Ecology

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For other uses, see Ecology (disambiguation).

The science of ecology includes everything from global processes above!, the study of various marine and terrestrial habitats middle! to individual interspecific interactions like predation and pollination belo"!. Ecology from #reek: $%$&, oikos, 'house'( )*$+,-, )logia, 'study of'! is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the distribution and abundance of organisms and their interactions "ith their environment../0 The environment of an organism includes all e1ternal factors, including abiotic ones such as climate and geology, and biotic factors, including members of the same species conspecifics! and other species that share a habitat..20 3f the general life science of biology is vie"ed as a hierarchy of levels of organi4ation, from molecular processes, to cells, tissues and organs, and finally to the individual, the population and the ecosystem, then the study of the latter three levels belongs "ithin the purvie" of ecology. 51amples of ob6ects of ecological study include: Population processes, including reproductive behavior, mortality, bioenergetics and migrations, interspecific interactions such as predation, competition, parasitism and mutualism, plant and animal community

structures and their function and resilience, and biogeochemical cycling. 7ecause of its vast scope, ecological science is often closely related to other disciplines. Thus, molecular ecology addresses ecological 8uestions using tools from genetics, paleoecology uses tools from archeology, and theoretical ecologists use often highly comple1 mathematical models to e1plore ho" ecosystems and their elements function. 9side from pure scientific in8uiry, ecology is also a highly applied science. :uch of natural resource management, such as forestry, fisheries, "ildlife management and habitat conservation is directly related to ecological sciences and many problems in agriculture, urban development and public health are informed by ecological considerations. The term 'ecology' has also been appropriated for philosophical ideologies like social ecology and deep ecology and is sometimes used as a synonym for the natural environment or environmentalism. ;ike"ise 'ecological' is often taken in the sense of environmentally friendly.

Contents
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/ <istorical roots of ecology 2 =cope o 2./ >isciplines ? Fundamental principles o ?./ ;evels of organi4ation o ?.2 7iosphere o ?.? 5cosystem o ?.@ >ynamics and stability o ?.A =patial relationships and subdivisions of land o ?.B 5cosystem productivity o ?.C 5cological crisis @ =ee also o @./ ;ists A Dotes B Eeferences C 51ternal links

[edit] Historical roots of ecology

:ain article: <istory of ecology

5rnst <aeckel left! and 5ugenius Warming right!, t"o early founders of ecology. 5cology as a scientific discipline is relatively young, reaching prominence mostly in the second half of the 2Fth century. <o"ever, systematic ecological studies can trace roots to ancient times, "ith 9ristotle and Theophrastus, for e1ample, making early observations on animal migrations and plant biogeography respectively. =everal notable /Gth century scientists such as 9le1ander <umboldt /CBG H /IAG!, Jharles >ar"in /IFG H /II2!, 9lfred Eussel Wallace /I2? H /G/?! and Karl :Lbius /I2A H /GFI! made many important contributions, from laying do"n the foundation of biogeography to identifying an interacting groups of organisms as a functionally connected community biocoenosis!. The term 'ecology' itself #erman: Oekologie! "as first coined by the #erman biologist 5rnst <aeckel in /IBB, "ho defined it as 'the comprehensive science of the relationship of the organism to the environment.'.?0 The first significant te1tbook on the sub6ect together "ith the first university course! "as "ritten by the >anish botanist, 5ugenius Warming. For this early "ork, Warming is sometimes identified as the founder of ecology..@0

[edit] Scope
5cology is usually considered as a branch of biology, the general science that studies living organisms. 3t is associated "ith the highest levels of biological organi4ation, including the individual organism, the population, the ecological community, the ecosystem and the biosphere as a "hole. When referring to the study of a single species, a distinction is often made bet"een its 'ecology' and its 'biology'. For e1ample, 'polar bear biology' might include the study of the polar bearMs physiology, morphology, pathology and ontogeny, "hereas 'polar bear ecology' "ould include a study of its prey species, its population and metapopulation status, distribution, dependence on environmental conditions, etc. 7ecause of its focus on the interrelations bet"een organisms and their environment, ecology is a multidisciplinary science that dra"s on many other branches, including geology and geography, meteorology, soil science, genetics, chemistry, physics, mathematics and statistics. >ue to its breadth of scope, ecology is considered by some to be a holistic science, one that over)arches older disciplines such as biology "hich in this vie" become sub)disciplines contributing to ecological kno"ledge. 3t has been argued that the mechanistic models "hich have driven the development of most other sciences are inappropriate for unraveling the comple1 interactions in most ecosystems, and that

progress in ecology is better served by a central paradigm driven by information theory and comple1ity theory..A0 5cology is also a highly applied science, especially "ith respect to issues of natural resource management. 5fforts related to "ildlife conservation, habitat management, mitigation of ecological impacts of environmental pollution, ecosystem restoration, species reintroductions, fisheries, forestry and game management are often the direct domain of applied ecology. Urban development, agricultural and public health issues are also often informed by ecological perspectives and analysis.

[edit] Disciplines
:ain article: 5cology disciplines! 5cology is a broad discipline comprising many sub)disciplines. 9 common, broad classification, moving from lo"est to highest comple1ity, "here comple1ity is defined as the number of entities and processes in the system under study, is:

5cophysiology e1amines ho" the physiological functions of organisms influence the "ay they interact "ith the environment, both biotic and abiotic. 7ehavioral ecology e1amines the roles of behavior in enabling an animal to adapt to its environment. Population ecology studies the dynamics of populations of a single species. Jommunity ecology or synecology! focuses on the interactions bet"een species "ithin an ecological community. 5cosystem ecology studies the flo"s of energy and matter through the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems. =ystems ecology is an interdisciplinary field focusing on the study, development, and organi4ation of ecological systems from a holistic perspective. ;andscape ecology e1amines processes and relationship in a spatially e1plicit manner, often across multiple ecosystems or very large geographic areas. 5volutionary ecology studies ecology in a "ay that e1plicitly considers the evolutionary histories of species and their interactions. Political ecology connects politics and economy to problems of environmental control and ecological change.

5cology can also be sub)divided according to the species of interest into fields such as animal ecology, plant ecology, insect ecology, and so on. 9nother fre8uent method of subdivision is by biome studied, e.g., 9rctic ecology or polar ecology!, tropical ecology, desert ecology, marine ecology, etc. The primary techni8ue used for investigation is often used to subdivide the discipline into groups such as chemical ecology, molecular ecology, field ecology, 8uantitative ecology, theoretical ecology, and so forth. =ubdivisions of ecology are not mutually e1clusive( indeed, very fe" e1ist in isolation. :any of them overlap, complement and inform each other. For e1ample, the population ecology of an organism is a conse8uence of its behavioral ecology and intimately tied to

its community ecology. :ethods from molecular ecology might inform the study of the population, and all kinds of data are modeled and analy4ed using 8uantitative ecology techni8ues, often motivated by basic results in theoretical ecology.

[edit] Fundamental principles

[edit] Levels of organization

=ome of the biodiversity of a coral reef 5cology can be studied at a "ide range of levels, from large to small scale. These levels of ecological organi4ation, as "ell as an e1ample of a 8uestion ecologists "ould ask at each level, include:

7iosphere: ' What role does concentration of atmospheric carbon dio1ide play in the regulation of global temperatureN' Eegion: '<o" has geological history influenced regional diversity "ithin certain groups of organismsN' ;andscape: '<o" do vegetated corridors affect the rate of movement by mammals among isolated fragmentsN' 5cosystem: '<o" does fire affect nutrient availability in grassland ecosystemsN' Jommunity: '<o" does disturbance influence the number of mammal species in 9frican grasslandsN' 3nteractions: 'What evolutionary benefit do 4ebras gain by allo"ing birds to remove parasitesN' Population: 'What factors control 4ebra populationsN' 3ndividual Organism: '<o" do 4ebras regulate internal "ater balanceN'

These levels range from broadest to most specific..B0

[edit] Biosp ere

:ain articles: 7iosphere, 7iodiversity, and Unified neutral theory of biodiversity For modern ecologists, ecology can be studied at several levels: population level individuals of the same species in the same or similar environment!, biocoenosis level or community of species!, ecosystem level, and biosphere level. The outer layer of the planet 5arth can be divided into several compartments: the hydrosphere or sphere of "ater!, the lithosphere or sphere of soils and rocks!, and the atmosphere or sphere of the air!. The biosphere or sphere of life!, sometimes described as 'the fourth envelope,' is all living matter on the planet or that portion of the planet occupied by life. 3t reaches "ell into the other three spheres, although there are no permanent inhabitants of the atmosphere. Eelative to the volume of the 5arth, the biosphere is only the very thin surface layer that e1tends from //,FFF meters belo" sea level to /A,FFF meters above. Eart !s oceans "#orld $cean%

9rctic Ocean 9tlantic Ocean 3ndian Ocean Pacific Ocean =outhern Ocean

3t is thought that life first developed in the hydrosphere, at shallo" depths, in the photic 4one. Eecently, though, a competing theory has emerged, that life originated around hydrothermal vents in the deeper ocean. =ee Origin of life.! :ulticellular organisms then appeared and coloni4ed benthic 4ones. Photosynthetic organisms gradually produced the chemically unstable o1ygen)rich atmosphere that characteri4es our planet. Terrestrial life developed later, protected from UP rays by the o4one layer. >iversification of terrestrial species is thought to be increased by the continents drifting apart, or alternately, colliding. 7iodiversity is e1pressed at the ecological level ecosystem!, population level intraspecific diversity!, species level specific diversity!, and genetic level. The biosphere contains great 8uantities of elements such as carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and o1ygen. Other elements, such as phosphorus, calcium, and potassium, are also essential to life, yet are present in smaller amounts. 9t the ecosystem and biosphere levels, there is a continual recycling of all these elements, "hich alternate bet"een the mineral and organic states.

9lthough there is a slight input of geothermal energy, the bulk of the functioning of the ecosystem is based on the input of solar energy. Plants and photosynthetic microorganisms convert light into chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis, "hich creates glucose a simple sugar! and releases free o1ygen. #lucose thus becomes the secondary energy source that drives the ecosystem. =ome of this glucose is used directly by other organisms for energy. Other sugar molecules can be converted to molecules such as amino acids. Plants use some of this sugar, concentrated in nectar, to entice pollinators to aid them in reproduction. Jellular respiration is the process by "hich organisms like mammals! break the glucose back do"n into its constituents, "ater and carbon dio1ide, thus regaining the stored energy the sun originally gave to the plants. The proportion of photosynthetic activity of plants and other photosynthesi4ers to the respiration of other organisms determines the specific composition of the 5arthMs atmosphere, particularly its o1ygen level. #lobal air currents mi1 the atmosphere and maintain nearly the same balance of elements in areas of intense biological activity and areas of slight biological activity. Water is also e1changed bet"een the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere in regular cycles. The oceans are large tanks that store "ater, ensure thermal and climatic stability, and facilitate the transport of chemical elements thanks to large oceanic currents. For a better understanding of ho" the biosphere "orks, and various dysfunctions related to human activity, 9merican scientists attempted to simulate the biosphere in a small) scale model, called 7iosphere 33.

[edit] Ecosystem
:ain article: 5cosystem

The >aintree Eainforest in Queensland, 9ustralia is an e1ample of a forest ecosystem. 9 central principle of ecology is that each living organism has an ongoing and continual relationship "ith every other element that makes up its environment. The sum total of interacting living organisms the biocoenosis! and their non)living environment the

biotope! in an area is termed an ecosystem. =tudies of ecosystems usually focus on the movement of energy and matter through the system. 9lmost all ecosystems run on energy captured from the sun by primary producers via photosynthesis. This energy then flo"s through the food chains to primary consumers herbivores "ho eat and digest the plants!, and on to secondary and tertiary consumers either carnivores or omnivores!. 5nergy is lost to living organisms "hen it is used by the organisms to do "ork, or is lost as "aste heat. :atter is incorporated into living organisms by the primary producers. Photosynthetic plants fi1 carbon from carbon dio1ide and nitrogen from atmospheric nitrogen or nitrates present in the soil to produce amino acids. :uch of the carbon and nitrogen contained in ecosystems is created by such plants, and is then consumed by secondary and tertiary consumers and incorporated into themselves. Dutrients are usually returned to the ecosystem via decomposition. The entire movement of chemicals in an ecosystem is termed a biogeochemical cycle, and includes the carbon and nitrogen cycle. 5cosystems of any si4e can be studied( for e1ample, a rock and the plant life gro"ing on it might be considered an ecosystem. This rock might be "ithin a plain, "ith many such rocks, small grass, and gra4ing animals )) also an ecosystem. This plain might be in the tundra, "hich is also an ecosystem although once they are of this si4e, they are generally termed eco4ones or biomes!. 3n fact, the entire terrestrial surface of the earth, all the matter "hich composes it, the air that is directly above it, and all the living organisms living "ithin it can be considered as one, large ecosystem. 5cosystems can be roughly divided into terrestrial ecosystems including forest ecosystems, steppes, savannas, and so on!, fresh"ater ecosystems lakes, ponds and rivers!, and marine ecosystems, depending on the dominant biotope.

[edit] Dynamics and sta&ility

:ain articles: 7iogeochemistry, <omeostasis, and Population dynamics

:uch attention has been given to preserving the natural characteristics of <opetoun Falls, 9ustralia, "hile allo"ing ample access for visitors. Ecological factors that affect dynamic change in a population or species in a given ecology or environment are usually divided into t"o groups: abiotic and biotic.

'&iotic factors are geological, geographical, hydrological, and climatological parameters. 9 &iotope is an environmentally uniform region characteri4ed by a particular set of abiotic ecological factors. =pecific abiotic factors include:

Water, "hich is at the same time an essential element to life and a milieu 9ir, "hich provides o1ygen, nitrogen, and carbon dio1ide to living species and allo"s the dissemination of pollen and spores =oil, at the same time a source of nutriment and physical support o =oil p<, salinity, nitrogen and phosphorus content, ability to retain "ater, and density are all influential Temperature, "hich should not e1ceed certain e1tremes, even if tolerance to heat is significant for some species ;ight, "hich provides energy to the ecosystem through photosynthesis Datural disasters can also be considered abiotic

Biocenose, or community, is a group of populations of plants, animals, microorganisms. 5ach population is the result of procreations bet"een individuals of the same species and cohabitation in a given place and for a given time. When a population consists of an insufficient number of individuals, that population is threatened "ith e1tinction( the e1tinction of a species can approach "hen all biocenoses composed of individuals of the species are in decline. 3n small populations, consanguinity inbreeding! can result in reduced genetic diversity, "hich can further "eaken the biocenose. Biotic ecological factors also influence biocenose viability( these factors are considered as either intraspecific or interspecific relations. (ntraspecific relations are those that are established bet"een individuals of the same species, forming a population. They are relations of cooperation or competition, "ith division of the territory, and sometimes organi4ation in hierarchical societies.

9n antlion lies in "ait under its pit trap, built in dry dust under a building, a"aiting un"ary insects that fall in. :any pest insects are partly or "holly controlled by other insect predators. (nterspecific relationsRinteractions bet"een different speciesRare numerous, and usually described according to their beneficial, detrimental, or neutral effect for e1ample, mutualism relation SS! or competition relation ))!. The most significant relation is the relation of predation to eat or to be eaten!, "hich leads to the essential concepts in ecology of food chains for e1ample, the grass is

consumed by the herbivore, itself consumed by a carnivore, itself consumed by a carnivore of larger si4e!. 9 high predator to prey ratio can have a negative influence on both the predator and prey biocenoses in that lo" availability of food and high death rate prior to se1ual maturity can decrease or prevent the increase of! populations of each, respectively. =elective hunting of species by humans that leads to population decline is one e1ample of a high predator to prey ratio in action. Other interspecific relations include parasitism, infectious disease, and competition for limited resources, "hich can occur "hen t"o species share the same ecological niche. The e1isting interactions bet"een the various living beings go along "ith a permanent mi1ing of mineral and organic substances, absorbed by organisms for their gro"th, their maintenance, and their reproduction, to be finally re6ected as "aste. These permanent recycling of the elements in particular carbon, o1ygen, and nitrogen! as "ell as the "ater are called biogeochemical cycles. They guarantee a durable stability of the biosphere at least "hen unchecked human influence and e1treme "eather or geological phenomena are left aside!. This self)regulation, supported by negative feedback controls, ensures the perenniality of the ecosystems. 3t is sho"n by the very stable concentrations of most elements of each compartment. This is referred to as homeostasis. The ecosystem also tends to evolve to a state of ideal balance, called the clima1, "hich is reached after a succession of events for e1ample a pond can become a peat bog!.

[edit] Spatial relations ips and su&divisions of land

:ain articles: 7iome and eco4one 5cosystems are not isolated from each other, but are interrelated. For e1ample, "ater may circulate bet"een ecosystems by means of a river or ocean current. Water itself, as a li8uid medium, even defines ecosystems. =ome species, such as salmon or fresh"ater eels, move bet"een marine systems and fresh)"ater systems. These relationships bet"een the ecosystems lead to the concept of a biome. 9 biome is a homogeneous ecological formation that e1ists over a large region, such as tundra or steppes. The biosphere comprises all of the 5arthMs biomes )) the entirety of places "here life is possible )) from the highest mountains to the depths of the oceans. 7iomes correspond rather "ell to subdivisions distributed along the latitudes, from the e8uator to"ards the poles, "ith differences based on the physical environment for e1ample, oceans or mountain ranges! and the climate. Their variation is generally related to the distribution of species according to their ability to tolerate temperature, dryness, or both. For e1ample, one may find photosynthetic algae only in the photic part of the ocean "here light penetrates!, "hereas conifers are mostly found in mountains. Though this is a simplification of a more complicated scheme, latitude and altitude appro1imate a good representation of the distribution of biodiversity "ithin the biosphere. Pery generally, the richness of biodiversity as "ell for animal as for plant

species! is decreasing most rapidly near the e8uator and less rapidly as one approach the poles. The biosphere may also be divided into eco4ones, "hich are very "ell defined today and primarily follo" the continental borders. The eco4ones are themselves divided into ecoregions, though there is not agreement on their limits.

[edit] Ecosystem productivity

3n an ecosystem, the connections bet"een species are generally related to their role in the food chain. There are three categories of organisms:

The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. roducers or !utotrophs )) Usually plants or cyanobacteria that are capable of photosynthesis but could be other organisms such as the bacteria near ocean vents that are capable of chemosynthesis. "onsumers or #eterotrophs )) 9nimals, "hich can be primary consumers herbivorous!, or secondary or tertiary consumers carnivorous and omnivores!. $ecomposers or $etriti%ores )) 7acteria, fungi, and insects "hich degrade organic matter of all types and restore nutrients to the environment. The producers "ill then consume the nutrients, completing the cycle. These relations form se8uences, in "hich each individual consumes the preceding one and is consumed by the one follo"ing, in "hat are called food chains or food net"orks. 3n a food net"ork, there "ill be fe"er organisms at each level as one follo"s the links of the net"ork up the chain, forming a pyramid. These concepts lead to the idea of biomass the total living matter in an ecosystem!, primary productivity the increase in organic compounds!, and secondary productivity the living matter produced by consumers and the decomposers in a given time!.

9n ecological pyramid These last t"o ideas are key, since they make it possible to evaluate the carrying capacity )) the number of organisms that can be supported by a given ecosystem. 3n any food net"ork, the energy contained in the level of the producers is not completely transferred to the consumers. The higher up the chain, the more energy and resources are lost. Thus, from a purely energy and nutrient point of vie", it is more efficient for humans to be primary consumers to subsist from vegetables, grains, legumes, fruit, etc.! than to be secondary consumers consuming herbivores, omnivores, or their products! and still more so than as a tertiary consumer consuming carnivores, omnivores, or their products!. 9n ecosystem is unstable "hen the carrying capacity is overrun. The total productivity of ecosystems is sometimes estimated by comparing three types of land)based ecosystems and the total of a8uatic ecosystems. =lightly over half of primary production is estimated to occur on land, and the rest in the ocean.

The forests /T? of the 5arthMs land area! contain dense biomasses and are very productive. =avannas, meado"s, and marshes /T? of the 5arthMs land area! contain less dense biomasses, but are productive. These ecosystems represent the ma6or part of "hat humans depend on for food. 51treme ecosystems in the areas "ith more e1treme climates )) deserts and semi) deserts, tundra, alpine meado"s, and steppes )) /T? of the 5arthMs land area! have very sparse biomasses and lo" productivity Finally, the marine and fresh "ater ecosystems ?T@ of 5arthMs surface! contain very sparse biomasses apart from the coastal 4ones!.

5cosystems differ in biomass grams carbon per s8uare meter! and productivity grams carbon per s8uare meter per day!, and direct comparisons of biomass and productivity may not be valid. 9n ecosystem such as that found in taiga may be high in biomass, but slo" gro"ing and thus lo" in productivity. 5cosystems are often compared on the basis of their turnover production ratio! or turnover time "hich is the reciprocal of turnover. <umanityMs actions over the last fe" centuries have seriously reduced the amount of the 5arth covered by forests deforestation!, and have increased agro)ecosystems. 3n recent

decades, an increase in the areas occupied by e1treme ecosystems has occurred, such as desertification.

[edit] Ecological crisis

:ain article: 5cological crisis

The retreat of 9letsch #lacier in the ="iss 9lps situation in /GCG, /GG/ and 2FF2!, due to global "arming. #enerally, an ecological crisis occurs "ith the loss of adaptive capacity "hen the resilience of an environment or of a species or a population evolves in a "ay unfavourable to coping "ith perturbations that interfere "ith that ecosystem, landscape or species survival Dote: The concept of resilience is not universally accepted in ecology, and moreso represents a contingent "ithin the field that take a holist vie" of the environment. There are also many ecologists that take a reductionistic perspective and that believe that the environment, at base, is indeterministic!. 3t may be that the environment 8uality degrades compared to the species needs, after a change in an abiotic ecological factor for e1ample, an increase of temperature, less significant rainfalls!.citation needed0 . 3t may be that the environment becomes unfavourable for the survival of a species or a population! due to an increased pressure of predation for e1ample overfishing!. ;astly, it may be that the situation becomes unfavourable to the 8uality of life of the species or the population! due to a rise in the number of individuals overpopulation!. 5cological crises vary in length and severity, occurring "ithin a fe" months or taking as long as a fe" million years. They can also be of natural or anthropic origin. They may relate to one uni8ue species or to many species, as in an 51tinction event. ;astly, an ecological crisis may be local as an oil spill! or global a rise in the sea level due to global "arming!. 9ccording to its degree of endemism, a local crisis "ill have more or less significant conse8uences, from the death of many individuals to the total e1tinction of a species. Whatever its origin, disappearance of one or several species often "ill involve a rupture in the food chain, further impacting the survival of other species. 3n the case of a global crisis, the conse8uences can be much more significant( some e1tinction events sho"ed the disappearance of more than GFU of e1isting species at that time. <o"ever, it should be noted that the disappearance of certain species, such as the dinosaurs, by freeing an ecological niche, allo"ed the development and the diversification of the mammals. 9n ecological crisis thus parado1ically favoured biodiversity.

=ometimes, an ecological crisis can be a specific and reversible phenomenon at the ecosystem scale. 7ut more generally, the crises impact "ill last. 3ndeed, it rather is a connected series of events, that occur till a final point. From this stage, no return to the previous stable state is possible, and a ne" stable state "ill be set up gradually see homeorhesy!. ;astly, if an ecological crisis can cause e1tinction, it can also more simply reduce the 8uality of life of the remaining individuals. Thus, even if the diversity of the human population is sometimes considered threatened see in particular indigenous people!, fe" people envision human disappearance at short span. <o"ever, epidemic diseases, famines, impact on health of reduction of air 8uality, food crises, reduction of living space, accumulation of to1ic or non degradable "astes, threats on keystone species great apes, panda, "hales! are also factors influencing the "ell)being of people. >ue to the increases in technology and a rapidly increasing population, humans have more influence on their o"n environment than any other ecosystem engineer.

[edit] See also

Environment portal Ecology portal Earth sciences portal Sustainable development portal

7achalpsee in the ="iss 9lps( generally mountainous areas are less affected by human activity. 9coustic ecology 9groecology Jonservation movement 5arth science 5cological economics 5cological Forecasting 5cology movement 5cology of conte1ts 5cosystem model 5cohydrology 5;>3=, a database on ecological aspects of economical development. Forest farming

Forest gardening <abitat conservation <uman ecology Kno"ledge ecology Datural capital Dature

[edit] Lists

3nde1 of biology articles #lossary of ecology ;ist of ecologists ;ist of important publications in biologyV5cology Outline of biology Outline of ecology

[edit] )otes
/. * 7egon, :.( To"nsend, J. E., <arper, J. ;. 2FFB!. Ecology& From indi%iduals to ecosystems. ('th ed.). 7lack"ell. 3=7D /@FA////CI. 2. * Jampbell, Deil 9.( 7rad Williamson( Eobin J. <eyden 2FFB!. (iology& E)ploring *i+e. 7oston, :assachusetts: Pearson Prentice <all. 3=7D F)/?) 2AFII2)B. http:TT""".phschool.comTelWmarketing.html. ?. * Frodin, >.#. 2FF/!. ,uide to -tandard Floras o+ the .orld. Jambridge: Jambridge University Press. pp. C2. 3=7D F)A2/)CGFCC)I. http:TTbooks.google.comTbooksN idXa:6YJF@rm>UJZprintsecXfrontcoverZd8X863yUK12PnK9[>"24T\9GnB hkukVPP9C2,:/. '.ecology is0 a term first introduced by <aeckel in /IBB as ]kologie and "hich came into 5nglish in /IC?' @. * #oodland, E.J. /GCA! The tropical origin of ecology: 5ugen Warming^s 6ubilee. Oikos +,, 2@F)2@A. A. * E. Ulano"ic4, Ecology& /he !scendent erspecti%e, Jolumbia /GGC! B. * 5cology: Joncepts Z 9pplications. Fourth 5dition :anuel J. :olles Jr. U of De" :e1ico. 2FFI :c#ra" <ill Publishing. 3=7D GCI)F)FC)?FAFI2)G

[edit] -eferences

Jampbell, Deil 9.( 7rad Williamson( Eobin J. <eyden 2FFB!. (iology& E)ploring *i+e. 7oston, :assachusetts: Pearson Prentice <all. 3=7D F/?2AFII2B. http:TT""".phschool.comTelWmarketing.html. <aeckel, 5. /IBB! ,eneral Morphology o+ Organisms0 ,eneral Outlines o+ the -cience o+ Organic Forms based on Mechanical rinciples through the /heory o+ $escent as re+ormed by "harles $ar1in. 7erlin Odum, 5. P. /GC/! ,eneral rinciples o+ Ecology, /hird Edition W. 7. =uanders Jompany. pp /C)2F

Warming, 5. /GFG! Oecology of Plants ) an introduction to the study of plant) communities. Jlarendon Press, O1ford.

[edit] E.ternal lin/s

Wikimedia Jommons has media related to: Ecology 9t Wikiversity you can learn more and teach others about Ecology at: The >epartment of 5cology Wikibooks has more on the topic of Ecology ;ook up ecology in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

5cology =tanford 5ncyclopedia of Philosophy! 5cology Journals ;ist of scientific 6ournals related to 5cology 5cology >ictionary ) 51planation of 5cological Terms