Theories of reading

Submitted by TE Editor on 23 March, 2006 - 12:00 This article is in two parts The !irst part will loo" at some o! the shi!ts and trends in theories relatin# to readin# The second part will e$amine tips and #uidelines !or implementin# a theory o! readin# which will help to de%elop our learners& abilities

The traditional %iew The co#niti%e %iew The metaco#niti%e %iew 'onclusion

(ust li"e teachin# methodolo#y, readin# theories ha%e had their shi!ts and transitions Startin# !rom the traditional %iew which !ocused on the printed !orm o! a te$t and mo%in# to the co#niti%e %iew that enhanced the role o! bac"#round "nowled#e in addition to what appeared on the printed pa#e, they ultimately culminated in the metaco#niti%e %iew which is now in %o#ue )t is based on the control and manipulation that a reader can ha%e on the act o! comprehendin# a te$t The traditional view *ccordin# to +ole et al ,1--1., in the traditional %iew o! readin#, no%ice readers ac/uire a set o! hierarchically ordered sub-s"ills that se/uentially build toward comprehension ability 0a%in# mastered these s"ills, readers are %iewed as e$perts who comprehend what they read

1eaders are passi%e recipients o! in!ormation in the te$t Meanin# resides in the te$t and the reader has to reproduce meanin# *ccordin# to 2unan ,1--1., readin# in this %iew is basically a matter o! decodin# a series o! written symbols into their aural e/ui%alents in the /uest !or ma"in# sense o! the te$t 0e re!erred to this process as the &bottom-up& %iew o! readin# Mc'arthy ,1---. has called this %iew &outside-in& processin#, re!errin# to the idea that meanin# e$ists in the printed pa#e and is interpreted by the reader then ta"en in This model o! readin# has almost always been under attac" as bein# insu!!icient and de!ecti%e !or the main reason that it relies on the !ormal !eatures o! the lan#ua#e, mainly words and structure

*lthou#h it is possible to accept this re3ection !or the !act that there is o%er-reliance on structure in this %iew, it must be con!essed that "nowled#e o! lin#uistic !eatures is also necessary !or comprehension to ta"e place To counteract o%er-reliance on !orm in the traditional %iew o! readin#, the co#niti%e %iew was introduced The cognitive view The 'top-down' model is in direct opposition to the 'bottom-up' model *ccordin# to 2unan ,1--1. and +ubin and 4ycina ,1--1., the psycholin#uistic model o! readin# and the top-down model are in e$act concordance

5oodman ,1-667 cited in 8aran, 1--6. presented readin# as a psycholin#uistic #uessin# #ame, a process in which readers sample the te$t, ma"e hypotheses, con!irm or re3ect them, ma"e new hypotheses, and so !orth 0ere, the reader rather than the te$t is at the heart o! the readin# process The schema theory o! readin# also !its within the co#niti%ely based %iew o! readin# 1umelhart ,1-66. has described schemata as "building blocks of cognition" which are used in the process o! interpretin# sensory data, in retrie%in# in!ormation !rom memory, in or#anisin# #oals and sub#oals, in allocatin# resources, and in #uidin# the !low o! the processin# system 1umelhart ,1-66. has also stated that i! our schemata are incomplete and do not pro%ide an understandin# o! the incomin# data !rom the te$t we will ha%e problems processin# and understandin# the te$t

'o#niti%ely based %iews o! readin# comprehension emphasi9e the interacti%e nature o! readin# and the constructi%e nature o! comprehension +ole et al ,1--1. ha%e stated that, besides "nowled#e brou#ht to bear on the readin# process, a set o! !le$ible, adaptable strate#ies are used to ma"e sense o! a te$t and to monitor on#oin# understandin# The metacognitive view *ccordin# to 4loc" ,1--2., there is now no more debate on "whether reading is a bottom-up, languagebased process or a top-down, knowledge-based process." )t is also no more problematic to accept the in!luence o! bac"#round "nowled#e on both :1 and :2 readers 1esearch has #one e%en !urther to de!ine the control readers e$ecute on their ability to understand a te$t This control, 4loc" ,1--2. has re!erred to as metaco#nition Metaco#nition in%ol%es thin"in# about what one is doin# while readin# ;lein et al ,1--1. stated that strate#ic readers attempt the !ollowin# while readin#:

)denti!yin# the purpose o! the readin# be!ore readin# )denti!yin# the !orm or type o! the te$t be!ore readin# Thin"in# about the #eneral character and !eatures o! the !orm or type o! the te$t <or instance, they try to locate a topic sentence and !ollow supportin# details toward a conclusion 8ro3ectin# the author&s purpose !or writin# the te$t ,while readin# it., 'hoosin#, scannin#, or readin# in detail Ma"in# continuous predictions about what will occur ne$t, based on in!ormation obtained earlier, prior "nowled#e, and conclusions obtained within the pre%ious sta#es

Moreo%er, they attempt to !orm a summary o! what was read 'arryin# out the pre%ious steps re/uires the reader to be able to classi!y, se/uence, establish whole-part relationships, compare and contrast, determine cause-e!!ect, summarise, hypothesise and predict, in!er, and conclude Conclusion )n the second part o! this article ) will loo" at the #uidelines which can also be used as #eneral ideas to aid

students in readin# and comprehendin# materials These tips can be %iewed in three consecuti%e sta#es: be!ore readin#, durin# readin#, and a!ter readin# <or instance, be!ore startin# to read a te$t it is natural to thin" o! the purpose o! readin# the te$t *s an e$ample o! the durin#-readin# techni/ues, re-readin# !or better comprehension can be mentioned *nd !illin# out !orms and charts can be re!erred to as an a!terreadin# acti%ity These tas"s and ideas can be used to enhance readin# comprehension This article published: 23rd March, 2006 was !irst published in )ranian :an#ua#e )nstitute :an#ua#e Teachin# (ournal =olume 1, 2o 1 Sprin# 200> Theories of reading 2 This article is the second o! two parts The !irst part loo"ed at some o! the shi!ts and trends in theories relatin# to readin# This second part will e$amine tips and #uidelines !or implementin# a theory o! readin# which will help to de%elop our learner&s abilities

Te$t characteristics 8re-readin# tips +urin#-readin# tips *!ter-readin# tips

These tips can be %iewed in three consecuti%e sta#es: be!ore readin#, durin# readin#, and a!ter readin# <or instance, be!ore startin# to read a te$t it is natural to thin" o! the purpose o! readin# the te$t *s an e$ample o! the durin#-readin# techni/ues, re-readin# !or better comprehension can be mentioned *nd !illin# out !orms and charts can be re!erred to as an a!ter-readin# acti%ity These tas"s and ideas can be used to enhance readin# comprehension Text characteristics 5ood readers e$pect to understand what they are readin# There!ore, te$ts should contain words and #rammatical structures !amiliar to the learners ,=an +u9er, 1---. )n te$ts where %ocabulary is not !amiliar, teachers can introduce "ey %ocabulary in pre-readin# acti%ities that !ocus on lan#ua#e awareness, such as !indin# synonyms, antonyms, deri%ati%es, or associated words ,0ood et al , 1--67 cited in =an +u9er, 1---. The topics o! te$ts chosen should be in accordance with the a#e ran#e, interests, se$, and bac"#round culture o! the students !or whom they are intended 8re-readin# acti%ities that introduce the te$t should encoura#e learners to use their bac"#round "nowled#e ,Es"ey, 1--67 cited in =an +u9er, 1---. 'lass members can brainstorm ideas about the meanin# o! a title or an illustration and discuss what they "now Pre-reading tips 4e!ore the actual act o! readin# a te$t be#ins, some points should be re#arded in order to ma"e the process o! readin# more comprehensible )t is necessary to pro%ide the necessary bac"#round in!ormation to the reader to !acilitate comprehension )n addition, as stated by :ebauer ,1--?., pre-readin# acti%ities can li#hten students& co#niti%e burden while readin# because prior discussions will ha%e been incorporated

Teacher-directed pre-reading ,Estes, 1---. Some "ey %ocabulary and ideas in the te$t are e$plained )n this approach the teacher directly

e$plains the in!ormation the students will need, includin# "ey concepts, important %ocabulary, and appropriate conceptual !ramewor"

Interactive approach ,Estes, 1---. )n this method, the teacher leads a discussion in which he@she draws out the in!ormation students already ha%e and inter3ects additional in!ormation deemed necessary to an understandin# o! the te$t to be read Moreo%er, the teacher can ma"e e$plicit lin"s between prior "nowled#e and important in!ormation in the te$t Purpose of reading )t is also necessary !or students to become aware o! the purpose and #oal !or readin# a certain piece o! written material *t the be#innin# sta#es this can be done by the teacher, but as the reader becomes more mature this purpose, i e awareness-raisin# strate#y, can be le!t to the readers <or instance, the students may be #uided to as" themsel%es, "Why am I reading this text? What do I want to know or do after reading?" Ane o! the most ob%ious, but unnoticed, points related to readin# purpose is the consideration o! the di!!erent types o! readin# s"ills o Skimming: 1eadin# rapidly !or the main points o Scanning: 1eadin# rapidly to !ind a speci!ic piece o! in!ormation o Extensive reading: 1eadin# a lon#er te$t, o!ten !or pleasure with emphasis on o%erall meanin# o Intensive reading: 1eadin# a short te$t !or detailed in!ormation The most !re/uently encountered reason as to why the !our s"ills are all subsumed into one B intensi%e readin# B is that students studyin# a !orei#n lan#ua#e !eel the ur#e to loo" up e%ery word they don&t understand and to pinpoint on e%ery structural point they see un!amiliar To ma"e students aware o! the di!!erent types o! readin#, as" them about the types o! readin# they do in their !irst lan#ua#e The type of text The reader must become !amiliar with the !act that te$ts may ta"e on di!!erent !orms and hold certain pieces o! in!ormation in di!!erent places Thus, it is necessary to understand the layout o! the material bein# read in order to !ocus more deeply on the parts that are more densely compacted with in!ormation E%en payin# attention to the year o! publication o! a te$t, i! applicable, may aid the reader in presuppositions about the te$t as can #lancin# at the name o! the author

Steinho!er ,1--6. stated that the tips mentioned in pre-readin# will not ta"e a %ery lon# time to carry out The purpose is to o%ercome the common ur#e to start readin# a te$t closely ri#ht away !rom the be#innin# uring-reading tips Chat !ollows are tips that encoura#e acti%e readin# They consist o! summari9in#, reactin#, /uestionin#, ar#uin#, e%aluatin#, and placin# a te$t within one&s own e$perience These processes may be the most comple$ to de%elop in a classroom settin#, the reason bein# that in En#lish readin# classes most attention is o!ten paid to dictionaries, the te$t, and the teacher )nterruptin# this routine and encoura#in# students to dialo#ue with what they are readin# without comin# between them and the te$t presents a challen#e to the E<: teacher +u"e and 8earson ,2001. ha%e stated that #ood readers are acti%e readers *ccordin# to Dr ,1--6., =ae9i ,2001., and <it9#erald ,1-->., they use the !ollowin# strate#ies

!aking predictions: The readers should be tau#ht to be on the watch to predict what is #oin# to happen ne$t in the te$t to be able to inte#rate and combine what has come with what is to come !aking selections" 1eaders who are more pro!icient read selecti%ely, continually ma"in# decisions about their readin# Integrating prior knowledge: The schemata that ha%e been acti%ated in the pre-readin# section should be called upon to !acilitate comprehension Skipping insignificant parts: * #ood reader will concentrate on si#ni!icant pieces o! in!ormation while s"ippin# insi#ni!icant pieces #e-reading: 1eaders should be encoura#ed to become sensiti%e to the e!!ect o! readin# on their comprehension !aking use of context or guessing: 1eaders should not be encoura#ed to de!ine and understand e%ery sin#le un"nown word in a te$t )nstead they should learn to ma"e use o! conte$t to #uess the meanin# o! un"nown words $reaking words into their component parts: To "eep the process o! comprehension on#oin#, e!!icient readers brea" words into their a!!i$es or bases These parts can help readers #uess the meanin# o! a word #eading in chunks: To ensure readin# speed, readers should #et used to readin# #roups o! words to#ether This act will also enhance comprehension by !ocusin# on #roups o! meanin#-con%eyin# symbols simultaneously Pausing: 5ood readers will pause at certain places while readin# a te$t to absorb and internali9e the material bein# read and sort out in!ormation Paraphrasing" Chile readin# te$ts it may be necessary to paraphrase and interpret te$ts sub%ocally in order to %eri!y what was comprehended !onitoring" 5ood readers monitor their understandin# to e%aluate whether the te$t, or the readin# o! it, is meetin# their #oals

%fter-reading tips )t is necessary to state that post-readin# acti%ities almost always depend on the purpose o! readin# and the type o! in!ormation e$tracted !rom the te$t 4arnett ,1-??. has stated that post-readin# e$ercises !irst chec" students& comprehension and then lead students to a deeper analysis o! the te$t )n the real world the purpose o! readin# is not to memori9e an author&s point o! %iew or to summari9e te$t content, but rather to see into another mind, or to mesh new in!ormation into what one already "nows 5roup discussion will help students !ocus on in!ormation they did not comprehend, or did comprehend correctly *ccordin#ly, attention will be !ocused on processes that lead to comprehension or miscomprehension 5enerally spea"in#, post-readin# can ta"e the !orm o! %arious acti%ities as presented below:

+iscussin# the te$t: Critten@Aral Summari9in#: Critten@Aral

Ma"in# /uestions: Critten@Aral *nswerin# /uestions: Critten@Aral <illin# in !orms and charts Critin# readin# lo#s 'ompletin# a te$t :istenin# to or readin# other related materials 1ole-playin#

This article published: 2-th March, 2006 was !irst published in )ranian :an#ua#e )nstitute :an#ua#e Teachin# (ournal =olume 1, 2o 1 Sprin# 200> &urther reading 4arnett, M * ,1-??. Teaching reading in a foreign language. E1)' +i#est 4loc", E : ,1--2. See how they read: comprehension monitoring of L and L! readers TESA: Euarterly 26,2. +ole, ( * +u!!y, 5 5 , 1oehler, : 1 , and 8earson, + + ,1--1. "o#ing from the old to the new: research on reading comprehension instruction 1e%iew o! Educational 1esearch 61 +ubin, < , and 4ycina, + ,1--1. "odels of the process of reading )n 'elce-Murcia ,ed ., Teachin# En#lish as a Second or <orei#n :an#ua#e 4oston, Mass : 0einle and 0einle +u"e, 2 ; , and 8earson, + 8 ,n d . $ffecti#e practices for de#eloping reading comprehension *%ailable at @@e!!ecti%e readin# com@ ,Act 1>, 2001. Estes T 0 ,1---. Strategies for reading to learn *%ailable at www readin# strate#ies <it9#erald, ( ,1-->. $nglish%as%a%second%language learners& cogniti#e reading processes: a re#iew of research in the 'nited States 1e%iew o! Educational 1esearch 6> ;lein, M : , 8eterson, S , and Simin#ton, : ,1--1. Teaching (eading in the $lementary )rades 2eedham 0ei#hts, Mass : *llyn and 4acon :ebauer, 1 ,1--?. Lessons from the rock on the role of reading *%ailable at @@ lan#ue 0yper 'hubu ac 3p@3alt@pub@t@t@-?@lebauer html Mc'arthy, ' 8 ,n d . (eading theory as a microcosm of the four skills *pplied :in#uistics Series 2unan, + ,1--1. Language Teaching "ethodology 0ert!ordshire: 8rentice 0all )nternational 8aran, * ,1--6. (eading in $*L: facts and fiction E:T (ournal >0 1umelhart, + E ,1-66. Toward an interacti#e model of reading )n S +ornic ,ed ., *ttention and 8er!ormance )= 2ew For", 2F: *cademic 8ress Steinho!er, 0 ,1--6. +ow to read nonfictional $nglish texts faster and more effecti#ely The )nternet TES: (ournal, =ol )), 2o 6, (une 1--6 Dr, 8 ,1--6. , -ourse in Language Teaching 'ambrid#e: 'ambrid#e Dni%ersity 8ress =ae9i, S ,2001. "etacogniti#e reading strategies across language and techni.ues. Dnpublished doctoral dissertation, *llameh Tabataba&i Dni%ersity, Tehran, )ran =an +u9er, ' ,1---. (eading and the ,dult $nglish Language Learner Cashin#ton, + ' : 'learin#house !or ES: :iteracy Education Shahin =ae9i 8h + *ssistant pro!essor, Dni%ersity o! Science and Technolo#y, )ran