The basic communications system has:

Transmitter:
The sub-system that takes the information signal and processes it prior to transmission. The transmitter modulates the information onto a carrier signal, amplifies the signal and broadcasts it over the channel.

Channel:
The medium which transports the modulated signal to the receiver. Air acts as the channel for broadcasts like radio. May also be a wiring system like cable TV or the Internet.

The basic communications system has: Receiver:

The sub-system that takes in the transmitted signal from the channel and processes it to retrieve the information signal. The receiver must be able to discriminate the signal from other signals which may using the same channel (called tuning), amplify the signal for processing and demodulate (remove the carrier) to retrieve the information. It also then processes the information for reception (for example, broadcast on a loudspeaker).

Basic Communication System

modulation: The process, or result of the process, of varying a characteristic of a carrier, in accordance with an information-bearing signal.

Sinuousidal Wave Discrete Pulse

Analogue Modulation

AM:Amplitude Modulation FM:Frequency Modulation PM:Phase Modulation ASK:Amplitude Shift Keying FSK:Frequency Shift Keying PSK:Phase Shift Keying PAM:Pulse Amplitude Modulation PFM:Pulse Frequency Modulation PPM:Pulse Position Modulation PWM:Pulse Width Modulation

Digital Modulation

Pulse Modulation

Sinuousidal Wave Discrete Pulse

Analogue Modulation

AM: AM Radio, Air Band Radio, FM: FM Radio, Cordless Phone, TV(Voice) PM: ASK: Optical Fiber Communication FSK: Fax Radio, Modem(V.21, V.23) PSK: Digital Radio Communication PAM: Motor Control, PFM: LD PPM: Optical Wireless, DVD PWM: Motor Control

Digital Modulation

Pulse Modulation

Baseband Signal
Voice Signal

100

1000

10000 Hz

Video Signal

100

1000

10000

1000000

Hz

1. Analogue Signal

time

2. Digital Signal

time

1 sec 0

1Hz
Circle

2Hz
0 Circle

1 sec

1 sec 0

4Hz
Circle

1 sec 0

Circle

8Hz

Uhiudhsiuhf Nfdnfoidnf Kjdnfk Kjdsnbkjn Dsfnkdnfsd Iuiudshfsfsfds Iu dcsicbdiub

dcsicbdiub

Uhiudhsiuhf Nfdnfoidnf Kjdnfk Kjdsnbkjn Dsfnkdnfsd Iuiudshfsfsfds Iu

1m
Idiusg Ohe Uih Idie Wiuiu Ediu

2m
Idiusg Oh e Uih Idie Wiuiu Ediu

Carrier 10m

SP AMP

SP AMP

SP Mod AMP Dem AMP

A AMP
freq

Multiplexing

SP
freq

B SP AMP
freq

A A B

A
freq

freq

SPA AMP
freq

freq

Mod

AMP

Dem

B SP Mod
freq

AMP

Dem

AMP

B
freq

1. Baseband Transmission Baseband Signal (voice etc.) Transmission

2.Carrier Frequency Transmission Baseband Signal (voice etc.) Transmission Modulator Modulated Signal Carrier Frequency Signal

Receiever

DeModulator

Baseband Signal voice etc.

Amplitude Modulation in which the amplitude of a carrier wave is varied in accordance with some characteristic of the modulating signal. Amplitude modulation implies the modulation of a coherent carrier wave by mixing it in a nonlinear device with the modulating signal to produce discrete upper and lower sidebands, which are the sum and difference frequencies of the carrier and signal.

Sinusoidal Carrier

c(t )

t
c(t ) = A sin(ct )
A
Amplitude Angular Frequency rad/sec]

Circle

1 sec 360[deg] 2 [rad] Circle 0

1Hz
2 [rad/sec]

1 sec 720[deg] 4 [rad] 0

2Hz
4 [rad/sec]

Baseband Signal (voice etc)

carrier

AM signal

Baseband signal

Vm(t )

carrier

Vc(t )

AM signal

Vam(t )

Signal Equation: V(t) = Vo sin (2 f t + )

Where:

V(t) Vo f

the voltage of the signal as a function of time. the amplitude of the signal (represents the maximum value achieved each cycle) the frequency of oscillation, the number of cycles per second (also known as Hertz = 1 cycle per second) the phase of the signal, representing the starting point of the cycle.

Type of modulation may be categorized as

AM: amplitude modulation FM: frequency modulation or PM: phase modulation

Mathematical Form
Information: Carrier: AM: Derived AM: vm(t) = Vm sin (2 fm t ) vc(t) = Vc sin (2 fc t ) vAM(t) = { Vc + Vm(t) }sin (2 fc t )
vAM(t) = Vc sin (2fct) + (Vm/2) cos (2fct-2fmt) (Vm/2) cos (2fct+2fmt)

Modulation index: Range:0 <ma<1 & Simultaneous Modulation ma = (Vm/Vc) ma = (Amax-Amin) (Amax+Amin)

Vam(t ) = [1 + mVm(t )]Vc(t ) = A[1 + mVm(t )] cos(ct )

Amplitude Angular Frequency [rad/sec]

c
m

Vm(t )Baseband Signal

Modulation Index

KINDS of AM WAVE 1. Undermodulated AM Wave, if Vc >Vm, %M<100%, m<1 2. Fully modulated AM Wave, if Vc=Vm, %M=100%, m=1 3. Overmodulated AM Wave, if Vc<Vm, %M>100%, m>1

AM signal m=1

AM signal m<1

AM signal m >1

Vam(t ) = A[1 + Vm(t )] cos(ct )

Assumption

Baseband Signal

Vm(t ) = cos( 0t )

Vam(t ) = A[1 + mVm(t )] cos(ct )

Assumption

Baseband Signal

Vm(t ) = cos( 0t )

Vam(t ) = A[1 + mVm(t )] cos(ct ) = A cos(ct ) + Am cos( 0t ) cos(ct ) mA mA = A cos(ct ) + cos(c + 0)t + cos(c 0)t 2 2

mA mA Vam(t ) = A cos(ct ) + cos(c + 0)t + cos(c 0)t 2 2

Carrier Signal

A cos(ct )

Vm(t ) = cos( 0t )

Baseband Signal

LSB(Lower Side Band)

USB(Upper Side Band)

0
0

mA cos(c 0)t 2

mA cos(c + 0)t 2

c 0

c + 0

Frequency

BASIC FORMS OF AM TRANSMISSION

1. 2. 3. 4. DSBFC-Double Sideband Full Carrier, A3E DSBSC-Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier SSBFC-Single Sideband Full Carrier, H3E SSBSC-Single Sideband Suppresses Carrier, J3E

ITU Emission Designations

1st Symbol 2nd Symbol 3rd Symbol 4th Symbol 5th Symbol Type of modulation of the main carrier Nature of signal(s) modulating the main carrier Type of information to be transmitted Details of signal(s) Nature of multiplexing

Carrier Signal

A cos(ct )

Baseband Signal

Vm(t )

LSB(Lower Side Band)

USB(Upper Side Band) Frequency

c 0

c + 0

Carrier Signal

A cos(ct )

Baseband Signal

Vm(t )

LSB(Lower Side Band)

USB(Upper Side Band)

7.5kHz

Frequency [Hz] fc fc+7.5kHz fc-7.5kHz (Carrier Frequency) 15kHz

No Carrier Signal (Suppressed Carrier) Baseband Signal

Vm(t )

LSB(Lower Side Band)

USB(Upper Side Band) Frequency [Hz]

fb

fc-fb

fc

fc+fb

Baseband Signal

Vm(t )
0 fb

LSB(Lower Side Band)

Frequency [Hz]

fc-fb

fc

Baseband Signal

Vm(t )

or

USB(Upper Side Band)

Frequency [Hz]

fb

fc+fb Amateur Radio, Maritime Mobile, Air to Ground(USB) LSB<10MHz<USB

fc

The envelope of the resultant modulated wave is an analog of the modulating signal. The instantaneous value of the resultant modulated wave is the vector sum of the corresponding instantaneous values of the carrier wave, upper sideband, and lower sideband. Recovery of the modulating signal may be by direct detection or by heterodyning.

Components of AM wave
1. CARRIER Component, Vc sin (2fct) 2. LOWER SIDEBAND FREQUENCY Component, (Vm/2) cos (2fct-2fmt) 3. UPPER SIDEBAND FREQUENCY Component, (Vm/2) cos (2fct+2fmt)

fLSB= fc-fm fUSB=fc+fm

AM Bandwidth
FCC: AM BW NTC: AM BW 10 kHz 9 kHz

Where: fLSB - lower sideband, Hz fUSB- upper sideband, Hz BW - bandwidth, Hz fm - modulating frequency, Hz

BW = fUSB-fLSB=2fm

POWER CALCULATION

PT= Pc+PSB PUSB=PLSB=(m2Pc/4)=(mVc)2/(8R) PT = PC(1+m2)/2

Where: PLSB - lower sideband power, watts PUSB - upper sideband power, watts P T - total transmitted rms power, watts Ec - carrier voltage, volts R - antenna resistance, ohms m - modulation index

VOLTAGE CALCULATION VT= Vc 1+(m 2/2) CURRENT CALCULATIONS

Where: VT VC IT Ic R m

IT=IC 1+(m2/2)
- total transmitted rms voltage, volts - carrier voltage, volts - total transmitted rms current, amperes - carrier current, amperes - antenna resistance, ohms - modulation index, unitless

EFFICIENCY OF TRANSMISSION = efficiency = (PSB / PT ) x 100%

Where: PT - total transmitted rms power, watts PSB - sideband power, watts - efficiency, in percentage

ITU AM Standards
550 to 1720 kHz

Problem Solving
Problem 1

The modulating signal peak value is 125 V and the unmodulated carrier value is 85 V. What is the modulation index?
Problem 2

If the modulation index of an AM wave is changed from 0 to 1, the transmitted power is _____.
Problem 3

If the unmodulated level peak carrier amplitude is half in an AM signal peak, the percent modulation is _____.

Problem Solving
Problem 4

If the unmodulated level peak carrier amplitude is double in an modulating signal, the percent modulation is _____.
Problem 5

An 891 kHz carrier having an amplitude of 80 v is modulated by a 4.5 kHz audio signal having an amplitude of 45 V. The modulation factor is

Problem Solving
Problem 6

A 400 watt carrier is modulated to a depth of 75%. Calculate the total power in the modulated wave.
Problem 7

A broadcast radio transmitter radiates 10 kw when the modulation percentage is 60. How much of this is carrier power?
Problem 8

The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 A when only the carrier is sent, but it increases to 8.93 A when the carrier is modulated by a single sine wave. Find the modulation percentage. Determine the antenna current when the percent of modulation is 80%.

Problem Solving
Problem 9

A certain transmitter radiates 9 kw with the carrier unmodulated and 10.125 kw when the carrier is sinusoidally modulated. Calculate the modulation index. What is the total power saving if SSBSC?
Problem 10

What is the total modulation index of 80%, 76% & 81%?

RF OSCILLATOR

CLASS A RF AMP

CLASS C RF POWER AMP

CLASS C RF OUTPUT AMP

AF FILTERING

AF PRE-AMP

AF CLASS B POWER AMP

MODULATOR

Level of Modulation
High Level Modulation -if the output stage in a transmitter is plate modulated or collector modulated Ex: Grid-modulated Class C Amplifier Plate-Modulated Class C Amplifier Low Level Modulation -if modulation is applied at any point other than the collector or plate including some other electrode of the output amplitude Ex. Emitter modulation

Advantages of Low-level Modulation

Less modulating signal power is required to achieve a high percentage of modulation.

Disadvantages of Low-level Modulation

Extremely inefficient High power requirements since linear amplifiers are used before the modulator

Problems with Conventional AM Conventional AM transmission has several problems: Bandwidth is wasted by having two identical side-bands on either side of the carrier The carrier signal is present even if nothing is being transmitted

DSBFC Relative simplicity of modulating and demodulating equipment Acceptable form used for broadcasting SSBSC Used to save power Used in applications in which bandwidth is at premium Cost effective

BALANCED MODULATOR CIRCUITS A circuit that generates DSB signal or suppressing a carrier of a standard AM signal Leaving the sum and difference frequencies at the output. Further processed by filters and phase-shifting circuit to eliminate one of the sidebands, thereby resulting in an SSB signal.

BALANCED MODULATOR CIRCUITS

D1 D3 Modulating signal D4 DSB Signal

D2 Carrier

METHOD OF SUPPRESSING UNWANTED SIDEBAND Filter method Phase-Shift method

Filter method

Carrier

Modulating signal

Phase-Shift method

Is the reverse process of AM transmission

An AM wave is demodulated, the carrier and information carrying portion of the envelope are down converted from radio frequency spectrum to original information.

SELECTIVITY: Is the measure of the ability of a receiver to accept a given band of frequencies and reject all others. SENSITIVITY: Is the minimum RF signal level that can be detected at the input to the receiver and still produce a usable demodulated information signal.

FIDELITY A measure of the ability of a communications system to produce at the output of the receiver an exact replica of the original source information.

TRF (TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY) RECEIVER One of the earliest types of AM receiver Simple logical receiver
POWER AMP

1st RF AMP

2nd RF AMP

DETECTOR

Audio AMP

TRF Advantages: simplicity high sensitivity

POWER AMP

1st RF AMP

2nd RF AMP

DETECTOR

Audio AMP

TRF Disadvantages: Require multistage amplifiers which unstable at high frequency Suffered from a variation in bandwidth over the tuning range Unable to achieve sufficient selectivity at high frequency

SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
To heterodyne means to mix to frequencies together so as to produce a beat frequency, namely the difference between the two. AM is a heterodyne process: the information signal is mixed with the carrier to produce the side-bands. The side-bands occur at precisely the sum and difference frequencies of the carrier and information. These are beat frequencies (normally the beat frequency is associated with the lower side-band, the difference between the two).

Advantages of Using Superheterodyning It reduces the signal from very high frequency sources It allows many components to operate at a fixed frequency (IF section) and therefore they can be optimized or made more inexpensively. It can be used to improve signal isolation by arithmetic selectivity

A key circuit in any radio receiver circuit.

an angular modulation technique wherein the frequency of the carrier is varied in proportion to the modulation voltage.

Freq.
Carrier Freq.

Frequency Number of waves/sec[Hz] High Frequency Carrier

Freq.
Carrier Freq.

Carrier

Freq.
Carrier Freq.

Carrier

Low Freqency

Mathematical Equation/Formula Information: Carrier: FM: vm(t) = Vm cos (2 fm t ) vc(t) = Vc sin (2 fc t ) vFM(t) = Vc sin (t ) (t )=(2fct + mfsin mt)

Vfm(t ) = A cos i(t )

Case 1

i (t ) = ct
Inclination

i (t )

i (t ) = ct

b di (t ) d (ct ) = = = c a dt dt
0 a

Vfm(t ) = A cos i(t ) 3 = 6

i (t ) 6
4 2
0 1sec

2 = 4 1 = 2

1 sec 360[deg] 2 [rad] Circle 0 2 [rad/sec]

1Hz

1 sec 720[deg] 4 [rad] Circle 0 4 [rad/sec]

2Hz

Vfm(t ) = A cos i(t ) 3 = 6

i (t ) High Inclination Angle 6
High Frequency

3Hz

2 = 4
2Hz

di (t ) dt

1 = 2

2 = 4 2

1 = 2
1Hz

3 = 6
0 1sec

Vfm(t ) = A cos i(t )

i (t )
High Inclination Angle di (t ) is big) ( dt High Frequency Low Inclination Angle
( Low Angle Low Frequency

High Angle High Frequency Low Angle Low Frequency

di (t ) dt

is small)

Low Frequency

Mathematical Equation/Formula Modulation index: Range:0 <mf<n ma = (/fm) =(max. freq. deviation/modulating frequency) Carrier Swing: CS= 2

Percent Modulation: %M= f/fstd = actual freq. deviation std. freq. deviation for 100% modulation

Bandwidth of an FM Transmission 1. Approximate BW, BW=(2mf +1)fm 2. Carsons Formula for BW, BW=2(+fm) 3. Practical Bandwidth, BW=2fmn 4. Narrowband FM BW, BW=2fm 5. Wideband FM BW, BW=2

PROBLEM SOLVING 1. In an FM system, where the carrier frequency is 105 MHz and the audio signal voltage is 2.4V, the index of modulation is 8, what is the deviation. If the AF voltage is now increased to 7.2V. What is the new deviation? If the AF voltage is raised to 10V while the AF is dropped to 200 Hz, what is the deviation? Find the modulation index in each case. 2. Find the carrier and modulating frequencies, the modulation index, and the maximum deviation of the FM wave represented by the voltage equation v=12sin (6x108t + 5 sin 1250t). What is the modulating voltage? What power will this FM wave dissipate in a 10 ohms resistor? 3. What is the bandwidth required for an FM signal in which the modulating frequency is 4kHz and the maximum deviation is 10 kHz using WBBW and NBBW?

Advantage of FM over AM
1. Noise Immunity 2. Noise Performance 3. Capture Effect 4. Power Utilization 5. Efficiency

Disadvantage of FM over AM
1. Bandwidth 2. Circuit Complexity

GENERATION OF FM SIGNAL

Exciter AF Amplifier Pre-emphasis

DETECTION OF FM SIGNAL

Limiter

Demodulator

De-Emp

Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

1. Pre-emphasis The process of boosting or amplifying the highfrequency components of the modulating signal prior to performance signal prior to performing modulation for the reason of uneven signal-tonoise ratio at high-frequencies 2. De-emphasis The reverse process that is done in the receiver to compensate the uneven amplification in the transmitter to restore the original level of the modulating signal

METHODS OF GENERATING FM
1. Direct method the capacitance of the devices connected to the RF oscillator is directly varied by the modulating voltage. * Varactor Diode Modulator A practical direct FM generator that uses a varactor (voltage variable capacitor) diode to deviate the frequency of a crystal oscillator

METHODS OF GENERATING FM
1. Direct method * FM Reactance Modulator The variation in the reactance of a junction FET will cause the frequency of oscillation or resonant frequency to vary in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal thereby directly producing FM

METHODS OF GENERATING FM
1. Direct method *Linear Integrated Circuits VCO modulator LIC VCO can generate direct FM output waveform when the input modulating signal is applied directly to the input of the voltage-controlled oscillator where it deviates the carrier frequency

METHODS OF GENERATING FM
2. Indirect Method Armstrong system A relatively low-frequency subcarrier is phase shifted 90 and fed to a balanced modulator, where it is mixed with the input modulating signal. The output from the balanced modulator is a DSBSC wave that is combined with the original carrier in a combining network to produce a low-index, phase modulated waveform