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Ludwig Wittgenstein
Ludwig Wittgenstein
Photographed by Ben Richards Swansea, Wales, 1947 Born 26 April 1889 Vienna, Austria-Hungary 29 April 1951 (aged62) Cambridge, England, UK Prostate cancer 20th century philosophy Analytic philosophy
Died
Era School
Maininterests Logic, Metaphysics, Philosophy of language, Philosophy of mathematics, Philosophy of mind, Epistemology Notableideas Picture theory of language Truth functions States of affairs Logical necessity Meaning is use Language-games Private language argument Family resemblance Rule following Forms of life Wittgensteinian fideism Anti-realism Wittgenstein's philosophy of mathematics Ordinary language philosophy Ideal language analysis Meaning scepticism Memory scepticism Intuitionism Semantic externalism Quietism
Website
The Wittgenstein Archives at the University of Bergen [2] The Cambridge Wittgenstein Archive
[1]
Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein (26 April 1889 29 April 1951) was an Austrian-British philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language. From 1939 till 1947, Wittgenstein taught at the University of Cambridge.[3] He published few works in his lifetime, including one book review, one article, a children's dictionary, and the 75-page Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921).[4] In 1999, Baruch Poll rated his posthumously published Philosophical Investigations (1953) as the most important book of the 20th-century philosophy, standing out as "...the one crossover masterpiece ... appealing across diverse specializations and philosophical orientations".[5] Philosopher Bertrand Russell described him as "the most perfect example I have ever known of genius as traditionally conceived; passionate, profound, intense, and dominating".[6] Born in Vienna into one of Europe's richest families, he gave away his entire inheritance.[7] Three of his brothers committed suicide, with Wittgenstein contemplating it too.[8] He left academia several times: serving as an officer on the frontline during World War I, where he was decorated a number of times for his courage; teaching in schools in
Ludwig Wittgenstein remote Austrian villages, where he encountered controversy for hitting children when they made mistakes in mathematics; and working during World War II as a hospital porter in London, where he told patients not to take the drugs they were prescribed, and where he largely managed to keep secret the fact that he was one of the world's most famous philosophers.[9] He described philosophy, however, as "the only work that gives me real satisfaction."[10] His philosophy is often divided into an early period, exemplified by the Tractatus, and a later period, articulated in the Philosophical Investigations. The early Wittgenstein was concerned with the logical relationship between propositions and the world, and believed that by providing an account of the logic underlying this relationship he had solved all philosophical problems. However, even his early period reveals an underlying mysticism, stating that words "reach out to" referents, without touching them. The later Wittgenstein rejected many of the assumptions of the Tractatus, arguing that the meaning of words is constituted by the function they perform within any given language-game, a concept he developed along with Friedrich Waismann, one of his closest collaborators.[11] Wittgenstein's influence has been felt in nearly every field of the humanities and social sciences, yet there are widely diverging interpretations of his thought. In the words of his friend and colleague Georg Henrik von Wright: "He was of the opinion... that his ideas were generally misunderstood and distorted even by those who professed to be his disciples. He doubted he would be better understood in the future. He once said he felt as though he were writing for people who would think in a different way, breathe a different air of life, from that of present-day men."[12]
Background
The Wittgensteins
According to a family tree prepared in Jerusalem after World War II, Wittgenstein's paternal great-grandfather was Moses Meier, a Jewish land agent who lived with his wife, Brendel Simon, in Bad Laasphe in the Principality of Wittgenstein, Westphalia.[13] In July 1808, Napoleon issued a decree that everyone, including Jews, must adopt an inheritable family surname, and so Meier's son, also Moses, took the name of his employers, the Sayn-Wittgensteins, and became Moses Meier Wittgenstein.[14] His son, Hermann Christian Wittgensteinwho took the middle name "Christian" to distance himself from his Jewish backgroundmarried Fanny Figdor, also Jewish, who converted to Protestantism just before they married, and the couple founded a successful business trading in wool in Leipzig.[15] Ludwig's Karl Wittgenstein was one of the grandmother, Fanny Figdor, was a first cousin of the famous violinist Joseph richest men in Europe. Joachim.[16] They had 11 childrenamong them Wittgenstein's father. Karl Wittgenstein (18471913) became an industrial tycoon, and by the late 1880s was one of the richest men in Europe, with an effective monopoly on Austria's steel cartel.[][17] Thanks to Karl, the Wittgensteins became the second wealthiest family in Austria-Hungary, behind only the Rothschilds. As a result of his decision in 1898 to invest substantially overseas, particularly in the Netherlands, Switzerland and the US, the family was to an extent shielded from the hyperinflation that hit Austria in 1922.[18] Their wealth did still diminish due to post-1918 hyperinflation and the Great Depression, although even as late as 1938 they owned 13 mansions in Vienna alone.[19]
Ludwig Wittgenstein
Early life
Wittgenstein's mother was Leopoldine Kalmus, known among friends as Poldi. Her father was a Czech Jew and her mother was Austrian-Slovene Catholicshe was Wittgenstein's maternal grandmother and only non-Jewish grandparent, whose ancestry was Austrian[20][21][22] and an aunt of the Nobel Prize laureate Friedrich Hayek on her maternal side. Wittgenstein was born at 8:30 pm on 26 April 1889 in the so-called "Wittgenstein Palace" at Alleegasse 16, now the Argentinierstrasse, near the Karlskirche.[23] Karl and Poldi had nine children in all. There were four girls: Hermine, Margaret (Gretl), Helene, and a fourth daughter who died as a baby; and five boys: Johannes (Hans), Kurt, Rudolf (Rudi), Paulwho became a concert pianist despite losing an arm in World War Iand Ludwig, who was the youngest of the family.[24] The children were baptized as Catholics, and raised in an exceptionally intense environment. The family was at the center of Vienna's cultural life; Bruno Walter described the life at the Wittgensteins' palace as an "all-pervading atmosphere of humanity and culture".[25] Karl was a leading patron of the arts, commissioning works by Auguste Rodin and financing the city's exhibition hall and art gallery, the Secession Building. Gustav Klimt painted Wittgenstein's sister for her wedding portrait, and Johannes Brahms and Gustav Mahler gave regular concerts in the family's numerous music rooms.[26]
Ludwig's sister Margaret, painted by Gustav Klimt for her wedding portrait in 1905
For Wittgenstein, who highly valued precision and discipline, contemporary music was never considered acceptable at all. "Music", he said to his friend Drury in 1930, "came to a full stop with Brahms; and even in Brahms I can begin to hear the noise of machinery."[27] Wittgenstein himself had absolute pitch,[28] and his devotion to music remained vitally important to him throughout his life: he made frequent use of musical examples and metaphors in his philosophical writings, and was unusually adept at whistling lengthy and detailed musical passages. He also learnt to play the clarinet in his thirties.
Ludwig Wittgenstein
The eldest brother, Hans, was hailed as a musical prodigy. At the age of four, writes Alexander Waugh, Hans could identify the Doppler effect in a passing siren as a quarter-tone drop in pitch, and at five started crying "Wrong! Wrong!" when two brass bands in a carnival played the same tune in different keys. But he died in mysterious circumstances in May 1902, when he ran away to America and disappeared from a boat in Chesapeake Bay, most likely having committed suicide.[33]
Ludwig (bottom-right), Paul, and their sisters,
Two years later, aged 22 and studying chemistry at the Berlin late 1890s Academy, the third eldest brother, Rudi, committed suicide in a Berlin bar. He had asked the pianist to play Thomas Koschat's "Verlassen, verlassen, verlassen bin ich ("Forsaken, forsaken, forsaken am I"),[34] before mixing himself a drink of milk and potassium cyanide. He had left several suicide notes, one to his parents that said he was grieving over the death of a friend, and another that referred to his "perverted disposition". It was reported at the time that he had sought advice from the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, an organization that was campaigning against Paragraph 175 of the German Criminal Code, which prohibited homosexual sex. His father forbade the family from ever mentioning his name again.[35]
"I won't say 'See you tomorrow' because that would be like predicting the future, and I'm pretty sure I can't do that." Wittgenstein, [36] 1949
The second eldest brother, Kurt, an officer and company director, shot himself on 27 October 1918 at the end of World War I, when the Austrian troops he was commanding refused to obey his orders and deserted en masse. According to Gottlieb, Hermine had said Kurt seemed to carry "the germ of disgust for life within himself".[37] Later Wittgenstein wrote: "I ought to have... become a star in the sky. Instead of which I have remained stuck on earth."[38]
Ludwig Wittgenstein
Loss of faith
It was while he was at the Realschule that he decided he had lost his faith in God.[54] He nevertheless believed in the importance of the idea of confession. He wrote in his diaries about having made a major confession to his oldest sister, Hermine, while he was at the Realschule; Monk writes that it may have been about his loss of faith. He also discussed it with Gretl, his other sister, who directed him to Arthur Schopenhauer's The World as Will and Representation. As a teenager, Wittgenstein adopted Schopenhauer's epistemological idealism. However, after his study of the philosophy of mathematics, he abandoned epistemological idealism for Gottlob Frege's conceptual realism. In later years, Wittgenstein was highly dismissive of Schopenhauer, describing him as an ultimately "shallow" thinker: "Schopenhauer has quite a crude mind... where real depth starts, his comes to an end".[55]
Ludwig Wittgenstein right to live at all; the choice is genius or death. Weininger committed suicide, shooting himself in 1903, shortly after publishing the book.[56] Many years later, as a professor at Cambridge, Wittgenstein distributed copies of Weininger's book to his bemused academic colleagues. He said that Weininger's arguments were wrong, but that it was the way in which they were wrong that was interesting.[57]
19061913: University
Engineering at Berlin and Manchester
He began his studies in mechanical engineering at the Technische Hochschule in Charlottenburg, Berlin, on 23 October 1906, lodging with the family of professor Dr. Jolles. He attended for three semesters, and was awarded a diploma on 5 May 1908. During his time at the Institute, Wittgenstein developed an interest in aeronautics.[58] He arrived at the Victoria University of Manchester in the spring of 1908 to do his doctorate, full of plans for aeronautical projects, including designing and flying his own plane. He conducted research into the The old Technische Hochschule in behavior of kites in the upper atmosphere, experimenting at a Charlottenburg, Berlin meteorological observation site near Glossop.[59] He also worked on the design of a propeller with small jet engines on the end of its blades, something he patented in 1911 and which earned him a research studentship from the university in the autumn of 1908.[60] It was at this time that he became interested in the foundations of mathematics, particularly after reading Bertrand Russell's The Principles of Mathematics (1903), and Gottlob Frege's Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, vol. 1 (1893) and vol. 2 (1903).[61] Wittgenstein's sister Hermine said he became obsessed with mathematics as a result, and was anyway losing interest in aeronautics. He decided instead that he needed to study logic and the foundations of mathematics, describing Wittgenstein stayed at the Grouse Inn in 1908 himself as in a "constant, indescribable, almost pathological state of while engaged in research near Glossop. agitation". In the summer of 1911 he visited Frege at the University of Jena to show him some philosophy of mathematics and logic he had written, and to ask whether it was worth pursuing.[62] He wrote: "I was shown into Frege's study. Frege was a small, neat man with a pointed beard who bounced around the room as he talked. He absolutely wiped the floor with me, and I felt very depressed; but at the end he said 'You must come again', so I cheered up. I had several discussions with him after that. Frege would never talk about anything but logic and mathematics, if I started on some other subject, he would say something polite and then plunge back into logic and mathematics."[63]
Ludwig Wittgenstein
Arrival at Cambridge
Wittgenstein wanted to study with Frege, but Frege suggested he attend the University of Cambridge to study under Russell, so on 18 October 1911 Wittgenstein arrived unannounced at Russell's rooms in Trinity College.[64] Russell was having tea with C. K. Ogden, when, according to Russell, "... an unknown German appeared, speaking very little English but refusing to speak German. He turned out to be a man who had learned engineering at Charlottenburg, but during this course had acquired, by himself, a passion for the philosophy of mathematics & has now come to The Wren Library, Trinity College, Cambridge. Cambridge on purpose to hear me." He was soon not only attending Russell's lectures, but dominating them. The lectures were poorly attended and Russell often found himself lecturing only to C. D. Broad, E. H. Neville, and H. T. J. Norton. Wittgenstein started following him after lectures back to his rooms to discuss more philosophy, until it was time for the evening meal in Hall. Russell grew irritated; he wrote to his lover Lady Ottoline Morrell: "My German friend threatens to be an infliction."[65] Russell soon came to believe that Wittgenstein was a genius, especially after he had examined Wittgenstein's written work. He wrote in November 1911 that he had at first thought Wittgenstein might be a crank, but soon decided he was a genius: "Some of his early views made the decision difficult. He maintained, for example, at one time that all existential propositions are meaningless. This was in a lecture room, and I invited him to consider the proposition: 'There is no hippopotamus in this room at present.' When he refused to believe this, I looked under all the desks without finding one; but he remained unconvinced." Three months after Wittgenstein's arrival Russell told Morrell: "I love him & feel he will solve the problems I am too old to solve ... He is the young man one hopes for."[66] The role-reversal between him and Wittgenstein was such that he wrote in 1916, after Wittgenstein had criticized his own work: "His criticism, 'tho I don't think he realized it at the time, was an event of first-rate importance in my life, and affected everything I have done since. I saw that he was right, and I saw that I could not hope ever again to do fundamental work in philosophy."[67]
poker, demanding that Popper give him an example of a moral rule. Popper offered one"Not to threaten visiting speakers with pokers"at which point Russell told Wittgenstein he had misunderstood and Wittgenstein left. Popper
Ludwig Wittgenstein maintained that Wittgenstein 'stormed out', but it had become accepted practice for him to leave early (because of his aforementioned ability to dominate discussion). It was the only time the philosophers, three of the most eminent in the world, were ever in the same room together.[70] The minutes record that the meeting was "charged to an unusual degree with a spirit of controversy".[71] John Maynard Keynes also invited him to join the Cambridge Apostles, an elite secret society formed in 1820, which both Russell and G. E. Moore had joined as students, but Wittgenstein did not enjoy it and attended infrequently. Russell had been worried that Wittgenstein would not appreciate the group's unseriousness, style of humour, or the fact that the members were in love with one another.[72]
Ludwig Wittgenstein
The original manuscript of Wittgenstein's Notes on Logic (1914) on display at the Wren Library, Trinity College, Cambridge
At Wittgenstein's insistence, Moore, who was now a Cambridge don, visited him in Norway in 1914, reluctantly because Wittgenstein exhausted him. David Edmonds and John Eidinow write that Wittgenstein regarded Moore, an internationally-known philosopher, as an example of how far someone could get in life with "absolutely no intelligence whatever".[81] In Norway it was clear that Moore was expected to act as Wittgenstein's secretary, taking down his notes, with Wittgenstein falling into a rage when Moore got something wrong. When he returned to Cambridge, Moore asked the university to consider accepting Logik as sufficient for a bachelor's degree, but they refused, saying it wasn't formatted properly: no footnotes, no preface. Wittgenstein was furious, writing to Moore in May 1914: "If I am not worth your making an exception for me even in some STUPID details then I may as well go to Hell directly; and if I am worth it and you don't do it thenby Godyou might go there."[82] Moore was apparently distraught; he wrote in his diary that he felt sick and could not get the letter out of his head.[83] The two did not speak again until 1929.[]
Ludwig Wittgenstein
10
Military service
On the outbreak of World War I, Wittgenstein immediately volunteered for the Austro-Hungarian Army, first serving on a ship and then in an artillery workshop. In March 1916, he was posted to a fighting unit on the front line of the Russian front, as part of the Austrian 7th Army, where his unit was involved in some of the heaviest fighting, defending against the Brusilov Offensive.[84] In action against British troops, he was decorated with the Military Merit with Swords on the Ribbon, and was commended by the army for "His exceptionally courageous behaviour, calmness, sang-froid, and heroism", which "won the total admiration of the troops."[85] In January 1917, he was sent as a member of a howitzer regiment to the Russian front, where he won several more medals for bravery including the Silver Medal for Valour, First Class. In 1918, he was promoted to lieutenant and sent to the Italian front as part of an artillery regiment. For his part in the final Austrian offensive of June 1918, he was recommended for the Gold Medal for Valour, one of the Austro-Hungarian supply line over the Vri pass, on the Italian front, October 1917 highest honours in the Austrian army, but was instead awarded the Band of the Military Service Medal with Swords it being decided that this particular action, although extraordinarily brave, had been insufficiently consequential to merit the highest honour.[86] Throughout the war, he kept notebooks in which he frequently wrote philosophical reflections alongside personal remarks, including his contempt for the character of the other soldiers. He discovered Leo Tolstoy's The Gospel in Brief at a bookshop in Tarnw, and carried it everywhere, recommending it to anyone in distress, to the point where he became known to his fellow soldiers as "the man with the gospels".[87] In 1916 Wittgenstein read Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov so often that he knew whole passages of it by heart, particularly the speeches of the elder Zosima, who represented for him a powerful Christian ideal, a holy man who could see directly into the souls of other people. [88] Russell said he returned from the war a changed man, one with a deeply mystical and ascetic attitude.[89]
Ludwig Wittgenstein investments in the United States and the Netherlands. He divided it among his siblings, except for Margarete, insisting that it not be held in trust for him. His family saw him as ill, and acquiesced.
11
Ludwig Wittgenstein While Wittgenstein was living in isolation in rural Austria, the Tractatus was published to considerable interest, first in German in 1921 as Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung, part of Wilhelm Ostwald's journal Annalen der Naturphilosophie, though Wittgenstein was not happy with the result and called it a pirate edition. Russell had agreed to write an introduction to explain why it was important, because it was otherwise unlikely to have been published: it was difficult if not impossible to understand, and Wittgenstein was unknown in philosophy.[100] In a letter to Russell, Wittgenstein wrote "The main point is the theory of what can be expressed (gesagt) by prop[osition]si.e. by language(and, which comes to the same thing, what can be thought) and what can not be expressed by pro[position]s, but only shown (gezeigt); which, I believe, is the cardinal problem of philosophy."[101] But Wittgenstein was not happy with Russell's help. He had lost faith in Russell, finding him glib and his philosophy mechanistic, and felt he had fundamentally misunderstood the Tractatus.[102] An English translation was prepared in Cambridge by Frank Ramsey, a mathematics undergraduate at King's commissioned by C. K. Ogden. It was Moore who suggested Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus for the title, an allusion to Baruch Spinoza's Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. Initially there were difficulties in finding a publisher for the English edition too, because Wittgenstein was insisting it appear without Russell's introduction; Cambridge University Press turned it down for that reason. Finally in 1922 an agreement was reached with Wittgenstein that Kegan Paul would print a bilingual edition with Russell's introduction and the Ramsey-Ogden translation. This is the translation that was approved by Wittgenstein, but it is problematic in a number of ways. Wittgenstein's English was poor at the time, and Ramsey was a teenager who had only recently learned German, so philosophers often prefer to use a 1961 translation by David Pears and Brian McGuinness.[103] An aim of the Tractatus is to reveal the relationship between language and the world: what can be said about it, and what can only be shown. Wittgenstein argues that language has an underlying logical structure, a structure that provides the limits of what can be said meaningfully, and therefore the limits of what can be thought. The limits of language, for Wittgenstein, are the limits of philosophy. Much of philosophy involves attempts to say the unsayable: "what we can say at all can be said clearly", he argues. Anything beyond thatreligion, ethics, aesthetics, the mysticalcannot be discussed. They are not in themselves nonsensical, but any statement about them must be.[104] He wrote in the preface: "The book will, therefore, draw a limit to thinking, or rathernot to thinking, but to the expression of thoughts; for, in order to draw a limit to thinking we should have to be able to think both sides of this limit (we should therefore have to be able to think what cannot be thought)."[105] The book is 75 pages long"As to the shortness of the book, I am awfully sorry for it ... If you were to squeeze me like a lemon you would get nothing more out of me", he told Ogdenand presents seven numbered propositions (17), with various sub-levels (1, 1.1, 1.11):[106] 1. Die Welt ist alles, was der Fall ist. The world is all that is the case.[107] 2. Was der Fall ist, die Tatsache, ist das Bestehen von Sachverhalten. What is the casea factis the existence of states of affairs. 3. Das logische Bild der Tatsachen ist der Gedanke. A logical picture of facts is a thought. 4. Der Gedanke ist der sinnvolle Satz. A thought is a proposition with a sense. 5. Der Satz ist eine Wahrheitsfunktion der Elementarstze. A proposition is a truth-function of elementary propositions. 6. Die allgemeine Form der Wahrheitsfunktion ist: . Dies ist die allgemeine Form des Satzes. The general form of a truth-function is: . This is the general form of a proposition. 7. Wovon man nicht sprechen kann, darber mu man schweigen. What we cannot speak about we must pass over in silence.
12
Ludwig Wittgenstein
13
Ludwig Wittgenstein visited at least four of the children, including Hermine Piribauer, who apparently replied only with a "Ja, ja", though other former students were more hospitable. Monk writes that the purpose of these confessions was not "to hurt his pride, as a form of punishment; it was to dismantle it - to remove a barrier, as it were, that stood in the way of honest and decent thought." Of the apologies, Wittgenstein wrote, "This brought me into more settled waters... and to greater seriousness."[113]
14
Haus Wittgenstein
"I am not interested in erecting a building, but in [...] presenting to myself the foundations of all possible buildings." Wittgenstein
[116]
In 1926, Wittgenstein was again working as a gardener for a number of months, this time at the monastery of Htteldorf, where he had also enquired about becoming a monk. His sister, Margaret, invited him to help with the design of her new townhouse in Vienna's Kundmanngasse. Wittgenstein, his friend Paul Engelmann, and a team of architects developed a spare modernist house. In particular, Wittgenstein focused on the windows, doors, and radiators, demanding that every detail be exactly as he specified. When the house was nearly finished Wittgenstein had an entire ceiling raised 30mm so that the room had the exact proportions he wanted. Monk writes that "This is not so marginal as it may at first appear, for it is precisely these details that lend what is otherwise a rather plain, even ugly house its distinctive beauty.".[117] It took him a year to design the door handles, and another to design the radiators. Each window was covered by a metal screen that weighed 150kg, moved by a
Wittgenstein worked on Haus Wittgenstein between 1926 and 1929.
Ludwig Wittgenstein pulley Wittgenstein designed. Bernhard Leitner, author of The Architecture of Ludwig Wittgenstein, said there is barely anything comparable in the history of interior design: "It is as ingenious as it is expensive. A metal curtain that could be lowered into the floor." The house was finished by December 1928, and the family gathered there at Christmas to celebrate its completion. Wittgenstein's sister Hermine wrote: "Even though I admired the house very much....It seemed indeed to be much more a dwelling for the gods."[118] Wittgenstein said "the house I built for Gretl is the product of a decidedly sensitive ear and good manners, and expression of great understanding... But primordial life, wild life striving to erupt into the open - that is lacking."[119] Monk comments that the same might be said of the technically excellent, but austere, terracotta sculpture Wittgenstein had modelled of Marguerite Respinger in 1926, and that, as Russell first noticed, this "wild life striving to be in the open" was precisely the substance of Wittgenstein's philosophical work.
15
Anschluss
From 1936 to 1937, Wittgenstein lived again in Norway,[123] where he worked on the Philosophical Investigations. In the winter of 1936/7, he delivered a series of "confessions" to close friends, most of them about minor infractions like white lies, in an effort to cleanse himself. In 1938, he travelled to Ireland to visit Maurice O'Connor Drury, a friend who became a psychiatrist, and considered such training himself, with the intention of abandoning philosophy for it. The visit to Ireland was at the same time a response to the invitation of the then Irish Taoiseach, amon de Valera, himself a mathematics teacher. De Valera hoped Wittgenstein's presence would contribute to an academy for advanced mathematics. While he was in Ireland in March 1938, Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss; the Viennese Wittgenstein was now a citizen of the enlarged Germany and a Jew under the 1935 Nuremberg racial laws, because three of his grandparents had been born as Jews. The Nuremberg Laws classified people as Jews (Volljuden) if they had three or four Jewish grandparents, and as mixed blood (Mischling) if they had one or two. It meant inter alia that the Wittgensteins were restricted in whom they could marry or have sex with, and where they could work.[124] After the Anschluss, his brother Paul left almost immediately for England, and later the US. The Nazis discovered his relationship with Hilde Schania, a brewer's daughter with whom he had had two children but whom he had never married, though he did later. Because she was not a Jew, he was served with a summons for Rassenschande (racial defilement). He told no one he was leaving the country, except for Hilde who agreed to follow him. He left so suddenly and quietly that for a time people believed he was the fourth Wittgenstein brother to have committed suicide.[125] Wittgenstein began to investigate acquiring British or Irish citizenship with the help of Keynes, and apparently had to confess to his friends in England that he had earlier misrepresented himself to them as having just one Jewish
Ludwig Wittgenstein grandparent, when in fact he had three.[126] A few days before the invasion of Poland, Hitler personally granted Mischling status to the Wittgenstein siblings. In 1939 there were 2,100 applications for this, and Hitler granted only 12.[127] Anthony Gottlieb writes that the pretext was that their paternal grandfather had been the bastard son of a German prince, which allowed the Reichsbank to claim the gold, foreign currency, and stocks held in Switzerland by a Wittgenstein trust. Gretl, an American citizen by marriage, started the negotiations over the racial status of their grandfather, and the family's large foreign currency reserves were used as a bargaining tool. Paul had escaped to Switzerland and then the US in July 1938, and disagreed with the negotiations, leading to a permanent split between the siblings. After the war, when Paul was performing in Vienna, he did not visit Hermine who was dying there, and he had no further contact with Ludwig or Gretl.
16
Professor of philosophy
After G. E. Moore resigned the chair in philosophy in 1939, Wittgenstein was elected, and acquired British citizenship soon afterwards. In July 1939 he travelled to Vienna to assist Gretl and his other sisters, visiting Berlin for one day to meet an official of the Reichsbank. After this, he travelled to New York to persuade Paul, whose agreement was required, to back the scheme. The required Befreiung was granted in August 1939. The unknown amount signed over to the Nazis by the Wittgenstein family, a week or so before the outbreak of war, included amongst many other assets, 1700kg of gold.[128] There is a report Wittgenstein visited Moscow a second time in 1939, travelling from Berlin, and again met the philosopher Sophia Janowskaya.[129] Norman Malcolm, at the time a post-graduate research fellow at Cambridge, describes his first impressions of Wittgenstein in 1938: "At a meeting of the Moral Science Club, after the paper for the evening was read and the discussion started, someone began to stammer a remark. He had extreme difficulty in expressing himself and his words were unintelligible to me. I whispered to my neighbour, 'Who's that?': he replied, 'Wittgenstein'. I was astonished because I had expected the famous author of the Tractatus to be an elderly man, whereas this man looked young - perhaps about 35. (His actual age was 49.) His face was lean and brown, his profile was aquiline and strikingly beautiful, his head was covered with a curly mass of brown hair. I observed the respectful attention that everyone in the room paid to him. After this unsuccessful beginning he did not speak for a time but was obviously struggling with his thoughts. His look was concentrated, he made striking gestures with his hands as if he was discoursing... Whether lecturing or conversing privately, Wittgenstein always spoke emphatically and with a distinctive intonation. He spoke excellent English, with the accent of an educated Englishman, although occasional Germanisms would appear in his constructions. His voice was resonant... His words came out, not fluently, but with great force. Anyone who heard him say anything knew that this was a singular person. His face was remarkably mobile and expressive when he talked. His eyes were deep and often fierce in their expression. His whole personality was commanding, even imperial."[130] Describing Wittgenstein's lecture program, Malcolm continues: "It is hardly correct to speak of these meetings as 'lectures', although this is what Wittgenstein called them. For one thing, he was carrying on original research in these meetings... Often the meetings consisted mainly of dialogue. Sometimes, however, when he was trying to draw a thought out of himself, he would prohibit, with a peremptory motion of the hand, any questions or remarks. There were frequent and prolonged periods of silence, with only an occasional mutter from Wittgenstein, and the stillest attention from the others. During these silences, Wittgenstein was extremely tense and active. His gaze was concentrated; his face was alive; his hands made arresting movements; his expression was stern. One knew that one was in the presence of extreme seriousness, absorption, and force of intellect... Wittgenstein was a frightening person at these classes."[131]
Ludwig Wittgenstein After work, Wittgenstein would often relax by watching Westerns, where he preferred to sit at the very front of the cinema, or reading detective stories especially the ones written by Norbert Davis.[132] [133] Norman Malcolm wrote that he would rush to the cinema when class ended.[134] By this time, Wittgenstein's view on the foundations of mathematics had changed considerably. In his early 20s, Wittgenstein had thought logic could provide a solid foundation, and he had even considered updating Russell and Whitehead's Principia Mathematica. Now he denied there were any mathematical facts to be discovered. He gave a series of lectures on mathematics, discussing this and other topics, documented in a book, with lectures by Wittgenstein and discussions between him and several students, including the young Alan Turing.[135]
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Ludwig Wittgenstein
18
He resigned the professorship at Cambridge in 1947 to concentrate on his writing, and in 1947 and 1948 travelled to Ireland, staying at Ross's Hotel in Dublin and at a farmhouse in Red Cross, County Wicklow, where he began the manuscript volume MS 137, Band R. Seeking solitude he moved to "Rosro", a holiday cottage in Connemara owned by Maurice O'Connor-Drury. He also accepted an invitation from Norman Malcolm, then professor at Cornell University, to stay with him and his wife for several months at Ithaca, New York. He made the trip in April 1949, although he told Malcolm he was too unwell to do philosophical work: "I haven't done any work since the beginning of March & I haven't had the strength of even trying to do any." A doctor in Dublin had diagnosed anaemia and prescribed iron and liver pills. The details of Wittgenstein's stay in America are recounted in Norman Malcolm's Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Memoir. During his summer in America, Wittgenstein began his epistemological discussions, in particular his engagement with philosophical skepticism, that would eventually become the final fragments On Certainty. He returned to London, where he was diagnosed with an inoperable prostate cancer, which had spread to his bone marrow. He spent the next two months in Vienna, where his sister Hermine died on 11 February 1950; he went to see her every day, but she was hardly able to speak or recognize him. "Great loss for me and all of us", he wrote. "Greater than I would have thought." He moved around a lot after Hermine's death staying with various friends: to Cambridge in April 1950, where he stayed with G. H. von Wright; to London to stay with Rush Rhees; then to Oxford to see Elizabeth Anscombe, writing to The plaque at "Storey's End", 76 Storey's Way, Norman Malcolm that he was hardly doing any philosophy. He went to Cambridge, where Wittgenstein died. Norway in August with Ben Richards, then returned to Cambridge, where on 27 November he moved into "Storey's End", at 76 Storey's Way, the home of his doctor, Edward Bevan, and his wife Joan; he had told them he did not want to die in a hospital, so they said he could spend his last days in their home instead. Joan at first was afraid of Wittgenstein, but they soon became good friends.[] By the beginning of 1951, it was clear that he had little time left. He wrote a new will in Oxford on 29 January, naming Rhees as his executor, and Anscombe and von Wright his literary administrators, and wrote to Norman Malcolm that month to say, "My mind's completely dead. This isn't a complaint, for I don't really suffer from it. I know that life must have an end once and that mental life can cease before the rest does."[140] In February he returned to the Bevans' home to work on MS 175 and MS 176. These and other manuscripts were later published as Remarks on Colour and On Certainty. He wrote to Malcolm on 16 April 13 days before his death: "An extraordinary thing happened to me. About a month ago I suddenly found myself in the right frame of mind for doing philosophy. I had been absolutely certain that I'd never again be able to do it. It's the first time after more than 2 years that the curtain in my brain has gone up.Of course, so far I've only worked for about 5 weeks & it may be all over by tomorrow; but it bucks me up a lot now."[141]
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Death
Wittgenstein began work on his final manuscript, MS 177, on 25 April 1951. It was his 62nd birthday on 26 April. He went for a walk the next afternoon, and wrote his last entry that day, 27 April. That evening, he became very ill; when his doctor told him he might live only a few days, he reportedly replied, "Good!" Joan stayed with him throughout that night, and just before losing consciousness for the last time on 28 April, he told her: "Tell them I've had a wonderful life". Norman Malcolm describes this as a "strangely moving utterance".
Four of Wittgenstein's former students arrived at his bedsideBen Richards, Elizabeth Anscombe, Yorick Smythies, and Maurice O'Connor Drury. Anscombe and Smythies were Catholics; and, at the latter's request, a Dominican friar, Father Conrad Pepler, also attended. They were at first unsure what Wittgenstein would have wanted, but then remembered he had said he hoped his Catholic friends would pray for him, so they did, and he was pronounced dead shortly afterwards. Wittgenstein was given a Catholic burial at Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge.[142] Drury later said he had been troubled ever since about whether that was the right thing to do.[143] On his religious views, Wittgenstein was said to be greatly interested in Catholicism and was sympathetic to it. However, he did not consider himself to be a Catholic. According to Norman Malcolm, Wittgenstein saw Catholicism to be more a way of life rather than as a set of beliefs which he personally held, considering that he did not accept any religious faith. Wittgenstein was said to be agnostic, in a qualified sense, in the last years of his life.
Ludwig Wittgenstein so that philosophical problems are dissolved, rather than solved: "the clarity we are aiming at is indeed complete clarity. But this simply means that the philosophical problems should completely disappear."[146]
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Legacy
Part of a series on
Ludwig Wittgenstein
Early philosophy
Picture theory of language Truth tables Truth conditions Truth functions State of affairs Logical necessity Later philosophy
"Meaning is use" Language-game Private language argument Family resemblance Ideal language analysis Rule following Form of life Grammar Anti-skepticism Philosophy of mathematics Movements
Analytic philosophy Linguistic turn Ideal language philosophy Logical atomism Logical positivism Ordinary language philosophy Fideism Quietism
Ludwig Wittgenstein
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Works
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus Some Remarks on Logical Form Blue and Brown Books Philosophical Remarks Philosophical Investigations On Certainty Culture and Value Remarks on Frazer's Golden Bough Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics
Zettel Remarks on Colour Lectures and Conversations on Aesthetics, Psychology and Religious Belief People
Bertrand Russell G. E. Moore John Maynard Keynes Paul Engelmann Friedrich Waismann Moritz Schlick Rudolf Carnap Francis Skinner Frank Ramsey Vienna Circle G. E. M. Anscombe Norman Malcolm Rush Rhees Peter Winch Peter Geach G. H. von Wright Interpreters
Barry Stroud Cora Diamond Peter Hacker Terry Eagleton Stephen Toulmin Saul Kripke Anthony Kenny Crispin Wright Warren Goldfarb James F. Conant Gordon Baker Stanley Cavell D. Z. Phillips Colin McGinn Jaakko Hintikka Oswald Hanfling
Ludwig Wittgenstein
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A. C. Grayling Rupert Read Other topics
Stonborough House
Wittgenstein's influence has been felt in nearly every field of the humanities and social sciences, yet there are widely diverging interpretations of his thought. In the words of Georg Henrik von Wright, Wittgenstein "was of the opinion... that his ideas were generally misunderstood and distorted even by those who professed to be his disciples. He doubted he would be better understood in the future. He once said he felt as though he were writing for people who would think in a different way, breathe a different air of life, from that of present-day men." Peter Hacker argues that Wittgenstein's influence on 20th century analytic philosophy can be attributed to his early influence on the Vienna Circle and later influence on the Oxford 'ordinary language' school and Cambridge philosophers. In 1999, the Baruch Poll ranked the Investigations as the most important book of 20th-century philosophy, standing out as "...the one crossover masterpiece in twentieth-century philosophy, appealing across diverse specializations and philosophical orientations". The Investigations also ranked 54th on a list of most influential twentieth-century works in cognitive science by the University of Minnesota's Center for Cognitive Sciences.
Cultural references
Wittgenstein is the subject of the 1993 film Wittgenstein, by English director Derek Jarman, which is loosely based on his life story as well as his philosophical thinking. The adult Wittgenstein is played by the Welsh actor Karl Johnson. In the 2003 novel The Oxford Murders and in the film of the same name, the characters play with the idea of knowing the truth, in this case about a series of mathematically-linked murders. The two main characters are logicians - one a professor who studies and supports Wittgenstein's work, and the other his student, who disagrees. Critic Terry Eagleton has described Wittgenstein as the philosopher of poets and composers, playwrights and novelists.[147] For Wittgenstein's philosophy as therapy, see: Peterman, James F. Philosophy as Therapy, SUNY Press, 1992, p.13,ff. For the poetic and literary quality of his work, see: Perloff, Marjorie. Wittgenstein's Ladder: Poetic Language and the Strangeness of the Ordinary, University of Chicago Press, 1999; and Gibson, John and Wolfgang Huemer (eds.). The Literary Wittgenstein, Psychology Press, 2004, p 2. See also: Eagleton, Terry. "My Wittgenstein" in Stephen Regan (ed.). The Eagleton Reader, Wiley-Blackwell, 1997, pp.337,ff James Burkes The Day the Universe Changed contains a story: Someone apparently went up to the great philosopher Wittgenstein and said What a lot of morons back in the Middle Ages must have been to have looked, every morning, at the dawn and to have thought what they were seeing was the Sun going around the Earth, when every school kid knows that the Earth goes around the Sun, to which Wittgenstein replied Yeah, but I wonder what it would have looked like if the Sun had been going around the Earth? Burkes point is that it would have looked exactly the same: you see what your knowledge tells you youre seeing.[148]
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Works
A collection of Ludwig Wittgenstein's manuscripts is held by Trinity College, Cambridge. Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung, Annalen der Naturphilosophie, 14 (1921) Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, translated by C.K. Ogden (1922) Philosophische Untersuchungen (1953) Philosophical Investigations, translated by G.E.M. Anscombe (1953) Bemerkungen ber die Grundlagen der Mathematik, ed. by G.H. von Wright, R. Rhees, and G.E.M. Anscombe (1956), a selection of his work on the philosophy of logic and mathematics between 1937 and 1944. Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics, translated by G.E.M. Anscombe, rev. ed. (1978) Bemerkungen ber die Philosophie der Psychologie, ed. G.E.M. Anscombe and G.H. von Wright (1980) Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology, Vols. 1 and 2, translated by G.E.M. Anscombe, ed. G.E.M. Anscombe and G.H. von Wright (1980), a selection of which makes up Zettel. The Blue and Brown Books (1958), notes dictated in English to Cambridge students in 19331935. Philosophische Bemerkungen, ed. by Rush Rhees (1964) Philosophical Remarks (1975) Philosophical Grammar (1978) Bemerkungen ber die Farben, ed. by G.E.M. Anscombe (1977) Remarks on Colour (1991), remarks on Goethe's Theory of Colours. On Certainty, collection of aphorisms discussing the relation between knowledge and certainty, extremely influential in the philosophy of action. Culture and Value, collection of personal remarks about various cultural issues, such as religion and music, as well as critique of Sren Kierkegaard's philosophy. Zettel, collection of Wittgenstein's thoughts in fragmentary/"diary entry" format as with On Certainty and Culture and Value. Works online Review of P. Coffey's Science of Logic [149] (1913): a polemical book review, written in 1912 for the March 1913 issue of The Cambridge Review when Wittgenstein was an undergraduate studying with Russell. The review is the earliest public record of Wittgenstein's philosophical views. Wittgenstein Source: 5 000 pages of the Wittgenstein Nachlass online [150] Works by Ludwig Wittgenstein [151] at Project Gutenberg Google Edition of Remarks on Colour [152] Some Remarks on Logical Form [153] Cambridge (19323) lecture notes [154] The Blue Book [155] Lecture on Ethics [156] On Certainty [157]
Ludwig Wittgenstein
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Notes
[1] http:/ / wab. aksis. uib. no/ index. page [2] http:/ / www. wittgen-cam. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ forms/ home. cgi [3] Dennett, Daniel. "Ludwig Wittgenstein: Philosopher" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,990616,00. html), Time magazine, 29 March 1999. [4] For his publications during his lifetime, see Monk, Ray. How to read Wittgenstein. W.W. Norton & Company. 2005, p. 5. For the number of words published in his lifetime, see Stern, David. "The Bergen Electronic Edition of Wittgenstein's Nachlass" (http:/ / onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1111/ j. 1468-0378. 2010. 00425. x/ full), The European Journal of Philosophy. Vol 18, issue 3, September 2010. [5] Lackey, Douglas. "What Are the Modern Classics? The Baruch Poll of Great Philosophy in the Twentieth Century" (http:/ / onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1111/ 0031-806X. 00022/ abstract?systemMessage=Due+ to+ scheduled+ maintenance+ access+ to+ the+ Wiley+ Online+ Library+ may+ be+ disrupted+ as+ follows:+ Monday,+ 6+ September+ -+ New+ York+ 0400+ EDT+ to+ 0500+ EDT;+ London+ 0900+ BST+ to+ 1000+ BST;+ Singapore+ 1600+ to+ 1700), Philosophical Forum. 30 (4), December 1999, pp. 329346. For a summary of the poll, see here (http:/ / lindenbranch. weblogs. us/ archives/ 878). Retrieved 3 September 2010. [6] For the Russell quote, see McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein: A Life : Young Ludwig 18891921. University of California Press, 1988, p. 118. [7] Duffy, Bruce. "The do-it-yourself life of Ludwig Wittgenstein" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1988/ 11/ 13/ books/ the-do-it-yourself-life-of-ludwig-wittgenstein. html?sec=& spon=& pagewanted=1), The New York Times, 13 November 1988, p. 4/10. For his selling his furniture, see "Ludwig Wittgenstein: Tractatus and Teaching" (http:/ / www. wittgen-cam. ac. uk/ biogre6. html), Cambridge Wittgenstein archive. Retrieved 4 September 2010.
[8] For the brothers' suicides, see Waugh, Alexander. "The Wittgensteins: Viennese whirl" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ culture/ 3559463/ The-Wittgensteins-Viennese-whirl. html), The Daily Telegraph, 30 August 2008. Also see Gottlieb, Anthony. "A Nervous Splendor" (http:/ / www. newyorker. com/ arts/ critics/ books/ 2009/ 04/ 06/ 090406crbo_books_gottlieb), The New Yorker, 9 April 2009. [9] Monk, Ray. Ludwig Wittgenstein: The Duty of Genius. Free Press, 1990, pp. 232233, 431. For his commendation, see Waugh, Alexander. The House of Wittgenstein: a Family at War. Random House of Canada, 2008, p. 114. [10] Malcolm, (Additional note) p. 84. [11] PDF (http:/ / philosophy. uchicago. edu/ faculty/ files/ conant/ Ian Proops The New Wittgenstein A Critique. pdf) [12] Malcolm, p. 6. [13] See Schloss Wittgenstein. Various sources spell Meier's name Maier and Meyer. [14] Bartley, pp. 199200. [15] Monk, pp. 45. [16] Monk, p .5. [17] Edmonds, Eidinow, "Wittgenstein's Poker", page 63 [18] Monk, p. 7. [19] Edmonds, Eidinow, "Wittgenstein's Poker", page 102 [20] A Nervous Splendor : The New Yorker (http:/ / www. newyorker. com/ arts/ critics/ books/ 2009/ 04/ 06/ 090406crbo_books_gottlieb) [21] B. McGuinness, Wittgenstein: a life : young Ludwig 1889-1921 [22] Wittgenstein, Leopoldine (Schenker Documents Online) (http:/ / mt. ccnmtl. columbia. edu/ schenker/ profile/ person/ wittgenstein_leopold. html) [23] For his mother's Roman Catholic background, see "Ludwig Wittgenstein: Background" (http:/ / www. wittgen-cam. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ text/ biogre1. html), Wittgenstein archive, University of Cambridge. Retrieved 2 September 2010. For his time and place of birth, see Edmonds, David and Eidinow, John. Wittgenstein's Poker. Faber and Faber, 2001, p. 57. [24] Bartley, William Warren. Wittgenstein. Open Court, 1994, p. 16, first published 1973. [25] Monk, p. 8. [26] McGuinness, p. 18. [27] Theodore Redpath, Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Student's Memoir, London: Duckworth, 1990, p. 112 [28] Edmonds, Eidinow, "Wittgenstein's Poker" [29] Monk, p. 11ff. [30] Kenny, Anthony. "Give Him Genius or Give Him Death" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1990/ 12/ 30/ books/ give-him-genius-or-give-him-death. html?pagewanted=all), The New York Times, 30 December 1990. Also see "Ludwig Wittgenstein: Background" (http:/ / www. wittgen-cam. ac. uk/ ), Wittgenstein archive, University of Cambridge. Retrieved 7 September 2010. [31] Fitzgerald, Michael. "Did Ludwig Wittgenstein have Asperger's syndrome?" (http:/ / www. springerlink. com/ content/ wd1bk8fkp4ru6xvy/ ), European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, volume 9, number 1, pp. 6165. [32] Gottlieb, Anthony. "A Nervous Splendor" (http:/ / www. newyorker. com/ arts/ critics/ books/ 2009/ 04/ 06/ 090406crbo_books_gottlieb), The New Yorker, 9 April 2009. [33] Waugh, pp. 2426.
Ludwig Wittgenstein
Also see Monk, p. 11ff. [34] For the Koschat song, see "Verlassen bin ich" (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=QLMBkWWavJo) YouTube. Retrieved 11 September 2010. [35] Waugh, pp. 2223. [36] [37] [38] [39] For the primary source, see Hirschfield, Magnus. Jahrbuch fr sexuelle Zwischenstufen, Vol VI, 1904, p. 724, citing an unnamed Berlin newspaper, cited in turn by Bartley, p. 36. More details in Waugh, Alexander. "The Wittgensteins: Viennese whirl" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ culture/ 3559463/ The-Wittgensteins-Viennese-whirl. html), The Daily Telegraph, 30 August 2008. Also see Gottlieb, Anthony. "A Nervous Splendor" (http:/ / www. newyorker. com/ arts/ critics/ books/ 2009/ 04/ 06/ 090406crbo_books_gottlieb), The New Yorker, 9 April 2009. Drury, Recollections p. 160; cf. The Danger of Words (1973) p. ix, xiv) Waugh, p. 128. McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein: a life : young Ludwig 1889-1921. University of California Press, 1988, p.156 Waugh, p. 33.
25
McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein: a life : young Ludwig 1889-1921. University of California Press, 1988, p. 51ff. K.u.k. stood for "Kaiserlich und kniglich. [40] McGuinness, p. 51. [41] McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein: a life : young Ludwig 1889-1921. University of California Press, 1988, p. 51ff. [42] Hamann, Brigitte and Thornton, Thomas. Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship. Oxford University Press, 2000 (first published 1996 in German) pp. 1516, 79. [43] For the view that Wittgenstein saw himself as completely German, not Jewish, see McGuinness, Brian. "Wittgenstein and the Idea of Jewishness", and for an opposing view, see Stern, David. "Was Wittgenstein Jewish?" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FWAX4Ff69SwC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Wittgenstein:+ Biography+ and+ Philosophy& hl=en& ei=xwGKTNX8JYWenwfT0LiyDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Was Wittgenstein a Jew?& f=false), both in James Carl Klagge. Wittgenstein: Biography and Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2001, pp. 231ff and p 237ff respectively. [44] Goldstein, Lawrence. Clear and Queer Thinking: Wittgenstein's Development and his Relevance to Modern Thought (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=EvHPNoKvmf0C& pg=PA167& lpg=PA167& dq=envy,+ hatred+ and+ mistrust+ that+ stammering,+ precocious,+ precious,+ aristocratic+ upstart+ who& source=bl& ots=NpkvtgtJzp& sig=XyiqF4HpNfq7eWruuYiZItO5jEg& hl=en& ei=fm-GTK-HIIKfnAeb4uzqBg& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=envy, hatred and mistrust that stammering, precocious, precious, aristocratic upstart who& f=false). Duckworth, 1999, p. 167ff. Also see "Clear and Queering Thinking" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 2659846), review in Mind, Oxford University Press, 2001. [45] McGinn, Marie. "Hi Ludwig", Times Literary Supplement, 26 May 2000. [46] Hitler started at the school on 17 September 1900, repeated the first year in 1901, and left in the autumn of 1905; see Kersaw, Ian. Hitler, 1889-1936. W. W. Norton & Company, 2000, p. 16ff. McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein: a life : young Ludwig 1889-1921. University of California Press, 1988, p. 51ff. [47] Monk, p. 15. Brigitte Hamann argues in Hitler's Vienna (1996) that Hitler was bound to have laid eyes on Wittgenstein, because the latter was so conspicuous, though she told Focus magazine they were in different classes, and she agrees with Monk that they would have had nothing to do with one another. See Hamann, Brigitte and Thornton, Thomas. Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship. Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 1516, 79, and Thiede, Roger. "Phantom Wittgenstein" (http:/ / www. focus. de/ auto/ neuheiten/ zeitgeschichte-phantom-wittgenstein_aid_169829. html), Focus magazine, 16 March 1998. [48] For examples, see Cornish, Kimberley. The Jew of Linz. Arrow, 1999. Blum, Michael; Rollig, Stella; and Nyanga, Steven. "Monument to the birth of the 20th century" (http:/ / www. blumology. net/ monument. html), Revolver, 2005. Blum's material is also on display in an exhibition in the OK Centrum fr Gegenwartskunst (http:/ / www. blumology. net/ letterE. html), Linz, and in the Galerija Nova, Zagreb, 2006. Retrieved 9 September 2010, and Gibbons, Luke. "An extraordinary family saga" (http:/ / www. irishtimes. com/ newspaper/ weekend/ 2008/ 1129/ 1227828897751. html), Irish Times, 29 November 2008. For an opposing view, see Hamann, Brigitte and Thornton, Thomas. Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship. Oxford University Press, 2000, pp. 1516, 79. See the full image at the Bundesarchiv (http:/ / www. bild. bundesarchiv. de/ cross-search/ search/ _1283821026/ ). Retrieved 8 September 2010. The archives give the date of the image as circa 1901. [49] Thiede, Roger. "Phantom Wittgenstein" (http:/ / www. focus. de/ auto/ neuheiten/ zeitgeschichte-phantom-wittgenstein_aid_169829. html), Focus magazine, 16 March 1998. The German Federal Archives says the image was taken "circa 1901"; it identifies the class as 1B and the teacher as Oskar Langer. See the full image and description at the Bundesarchiv (http:/ / www. bild. bundesarchiv. de/ cross-search/ search/ _1283821026/ ). Retrieved 6 September 2010. The archive gives the date as circa 1901, but wrongly calls it the Realschule in Leonding, near Linz. Hitler attended primary school in Leonding, but from September 1901 went to the Realschule in Linz itself. See Kershaw, Ian. Hitler, 1889-1936. W. W.
Ludwig Wittgenstein
Norton & Company, 2000, p. 16ff. Christoph Haidacher and Richard Schober write that Langer taught at the school from 1884 until 1901; see Haidacher, Christoph and Schober, Richard. Von Stadtstaaten und Imperien (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?ei=4tyFTJ-CLtGknQfJqOHhAQ& ct=result& id=XqQUAQAAIAAJ& dq="Oskar+ langer"+ hitler& q="Oskar+ langer"#search_anchor), Universittsverlag Wagner, 2006, p. 140. [50] See e.g. (MS 154) [51] Culture and Value, Ludwig Wittgenstein, (Oxford 1998), page 16e (see also, pages 15e-19e) [52] M.O'C. Drury, "Conversations with Wittgenstein", in Recollections of Wittgenstein, ed. R. Rhees, New York: Oxford University Press, revised edition, 1984,p. 161. [53] Hans D. Sluga, The Cambridge companion to Wittgenstein, (Cambridge, 1996) page 2 [54] Monk, p. 18. [55] Culture & Value, p.24, 1933-4 [56] Monk, pp. 1926. [57] p216, Philosophical Tales, Cohen, M., Blackwell 2008 [58] Monk, p. 27. [59] Monk, p. 29. [60] Monk, pp. 3035. [61] Beaney, Michael (ed.). The Frege Reader. Blackwell, 1997, pp. 194-223, 258289. [62] Monk, p. 36ff. [63] Kanterian, p. 36. [64] O'Connor, J.J. and Robertson, E.F. "Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein" (http:/ / www-history. mcs. st-andrews. ac. uk/ Biographies/ Wittgenstein. html), St Andrews University. Retrieved 2 September 2010. [65] McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein: A Life : Young Ludwig 18891921. University of California Press, 1988, pp. 8889. [66] Monk, p. 41. [67] Russell, Bertrand. Autobiography. Routledge, 1998, p. 281. [68] Pitt, Jack. "Russell and the Cambridge Moral Sciences Club" (http:/ / digitalcommons. mcmaster. ca/ cgi/ viewcontent. cgi?article=1617& context=russelljournal), "Russell: the Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies: Vol. 1, issue 2, article 3, winter 1982. Also see Klagge, James Carl and Nordmann, Alfred (eds.) Ludwig Wittgenstein: Public and Private Occasions. Rowman & Littlefield, 2003, p. 332, citing Michael Nedo and Michele Ranchetti (eds.). Ludwig Wittgenstein: sein Leben in Bildern und Texten. Suhrkamp, 1983, p. 89. [69] Edmonds, David and Eidinow, John. Wittgenstein's Poker. Faber and Faber, 2001, p. 2228. [70] Eidinow, John and Edmonds, David. "When Ludwig met Karl..." (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ books/ 2001/ mar/ 31/ artsandhumanities. highereducation), The Guardian, 31 March 2001. "Wittgenstein's Poker by David Edmonds and John Eidinow" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ books/ 2001/ nov/ 21/ guardianfirstbookaward2001. gurardianfirstbookaward), The Guardian, 21 November 2001. [71] Minutes of the Wittgenstein's poker meeting (http:/ / www. flickr. com/ photos/ bennish/ 1889016855/ #/ photos/ bennish/ 1889016855/ lightbox/ ), University of Cambridge, shown on Flickr. Retrieved 7 September 2010. [72] McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein: A Life: Young Ludwig 1889-1921. University of California Press, 1988, p. 118. [73] Monk, pp. 369. [74] Monk, pp. 583586. [75] Monk, pp. 238-40 and 318 [76] Goldstein, Laurence. Clear and queer thinking: Wittgenstein's development and his relevance to modern thought. Rowman & Littlefield, 1999, p. 179. [77] Monk, p. 58ff. *See Pinsent, David Hume and Von Wright, G.H. A Portrait of Wittgenstein as a Young Man: From the Diary of David Hume Pinsent 1912-1914. Blackwell, 1990. [78] Kanterian, p. 40. [79] Monk, p. 71. [80] Stewart, Jon. (Ed.) Kierkegaard's Influence on Philosophy: German and Scandinavian Philosophy. Ashgate Publishing, 2009, p. 216. [81] Monk, p. 262. [82] Monk, p. 103. [83] McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein: A Life : Young Ludwig 1889-1921. University of California Press, 1988, p. 200. [84] Monk, pp.137142. [85] Waugh, p. 114. [86] Monk, p. 154. [87] Monk, pp. 44, 116, 382384. Also see Bill Schardt & David Large, "Wittgenstein, Tolstoy, and the Gospel in Brief" (http:/ / www. the-philosopher. co. uk/ witty. htm), The Philosopher, Volume LXXXIX. [88] R. Monk, Wittgenstein: The Duty of Genius (London: Jonathan Cape, 1990), pp. 136.
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Also see Robert Hanna, "Kant, Wittgenstein, and Transcendental Philosophy" (http:/ / www. colorado. edu/ philosophy/ paper_hanna_kant_wittgenstein_and_transcendental_philosophy_may11. pdf). [89] Monk, p. 183. [90] Bartley, pp. 3339, 45. [91] Bartley, pp. 3334. For an original report, see "Death of D.H. Pinsent", Birmingham Daily Mail, 15 May 1918: "Recovery of the Body. The body of Mr. David Hugh Pinsent, a civilian observer, son of Mr and Mrs Hume Pinsent, of Foxcombe Hill, near Oxford and Birmingham, the second victim of last Wednesday's aeroplane accident in West Surrey, was last night found in the Basingstoke Canal, at Frimley." Courtesy of "Wittgenstein in Birmingham" (http:/ / mikeinmono. blogspot. com/ 2009/ 08/ that-sprawling-ink-blot. html), mikeinmono, 3 August 2009. Retrieved 7 September 2010. [92] Monk, p. 169ff. [93] Edmonds, Eidinow, "Wittgenstein's Poker", page 68 [94] Waugh, page150 [95] Klagge, James Carl. Wittgenstein: Biography and Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2001, p. 185. [96] Malcolm, Norman. "Wittgensteins Confessions" (http:/ / www. lrb. co. uk/ v03/ n21/ norman-malcolm/ wittgensteins-confessions), London Review of Books, Vol. 3 No. 21, 19 November 1981. [97] Monk, p. 195. [98] Bartley, p. 107. [99] Monk, pp. 196, 198. [100] For the introduction, see Russell, Bertrand. Introduction (http:/ / www. kfs. org/ ~jonathan/ witt/ aintro. html), Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, May 1922. [101] Russell, Nieli. Wittgenstein: From Mysticism to Ordinary Language. SUNY Press, 1987, p. 199. [102] Edmonds, David and Eidinow, John. Wittgenstein's Poker. Faber and Faber, 2001, p. 35ff. [103] For example, Ramsey translated "Sachverhalt" and "Sachlage" as "atomic fact" and "state of affairs" respectively. But Wittgenstein discusses non-existent "Sachverhalten", and there cannot be a non-existent fact. Pears and McGuinness made a number of changes, including translating "Sachverhalt" as "state of affairs" and "Sachlage" as "situation". The new translation is often preferred, but some philosophers use the original, in part because Wittgenstein approved it, and because it avoids the idiomatic English of Pears-McGuinness. See: White, Roger. Wittgenstein's Tractatus logico-philosophicus. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006, p. 145. For a discussion about the relative merits of the translations, see Morris, Michael Rowland. "Introduction", Routledge philosophy guidebook to Wittgenstein and the Tractatus. Taylor & Francis, 2008; and Nelson, John O. "Is the Pears-McGuinness translation of the Tractatus really superior to Ogden's and Ramsey's? (http:/ / onlinelibrary. wiley. com/ doi/ 10. 1111/ 1467-9205. 00092/ abstract), Philosophical Investigations, 22:2, April 1999. See the three versions (Wittgenstein's German, published 1921; Ramsey-Ogden's translation, published 1922; and the Pears-McGuinness translation, published 1961) side by side here (http:/ / people. umass. edu/ phil335-klement-2/ tlp/ tlp. html#bodytext), University of Massachusetts. Retrieved 4 September 2010. [104] Grayling, A. C. Wittgenstein: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2001, p. 16ff. [105] Tractatus (Ogden translation), preface. [106] For the comment to Ogden, see Monk, p. 207. [107] The English is from the 1961 Pears-McGuinness translation. [108] Monk, pp. 212, 214216, 220221. [109] Mellor, D.H. "Cambridge Philosophers I: F. P. Ramsey" (http:/ / www. dspace. cam. ac. uk/ bitstream/ 1810/ 3484/ 5/ RamseyText. html), Philosophy 70, 1995, pp. 243262. [110] Ezard, John. "Philosopher's rare 'other book' goes on sale" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ uk/ 2005/ feb/ 19/ books. booksnews2), The Guardian, 19 February 2005. [111] Monk, pp. 224, 232233. [112] Waugh, p. 162. Monk, p. 232. [113] Monk, pp. 370371. [114] The Limits of Scienceand Scientists (http:/ / blogs. discovermagazine. com/ crux/ 2012/ 09/ 07/ the-limits-of-science-and-scientists/ ) [115] Rudolf Carnap, Autobiography, in P.A. Schlipp (ed) The Philosophy of Rudolf Carnap, The Library of Living Philosophers, Volume 11, La Salle Open Court, 1963, pages 25-27 [116] Lewis Hyde, Making It (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 04/ 06/ books/ review/ Hyde-t. html?_r=1& scp=1& sq=& st=nyt), New York Times, 6 April 2008. [117] Jeffries, Stuart. "A dwelling for the gods" (http:/ / books. guardian. co. uk/ departments/ politicsphilosophyandsociety/ story/ 0,,627752,00. html), The Guardian, 5 January 2002. [118] Hyde, Lewis. "Making It" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 04/ 06/ books/ review/ Hyde-t. html?_r=1& scp=1& sq=& st=nyt). The New York Times, 6 April 2008. [119] Monk, page 240 [120] Monk, p. 255. [121] Monk, p. 271.
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[122] R. B. Braithwaite George Edward Moore, 1873 - 1958, in Alice Ambrose and Morris Lazerowitz. G.E. Moore: Essays in Retrospect. Allen & Unwin, 1970. [123] Ludwig Wittgenstein: Return to Cambridge (http:/ / www. wittgen-cam. ac. uk/ cgi-bin/ text/ biogre8. html) from the Cambridge Wittgenstein Archive [124] Waugh, pp. 137ff, 204209. [125] Waugh, pp. 224226. [126] For the view that Wittgenstein saw himself as a Jew, see Stern, David. "Was Wittgenstein Jewish?" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=FWAX4Ff69SwC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Wittgenstein:+ Biography+ and+ Philosophy& hl=en& ei=xwGKTNX8JYWenwfT0LiyDA& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Was Wittgenstein a Jew?& f=false), in James Carl Klagge. Wittgenstein: Biography and Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2001, p. 237ff. [127] Edmonds, David and Eidinow, John. Wittgenstein's Poker. Faber and Faber, 2001, pp. 98, 105. [128] Edmonds, David and Eidinow, John. "Wittgenstein's Poker", Faber and Faber, London 2001, p. 98. [129] Moran, John. "Wittgenstein and Russia" New Left Review 73, MayJune 1972, pp. 8396. [130] Malcolm, p. 23-4. [131] Malcolm, p. 25. [132] Ray Monk, Ludwig Wittgenstein: The Duty of Genius, Vintage, London 1991, p. 528 [133] Hoffmann, Josef. "Hard-boiled Wit: Ludwig Wittgenstein and Norbert Davis" (http:/ / www. mysteryfile. com/ NDavis/ Wit. html), CADS, no. 44, October 2003. [134] Malcolm, p. 26. [135] Diamond, Cora (ed.). Wittgenstein's Lectures on the Foundations of Mathematics. University Of Chicago Press, 1989. [136] For his desire that his students not pursue philosophy, see Malcolm, p. 28 [137] Monk, p. 432. [138] Wittgenstein Upon Tyne (http:/ / www. newphilsoc. org. uk/ OldWeb1/ Wittgenstein/ wittgenstein_upon_tyne. htm) Bill Schardt , Newcastle Philosophical Society. Retrieved December 2011 [139] Monk, p. 447ff. [140] Malcolm, p. 79ff. [141] Malcolm, pp. 8081. [142] A Guide to Churchill College, Cambridge: text by Dr. Mark Goldie, pages 62 and 63 (2009) [143] Monk, pp. 576580. [144] PI, 38. [145] PI, 107. [146] PI, 133. [147] For ethical and religious themes, see Barrett, Cyril. Wittgenstein on Ethics and Religious Belief. Blackwell, 1991, p. 138. [148] The Day the Universe Changed (http:/ / www. documentary-video. com/ items. cfm?id=1303) at Documentary-Video; distributed by Ambrose Video Publishing, Inc., New York, NY [149] http:/ / fair-use. org/ the-cambridge-review/ 1913/ 03/ 06/ reviews/ the-science-of-logic [150] http:/ / wittgensteinsource. org/ [151] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ author/ Ludwig+ Wittgenstein [152] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=bu1_J7mpiqsC& printsec=frontcover& dq=Ludwig+ Wittgenstein,+ Remarks+ on+ Colour& source=bl& ots=iFH6XiOlO8& sig=OEC-9VKh13t_Ki9vYzfpYnxIwJo& hl=en& ei=_TOMS_SjBJG0tgfoosXyBw& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=4& ved=0CBkQ6AEwAw#v=onepage& q=& f=false [153] http:/ / www. geocities. jp/ mickindex/ wittgenstein/ witt_SRoLF_en. html [154] http:/ / www. marxists. org/ reference/ subject/ philosophy/ works/ at/ wittgens. htm [155] http:/ / www. geocities. jp/ mickindex/ wittgenstein/ witt_blue_en. html [156] http:/ / www. galilean-library. org/ manuscript. php?postid=43866 [157] http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20051210213153/ http:/ / budni. by. ru/ oncertainty. html
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References
Bartley, William Warren. Wittgenstein. Open Court, 1994, first published 1973. Barrett, Cyril. Wittgenstein on Ethics and Religious Belief. Blackwell, 1991. Beaney, Michael (ed.). The Frege Reader. Blackwell, 1997. Braithwaite, R.B. "George Edward Moore, 1873 - 1958", in Alice Ambrose and Morris Lazerowitz. (eds.). G.E. Moore: Essays in Retrospect. Allen & Unwin, 1970.
Diamond, Cora (ed.). Wittgenstein's Lectures on the Foundations of Mathematics. University Of Chicago Press, 1989.
Ludwig Wittgenstein Creegan, Charles. Wittgenstein and Kierkegaard: Religion, Individuality and Philosophical Method. Routledge, 1989. Drury, Maurice O'Connor et al. The Danger of Words and Writings on Wittgenstein. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973. Drury, Maurice O'Connor. "Conversations with Wittgenstein", in Rush Rhees (ed.). Recollections of Wittgenstein: Hermine Wittgenstein--Fania Pascal--F.R. Leavis--John King--M. O'C. Drury. Oxford University Press, 1984. Edmonds, David and Eidinow, John. Wittgenstein's Poker. Ecco, 2001. Edwards, James C. Ethics Without Philosophy: Wittgenstein and the Moral Life. University Presses of Florida, 1982. Gellner, Ernest. Words and Things. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979, originally published 1959. Goldstein, Laurence. Clear and Queer Thinking: Wittgenstein's Development and his Relevance to Modern Thought. Rowman & Littlefield, 1999. Hamann, Brigitte and Thornton, Thomas. Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship. Oxford University Press, 2000. Kanterian, Edward. Ludwig Wittgenstein. Reaktion Books, 2007. Klagge, James Carl. Wittgenstein: Biography and Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2001. Klagge, James Carl and Nordmann, Alfred (eds.). Ludwig Wittgenstein: Public and Private Occasions. Rowman & Littlefield, 2003. Kripke, Saul. Wittgenstein on rules and private language: an elementary exposition. Harvard University Press, 1982. Leitner, Bernhard. The Architecture of Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Documentation. Press of the Nova Scotia College of Art and Design, 1973. Malcolm, Norman. Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Memoir. Oxford University Press, 1958. McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein: A Life : Young Ludwig 1889-1921. University of California Press, 1988. Monk, Ray. Ludwig Wittgenstein: The Duty of Genius. Free Press, 1990. Nedo, Michael and Ranchetti, Michele (eds.). Ludwig Wittgenstein: sein Leben in Bildern und Texten. Suhrkamp, 1983. Perloff, Marjorie. Wittgenstein's Ladder: Poetic Language and the Strangeness of the Ordinary. University of Chicago Press, 1996. Peterman, James F. Philosophy as therapy. SUNY Press, 1992. Russell, Bertrand. Autobiography. Routledge, 1998. Russell, Bertrand. "Introduction" (http://www.kfs.org/~jonathan/witt/aintro.html), Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, May 1922. Shanker, S., & Shanker, V. A. (eds.). Ludwig Wittgenstein: Critical Assessments. Croom Helm, 1986. Sluga, Hans D. (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Wittgenstein. Cambridge University Press, 1996. Waugh, Alexander. The House of Wittgenstein: A Family at War. Random House of Canada, 2008. Whitehead, Alfred North and Russell, Bertrand. Principia Mathematica. Cambridge University Press, first published 1910.
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Further reading
Bergen and Cambridge archives Wittgenstein Archives at the University of Bergen (http://wab.aksis.uib.no/index.page). Retrieved 16 September 2010. Wittgenstein News (http://www.wittgenstein-news.org/), University of Bergen. Retrieved 16 September 2010. Wittgenstein Source (http://www.wittgensteinsource.org/), University of Bergen. Retrieved 16 September 2010. The Cambridge Wittgenstein Archive (http://www.wittgen-cam.ac.uk/). Retrieved 16 September 2010. Papers about his Nachlass Stern, David. "The Bergen Electronic Edition of Wittgenstein's Nachlass" (http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/ 10.1111/j.1468-0378.2010.00425.x/full), The European Journal of Philosophy. Vol 18, issue 3, September 2010. Von Wright. G.H. "The Wittgenstein Papers" (http://www.jstor.org/pss/2184200), The Philosophical Review. 78, 1969. Other Baker, G.P. and Hacker, P.M.S. Wittgenstein: Understanding and Meaning. Blackwell, 1980. Baker, G.P. and Hacker, P.M.S. Wittgenstein: Rules, Grammar, and Necessity. Blackwell, 1985. Baker, G.P. and Hacker, P.M.S. Wittgenstein: Meaning and Mind. Blackwell, 1990. Brockhaus, Richard R. Pulling Up the Ladder: The Metaphysical Roots of Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Open Court, 1990. Conant, James F. "Putting Two and Two Together: Kierkegaard, Wittgenstein and the Point of View for Their Work as Authors" in The Grammar of Religious Belief, edited by D.Z. Phillips. St. Martins Press, NY: 1996 Engelmann, Paul. Letters from Ludwig Wittgenstein. Basil Blackwell, 1967 Fraser, Giles. "Investigating Wittgenstein, part 1: Falling in love" (http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/ belief/2010/jan/25/wittgenstein-philosophical-investigations), The Guardian, 25 January 2010. Grayling, A. C. Wittgenstein: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2001. Hacker, P.M.S. Insight and Illusion: Themes in the Philosophy of Wittgenstein. Clarendon Press, 1986. Hacker, P.M.S. "Wittgenstein, Ludwig Josef Johann", in Ted Honderich (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1995. Hacker, P.M.S. Wittgenstein's Place in Twentieth Century Analytic Philosophy. Blackwell, 1996. Hacker, P.M.S. Wittgenstein: Mind and Will. Blackwell, 1996. Jormakka, Kari. "The Fifth Wittgenstein", Datutop 24, 2004, a discussion of the connection between Wittgenstein's architecture and his philosophy. Levy, Paul. Moore: G.E. Moore and the Cambridge Apostles. Weidenfeld & Nicholson, 1979. Lurie, Yuval. Wittgenstein on the Human Spirit.. Rodopi, 2012. McGuinness, Brian. Wittgenstein in Cambridge: Letters and Documents 1911-1951. Wiley-Blackwell, 2008. Padilla Glvez, J., Wittgenstein, from a New Point of View. Wittgenstein-Studien. Frankfurt a.M.: Lang, 2003. ISBN 3-631-50623-6. Padilla Glvez, J., Philosophical Anthropology. Wittgenstein's Perspectives. Frankfurt a. M.: Ontos Verlag, 2010. ISBN 978-3-86838-067-5. Monk, Ray. How To Read Wittgenstein. Norton, 2005.
Pears, David F. "A Special Supplement: The Development of Wittgensteins Philosophy" (http://www.nybooks. com/articles/archives/1969/jan/16/a-special-supplement-the-development-of-wittgenste/), The New York Review of Books, 10 July 1969.
Ludwig Wittgenstein Pears, David F. The False Prison, A Study of the Development of Wittgenstein's Philosophy, Volumes 1 and 2. Oxford University Press, 1987 and 1988. Richter, Duncan J. "Ludwig Wittgenstein (18891951)" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/wittgens/), Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 30 August 2004. Retrieved 16 September 2010. Scheman, Naomi and O'Connor, Peg (eds.). Feminist Interpretations of Ludwig Wittgenstein. Penn State Press, 2002. Schnbaumsfeld, Genia. A Confusion of the Spheres: Kierkegaard and Wittgenstein on Philosophy and Religion. Oxford University Press, 2007. Xanthos, Nicolas, "Wittgenstein's Language Games" (http://www.signosemio.com/wittgenstein/ language-games.asp), in Louis Hebert (dir.), Signo (online), Rimouski (Quebec, Canada), 2006. Works referencing Wittgenstein Doctorow, E. L. City of God. Plume, 2001, depicts an imaginary rivalry between Wittgenstein and Einstein. Doxiadis, Apostolos and Papadimitriou, Christos. Logicomix. Bloomsbury, 2009. Duffy, Bruce. The World as I Found It. Ticknor & Fields, 1987, a recreation of Wittgenstein's life. Jarman, Derek. Wittgenstein, a biopic of Wittgenstein with a script by Terry Eagleton, British Film Institute, 1993. Kerr, Philip. A Philosophical Investigation, Chatto & Windus, 1992, a dystopian thriller set in 2012. Markson, David. Wittgenstein's Mistress. Dalkey Archive Press, 1988, an experimental novel, a first-person account of what it would be like to live in the world of the Tractatus. Wallace, David Foster. The Broom of the System. Penguin Books, 1987, a novel.
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External links
BBC Radio 4 programme on Wittgenstein - listen online: http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0184rgn Trinity College Chapel (http://www.trinitycollegechapel.com/brasses-t-w/) Ludwig Wittgenstein (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=5887946) at Find a Grave John Searle on Ludwig Wittgenstein (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrmPq8pzG9Q) Chronology of Wittgenstein's Life and Work (constructed day-by-day, one hundred years on) (http://www. wittgensteinchronology.com)
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License
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