscantaketheformofgrowthin ridershiprequiringalargervesselorreplacementoftheferrycrossingwithabridge.Allvessels gainweightovertheirlifespan.AstudybyWashingtonStateaspartoftheir130cardesign project,showedanincreaseofapproximately0.1%peryear.Westronglyrecommendthatthe initialdesignprovideforthisweightgrowththroughtheinclusionofaservicelifemargin.To thisthedesignermaywishtoaddavehicleloadmargintoaccountforincreasedvehicleloads. IntactStability Asmentionedearlier,theVhullformtypicallyusedfordoubleendedferriesprovidesincreased waterplaneareaasthevesselheelsandareserveinrightingenergy.Consequently,thereis usuallylittleneedtoconsidertheuseofweightsavingtechniques,suchasaluminumstructure. Theexceptiontothisissituationswherethevesselhassomestrictdraftlimits,suchasthe254' ferrywedesignedfortherunfromWoodsHoletoMartha'sVineyardinMassachusetts.There wasanowner'srequirementtolimitthedraftto10.5'inthefullloadconditionincludinga servicelifemarginof3"ofdraftor73.16metrictons,whichequatesto5%. DamageStability TheVformoftheferryhullalsoprovidesprotectiontothevesselfromsidedamage.Inthe56 yearsthatWashingtonStatehasruntheirferrysystem,therehasneverbeenaseriouscollision involvingaferryresultinginlossoflife.Infact,thegreatestcollisionriskcomesfromother ferries[4]astheyrepresentsome90%ofthecommercialtrafficonPugetSound.Therehave

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beennumerousgroundingsandallisions,thelatterusuallyinvolvingtheferrylanding.Looking northtoBritishColumbia,however,wedohaveanexampleofacollisiononAugust2,1970 nearActivePassbetweenadoubleendedferryandtheSovietfreighterSERGEYYESENIN.The ferrywasstruckamidships,butduetotheheavyguardstrakeandthehullflare,thedamage waslimitedtothesuperstructureabovethecardeck.Thewatertightintegrityofthehullwas notbreached.Ingroundings,however,theVhullformcanpresentahazardduetothelossof waterplaneareaonafallingtide. TheauthorremembersanoccasionwhentheferryWALLAWALLAgroundedattheentranceto EagleHarbouronahightide.Therewassignificantconcernwhethershewouldheeltowards theshallowwaterasthetiderecededortipoverintothedeepwaterwithconsequently greaterdamage.Fortunately,themudheldherfastandsherefloatedonthenexthightide withoutdamage. Toprotectagainstlossfromflooding,dueeithertogroundingortocollision,ferriesaretypically designedtoatwocompartmentstandardofsubdivision,requiredforUSvesselsover200'in length.Thegraph[Figure9]showsatypicalfloodablelength,thisonefora255'ferrywith engineroomamidshipsandreductiongearsplacedoutboardineachendtominimizethe lengthofheavypropellershafting.Whilethevesselisdesignedforamaximumoperatingdraft of10.5',thesubdivisioncalculationsweretakenat11'toprovideamarginforfutureweight growthbeyondthe5%allowedasaservicelifemargin.
105 FLOODABLE LENGTH CURVE Draft = 11 ft - 0 in, KG = 24 ft - 0 in 100 95 90 85 80 75 FLOODABLE LENGTH (ft) 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 125 100 75 50 25 0 -25 -50 -75 -100 -125
Forepeak Length: 27'-0" Perm: 0.95 Thruster Space Length: 25'-8" Perm: 0.85 Gear Room Length: 28'-0" Perm: 0.85 Crew Accom. Length: 21'-0" Perm: 0.95 Engine Room Length: 46'-8" Perm: 0.85 Mach. Room Length: 21'-0" Perm: 0.85 Gear Room Length: 28'-0" Perm: 0.85 Thruster Space Length: 25'-8" Perm: 0.85 Forepeak Length: 27'-0" Perm: 0.95

FLOODED CENTER (ft aft of Origin)

95% Permeability

85% Permeability

Figure9:M/VISLANDHOME,FloodableLengthCurve

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FIREPROTECTION Asinanypassengervessel,fireprotectionisakeypartofthedesignchallenge.Itcouldbe arguedthatfireprotectionisespeciallycriticalforvehicleferries,byvirtueoftheir transportationoftruckandcars.AreviewofWashingtonState'ssafetyrecordshowsthat, whilefiresonthevehicledeckhaveoccurred[4],theyhavebeeninfrequentandreadilydealt withbythevessel'screw.Amoreseriousfireonadoubleendedferrywasonethatoccurredin BritishColumbiaonMay12,2003whenafuellinerupturedintheengineroomoftheQUEEN OFSURREY.Passengersweresafeontheupperpassengerdecks,buttheheatwasintense enoughtobucklethemaindeck. Aspartofdesigningthe130carferryforWashingtonState,wetookanindepthlookatthe effectsofafireoriginatinginatruckonthevehicledeck.Oursubcontractor,RolfJensen& Associates,usedaflameandsmokemodelingsystemtoevaluatethethermalfluxduetoavery conservativemaximumheatreleaserate(MHRR)of80megawatts(mW).Mostdesign referencesfortunnelsorcarparksonlyconsidera30mWMHRRvalue.Thisferry's embarkationscenarioistomusterthepassengersonanupperpassengerdeck.Therearefour stairwaysfromthisrefugeareatothefourembarkationstationsonthemaindeck.Thecriteria forsuccessinthefireanalysiswastosafelydisembarkallpassengersthroughatleasttwoof thestairwayswithin60minuteswithoutexposingthemtohighheat(greaterthan60degrees C)ordensesmoke(visibilityoflessthan5m).Thevesselwasassumedtohaveallofitsactive firesuppressionsystems,includingthevehicledeckdelugesystem,tobedisabled.The passengerflowduringevacuationusedathreedimensionalnetworkmodeldevelopedbyRolf Jensen&Associates[5]andmodifiedtoreflectIMOMSC/Circular1033. Theresultsofthefireanalysisconfirmedthatthevesselarrangementsprovidedasafe evacuationrouteforthepassengers.Italsodemonstratedthathavingtheendsoftheferry openandwithlargesideopenings,allowedtheheatandsmoketodissipatetosomeextent [Figure10].

Figure10:SmokeModelingfor130CarFerry ELLIOTTBAYDESIGNGROUP 50YearsofDoubleEndedFerryDesign By:JohnW.Waterhouse Page:14

Theauthorbelievesthatthroughtheuseofsuchtoolsforfireprotectionandpassengerflow analysis,wecanbothimprovethesafetyofferriesandavoidoverlyprescriptiveregulations. PROPULSION Thedoubleendedferrylendsitselftoawidevarietyofpropulsionconfigurations.Historically, thesehaverangedfromsteamdriven,sidepaddlewheelstoacableferrypoweredbyhorseson atreadmill.Inmorerecenttimes,wehaveseenthedieselenginebecomethedominantpower sourcewithavarietyofmeansofputtingthepowerintothewater.Thetablebelow[Figure11] showssomeofthebasicchoiceswehaveusedinourprojects.

Diesel Geared Geared w/Azimuthing Dieselw/FPP Dieselw/CPP orCycloidal Drive X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Diesel Electric

VesselName DANIELMATHENYV WHATCOMCHIEF COLUMBIANPRINCESS EAGLE HERON GUEMES HIYU WhatcomCountyNewFerry CHRISTINEANDERSON STEILACOOMII PATRICKDENNIS CROWNCITY ISLANDHOME TILLICUM CROSSSOUND(7603) WSF130Car HYAK SPOKANE QUEENOFCOQUITLAM QUEENOFALBERNI

Cable X

Route River Short River Short Short Short Medium Short Medium Medium Short Short Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Long Long

Figure11:PropulsionSystemAlternatives Clearly,thereisnopreferredapproachthatworksforeveryferry.Asdesigners,welookforthe machineryconfigurationthatmeetstheowner'sperformancerequirementswiththebest balancebetweenreliability,maintainability,fuelefficiencyandoperability.Thissearchtypically takestheformofapropulsionstudywhereweworkwiththeownertoestablishweighting criteriaforthevariousaspectsofthepropulsionsystem.Typically,anownerwillhavestrong opinionsonwhatequipmentandwhatconfigurationworkswellforhisoperation. Oneofourrolesasthedesigneristointroduceotherideaswehaveseenandeducatethe ownerontheprosandconsofdifferentchoices.Recently,weworkedwithWhatcomCounty onthedesignofaferrytoreplaceonewehaddesignedforthem40yearsago.Thedemandfor

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improvedservicemeantthatthenewvesselwouldbesignificantlylargerthantheoldboat. Theoldervesselwouldremainasthe'backup'boat.Therouteisveryshortwithstrong currents,forcingtheexistingferrytotakean"S"shapedcourseandcrabintothelandings.One additionalconstraintwastheshallowwateratoneofthelandingsrequiringthateitherthe countydredgetoaccommodateadeeper,largerferry,orthatwedesignalargerboatwitha shallowdraft.Thelatterwaschosen,sincedredgingwouldbeanongoingmaintenance expensewithpotentialenvironmentalconcerns. Afterlookingatvariousoptionsofazimuthingdrives,andpropellersintunnelswithhighlift rudders,weselectedcycloidalpropulsionasprovidingthebestchoice.Thehighercapitalcost andlowerpropulsiveefficiencyweremorethanoffsetbytheeliminationofdredgingandthe shortrun.WetestedthehullatamodelbasininBritishColumbiatoconfirmtheresistance predictionsfromVoith.Theowneralsohadtheopportunitytosendoneofhisseniorcaptains toNorthCarolina,whichoperatesferriesofasimilarsizewiththeVoithpropulsion,sohecould confirmtheeaseofoperation. CONSTRUCTIONCOST Amongthefirstwordsfromaclient'smouthisthequestionof"Howmuchwillitcost?"Early stageestimationofconstructioncostsisanessentialpartofanyferryproject,especiallywhen theclientisapublicagencywithanextendedprocessforobtainingfunds.Itshouldbenoted thatmostferryclientsareestablishedoperatorswithagoodgraspontheoperatingcostsof theirfleet.Butinmanycasesithasbeenadecadeormoresincetheylastbuiltavessel.They must,therefore,relyheavilyonthedesignertohelpthemcreatearealisticcapitalplan. Wehavepursuedtwoavenuesfortheestimationofconstructioncosts.Thefirstistolookat longbaselinehistoricdatawithappropriateinflationfactors.Theotheristouseneartermdata fromavarietyofshipconstructionprojectsandrationalizeitintermsoffundamentalvessel characteristics.ThisbuildsuponthebasicworkofBenford[6]andWatsonandGilfillian[7]. Usinglongbaselinehistoricdata,forvesselsconstructedover40yearsagorequirescareful documentationofhowtheprojectwascontracted,butcanprovideusefulestimates.Inthe UnitedStatestheBureauofLaborStatisticscanprovidehistoricwagedataforshipyardsand theUSNavytracksmaterialscostdata.Thegraphbelow[Figure12]showsthechangesforthe marineindustryrelativetotheconsumerpriceindex.Asanexampleonhowthiscanbeused, WashingtonStateissuedabidpackageforthree130car,dieselelectricferries(EBDGJob Number7603asshownearlierinFigure2).Thebidopeningin1977producedalowbidof $58.9million.Usingmaterialandlaborcostdataforshipyards,thesesamevesselswouldhave apriceof$45.7millionpervesselin2003,or$8.56oflightshipweight.Weestimatedthecost ofanew130carferryusinggeareddieselpropulsionin2003,andourpriceforthefirstvessel was$50million,or$8.93(within4%).

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Comparison of Inflation Indices 1967 to 2003

600 $25.00

500 $20.00

Material Index (Base: 1967 = 100)

400 $15.00

Material Index for Steel Vessel Contracts (1982 = 300) Consumer Price Index x 3 Average Hourly Earnings, Production Workers in Shipbuilding Poly. (Material Index for Steel Vessel Contracts (1982 = 300)) Linear (Consumer Price Index x 3)

300

$10.00 200

$5.00 100

0 1965

1970

1975

1980

1985 Year

1990

1995

2000

$0.00 2005

Figure12:InflationDataforVesselConstruction

Theotherapproachusesrecentcostforvesselsthathasbeenanalyzedaccordingtobasic weightcategoriesusingaShipWorkBreakdownSystem(SWBS).Inshort,ifwecanestimate howmuchtheelectricalsystemweighs,wecanestimatethematerialcostsforpurchasingthe electricalequipmentandlaborhoursforinstallingthematerials.Sincethisapproachrelieson statisticaldata,wecanapplystandarddeviationstotheaveragenumberstoarriveata correspondingconfidencefactorthatthecostwillbebelowacalculatedvalue.Usingthesame exampleoftheWashingtonState130carferryin2003,weestimatedabasecost,usingSWBS dataof$39millionforthefirstvessel,or$6.92.Byapplyingstandarddeviationsofdata variance,weestimatedthatthevesselscouldbeconstructedforacostof$46.5millionorless withaconfidenceof68%andfor$56.6millionorlesswitha99%confidencefactor.Giventhe sharpriseinmaterialsandequipmentpricessince2003,thatconfidencemightbeseverely testediftheshipsweretobebidtoday,hence,theneedtocontinuetocollectcostdatafor analysis. CONCLUSIONS So,whathas50yearstaughtus?Firstisthattherealwayswillbeopportunitiestoimprovethe artofdoubleendedferrydesign.Withinthepast10yearswehavedesignedtwo54carferries forPierceCounty,Washington.Fromanexteriorappearancetheyaresimilarbutthe arrangementsforthemostrecentboat,M/VSTEILACOOMII,whichwasdeliveredinJanuary, 2007,shownumerouschanges[Figures1315],including:

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Accesspathsforpassengerswithdisabilities Acontrollablepitchpropellersystemratherthanfixedpitch Morevehicleclearance Alargerpassengercabin Greatersecurityforvitalspacessuchastheengineroomandpilothouse Thesechangesareinresponsetoregulatoryinitiatives,ridershipincreasesand performanceimprovements.Weseechangeasthenormratherthantheexception.

Asdesignersofdoubleendedferries,weareaidedbythenewtoolsofcomputationalfluid dynamicsandfiniteelementanalysistocreatehullsthataremoreefficient,bothhydro dynamicallyandstructurally.Thereareareasforinnovationinthepropulsionsystemsaswe seektoreduceemissionsandourconsumptionoffossilfuels.Wecanalsomaketheferries moresecurefromterrorthreats,anewrealitythatmustbeconsideredanytimevehiclesand passengersaretransportedacrossthewater.Thefireanalysistoolsdescribedabovecanhelp usdesignactiveandpassiveprotectionintothevessels. Anotherfactthatweneedtorecognizeisthatourclients,theferryoperators,willbeseeing newchallengesaspopulationsgrow,carsandtrucksevolve,andyes,evenaspassengers change.IntheU.S.wearereexaminingtheweightandsizestandardsforpassengers. Worldwide,peoplehavegottentaller,heavierand,unfortunately,wider.Theseats,lifejackets, stabilitystandardsandevacuationequipmentmaynotbesuitableforthepassengerofthe future.Weknowthatthesteelhullscanreasonablylastfor50years,butourregulationsand designsmustberefreshedfarmoreoften.TheteamatElliottBayDesignGrouplooksforward toworkingwithourpeerstocontinuetoimprovedoubleendedferries.

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 Figure13:InboardProfileofM/VSTEILACOOMII
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Figure14:MainDeckandHoldArrangementsforM/VSTEILACOOMII

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Figure15:PassengerDeckandBridgeDeckArrangementsforM/VSTEILACOOMII

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Iwouldliketorecognizethoseengineers,PhilSpaulding,GeorgeNickumandEdHageman,who gavememystartintheindustryandfirstintroducedmetothechallengesofferryboatdesign. Iwouldalsoliketothankmypartner,KenLane,for20yearsofworkingwithmetocarryonthe ferrylegacy.Finally,andmostimportantly,Iwishtothankmywonderful,patientwife,Barbara, forallofhersupport. REFERENCES 1. STEVENS,E.A.,'SomeThoughtsontheDesignofNewYorkFerryboats',Transactions SNAME,1893. 2. VARIOUS,'AmericanswithDisabilitiesActandArchitecturalBarriersActAccessibility Guidelines',UnitedStatesAccessBoard,2004. 3. NICKUM,G.C.,'PugetSoundAutomobileFerriesTheirEvolutionandDesign,Pacific NorthwestSection,SNAME,1965. 4. VARIOUS,'TheWashingtonStateFerriesRiskAssessment,FinalReport',TheGeorge WashingtonUniversity,etal.,1999. 5. GRENIER,A.T.,'WashingtonStateFerriesNew130AutoFerryFireSafetyAnalysisReport,' RolfJensen&Associates,2004. 6. BENFORD,H.,'OntheRationalSelectionofShipSize',Transactions,SNAME,1967. 7. WATSON,D.G.M.,andGILFILLIAN,A.W.,'SomeShipDesignMethods',TheRoyalInstitution ofNavalArchitects,1976. AUTHOR'SBIOGRAPHY JohnWaterhouseholdsthecurrentpositionofChiefConceptEngineerofElliottBayDesign Group,LLC.Mr.WaterhouseisaregisteredprofessionalengineerinNavalArchitectureand MarineEngineering.HereceivedaBachelor'sdegreeinMechanicalEngineeringfromU.C. Berkeleyin1979andaMasterofSciencedegreeinNavalArchitectureandMarineEngineering fromMITin1984.HeisaFellowoftheSocietyforNavalArchitectsandMarineEngineersand sitsontheBoardoftheMysticSeaportMuseum.HeisalsoamemberoftheRegulatory CommitteeofthePassengerVesselAssociationandamemberoftheSteeringCommitteefor theInterferryBangladeshFerrySafetyProject.

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