The Art of South and Southeast Asia

South Asia
The civilization of the Indian subcontinent is one of the oldest in the world. Its cultural continuities, and its powerful influence across most of Asia, can be traced from ancient times. India is the home of Hinduism, Buddhism, and the Jain religions. Its contributions to Southeast Asian cultures, trans mitted through trade and commercial contact, transformed tribal societies of the region into a series of !ingdoms in which Indian religions, cosmolog", language, notions of !ingship, and aesthetic forms flourished. As Buddhism spread to #ast Asia, Indian iconograph" and st"les of art also had a profound impact on the cultures of $epal, Tibet, %hina, and &orea. South Asia is located at the southern e'tremit" of the #urasian continent (see the map on page )*+. Its landmass is divided into three significant parts. The $orthern ,ountain rim contains the Himala"as, with twent" of the highest pea!s in the world. The" are flan!ed to the west b" the -estern .anges bordering Afghanistan, and on the east b" the Assam Burma .anges. The second ph"sical feature of the subcontinent is the great Indo /angetic 0lain, named after the Indus and /anges rivers, which flow through a nearl" level landform. South of the Indo /angetic 0lain is a great uplifted landmass !nown as the 1eccan 0lateau, which e'tends to the southern tip of the subcontinent. Although the subcontinent was partiall" isolated from the rest of Asia b" the Himala"as, from earl" times traders pushed through the mountain passes of the Hindu &ush, westward to Asia and to the ,editerranean world be"ond, and northeastward to %hina. India2s histor" was greatl" influenced b" periodic invasions of peoples from the north and northwest through these same mountain passes. #ach time, the invaders and their belief s"stems were eventuall" absorbed into the mainstream of Indian civilization, influenc ing and enriching it in the process. The vast subcontinent was rarel" unified and, over the centuries, the man" Indian !ingdoms that flourished there developed independent aesthetic st"les. $onetheless, certain similarities in content and st"le can be seen throughout the subcontinent (see pages 3*456+. .ise of the Indus 7alle"8or Harappa8%ivilization9 ca. 36:: B.%. Archaeologists once believed that civilization began in the subcontinent along the Indus .iver valle" in what is now 0a!istan. It is now !nown that this great civilization covered a much larger area, about as large as modern #urope (minus .ussia+, e'tending from northern 0a!istan to the Arabian Sea
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and along the tributaries of the Indus .iver in western India and 0a!istan. #'cavated sites such as the cities of Harappa and ,ohen;o daro reveal a well organized s"stem of town planning based on a rectangular street grid. Houses, man" two storied, were provided with drains, washrooms, and latrines< civic and religious buildings, made of mudbric!, were located on walled citadels separated from residential areas. Archaeologists have also found evidence of writing on small stone stamp seals carved with images and a script that has "et to be deciphered (image )+. These seals ma" have been used to mar! ownership of trade products. ,esopotamian and Iranian c"linder seals unearthed in the ruins testif" to e'tensive trade with western Asian cultures. The Indus 7alle" civilization collapsed for un!nown reasons some time after 3::: B.%. =ormative 0eriod9 )6:: 4 5rd centur" B.%. $o art or architecture from this period survives, perhaps because it was made with ephemeral materials such as wood and sun dried bric!. However, important philosophical and religious ideas were formulated during this time. The Ar"ans (meaning >the noble ones? in Sans!rit+ began to migrate from %entral Asia to the subcontinent about )6:: B.%. The" spo!e an ancient form of Sans!rit, which became the language of all the great Indic religions. Sans!rit is an Indo #uropean language related to ancient /ree!, @atin, and the modern languages of #urope, including #nglish. -ith superior weapons and horse drawn chariots, the Ar"ans overpowered the indigenous peoples. Their great heritage was literar"9 the 7edas, h"mns to their gods composed before )::: B.%., contain a rich and comple' bod" of religious and philosophical ideas< the Apanishads (ca. B::4*6: B.%.+ include philosophical musings about the nature of the divine and of the human soul. Handed down orall" for centuries, these beliefs were adopted as the foundation of Hinduism at the beginning of the first millennium. In the si'th centur" B.%., Buddhism was founded b" the Buddha (born Siddhartha /autama, ca. 6C54*B5 B.%.+ and Jainism b" ,ahavira (ca. 6*:4*CB B.%.+. These religions emerged at a time of great ferment, when philosophers and m"stics advanced ideas about correcting the ills of Indian societ", including the Brahmins2 e'clusive access to the 7edic gods and the strictures of the caste s"stem. %aste is first mentioned in the Apanishads. Indian societ" was divided into three strata9 a high caste of priests, or Brahmins, who performed all religious rituals< an intermediate caste of warriors (!shatri"as+< and a lower caste of merchants (vaish"as+. A fourth caste, defined in the earl" first millennium A.1., consisted of servants (shudras+. The #arl" 0eriod9 5rd centur" B.%. 4 A.1. )st centur"
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Ander the rule of the ,aur"as (ca. 5354)B6 B.%.+, the political and cultural life of $orth India was once again unified under a central authorit". The ,aur"an emperor Asho!a (3D3435) B.%.+, a great militar" leader, conEuered a large part of India. As a reaction to the horrors of war, he converted to Buddhism. To bring the Buddha2s teachings to his people, Asho!a built stu pas throughout his !ingdom. He also introduced a s"stem of writing, which had been absent in India since the collapse of the Indus 7alle" civilization. -hen the ,aur"an d"nast" came to an end in the second centur" B.%., India was once again divided into smaller !ingdoms. However, Buddhism contin ued to spread, and with it the building of stone stupas and meeting halls. The #arl" Buddhist &ingdoms9 A.1. ) 4 earl" *th centur" In the first centur" A.1., the &ushans, nomadic warriors from %entral Asia, conEuered the ancient /andharan region (which includes parts of modern 0a!istan and Afghanistan+ and much of northern India. 1ifferent st"les of art emerged from the two &ushan capitals, one in the 0eshawar area of /andhara and the other at ,athura further southeast in India. The /andharan st"le adapted forms from late Hellenistic and .oman art, perhaps a legac" of Ale'ander the /reat2s successors in the area, but largel" because the ma;or trade routes from the .oman #mpire to India and %hina passed through the region, bringing peoples and ideas from the -est (image *+. In contrast, the ,athuran st"le drew upon the indigenous traditions of India in portra"ing the human form in robust, rounded volumes s"mbolizing the fertilit" of nature. 1uring this period, Buddhist architecture and sculpture proliferated and the iconograph" of Buddhist images was formulated (image C+. In Andhra, on the southeastern coast of India, the I!shva!u !ingdom ()st4 5rd centur"+ prospered through the e'change of goods from local ports on the sea routes to .ome. There, as in /andhara, Buddhist merchants and devotees financed the building of stupas decorated with narrative stone reliefs (image 6+ depicting the Buddha in a distinctive fashion. Andhran Buddhist art influenced the art st"les of Sri @an!a (image F+ and images of the Buddha in Andhran st"le have been found in Thailand, 7ietnam, and Indonesia. B" the end of this period, Buddhism was spreading along the sil! route to %hina and later to &orea and Japan. Along with written accounts of the Buddha2s teachings (called sutras+, mon!s and merchants carried small portable wor!s of art8mainl" sculptures of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and shrines8which greatl" influenced earl" %hinese and %entral Asian Buddhist sculpture.
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The %lassical Age9 earl" *th4Cth centur" The /upta emperors (*th4Cth centur"+ conEuered and unified a large portion of northern India and, li!e the ,ughals, created a powerful central state surrounded b" !ingdoms lo"al to it. Ander ro"al patronage, this period became India2s classical age of literature, theater, and visual art. The aesthetic canons that came to dominate all the arts of later India were codified during this time. Sans!rit poetr" and prose, including the wor! of the great drama tist &alidasa, flourished, and the concept of zero was conceived which led to a more practical s"stem of numbering. Arab traders adapted and further developed the concept, and from western Asia the s"stem of >Arabic numerals? traveled to #urope. The religions of India8Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism8flourished under the /uptas. =or the first time, there was a great outpouring of Hindu sculp ture and architecture, and the forms in which the great gods of Hinduism were portra"ed began to be standardized. In the neighboring 7a!ata!a !ingdom (6th4Dth centur"+, in central India, artists influenced b" /upta aesthetics produced the e'traordinar" Buddhist roc! cut caves at A;anta, with their remar!able sculpture and murals. The great power and e'tent of the /upta #mpire ensured that, even after it had dissolved, its artistic formula would survive in the art of subseEuent Indian !ingdoms. $epal2s histor" had been lin!ed to that of northern India for a long time. Asho!a had built a stupa there. As earl" as the fourth centur", Hinduism and the /upta st"le of art were also imported into $epal. Buddhism and Hinduism continue to have a large following there toda". The ,edieval 0eriod9 Dth4)*th centur" After the brea!up of the /upta d"nast", man" smaller !ingdoms emerged in both the north and south of the subcontinent. The 0ala !ingdom of eastern India (Fth4)3th centur"+, which encompassed the ma;orit" of pilgrimage sites associated with the life of the Buddha, was a mecca for pilgrims from throughout Asia. Artists in $epal, Tibet, ,"anmar, and Indonesia were pro foundl" influenced b" 0ala artistic st"les (image D+. In the state of Grissa ;ust to the south, richl" decorated temples were constructed throughout this period, culminating with the e'traordinar" carved stone temple of &onara! (earl" )5th centur"+. The temple was dedicated to the Hindu god Sur"a, who was believed to cross the s!" each da" in a chariot drawn b" seven horses. It is actuall" in the form of a massive chariot, complete with horses and twelve pairs of chariot wheels. .a;put !ings in northwest India commis sioned man" temples, including the Hindu comple' at &ha;uraho (ca. F*6+, famous for its sculptural imager" of voluptuous women and loving couples, s"mbols of good fortune, abundance, and the union of opposites8a metaphor
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for spiritual transcendence. A number of important d"nasties, including the 0allava and 0and"a (Dth4Bth centur"+, thrived in South India. Their Hindu temples were built of granite or carved directl" from roc!. The 0allavas began the tradition of large scale cast copper processional images of Hindu deities that, under the subseEuent %hola d"nast", constitute one of the great artistic achievements of the South India tradition (image )B and 33+. Buddhism was first introduced in Tibet in the seventh centur" as a court religion. However, it did not gain popular support until the earl" eleventh centur", when Tibetan Buddhist teachers traveled to India to stud" at the great monasteries and famous Buddhist teachers were invited to Tibet to reform the practice of Buddhist rituals. The 0ala st"le of eastern India influ enced the art of $epal from the eighth through the twelfth centur", but had a more lasting impact in Tibet, from the twelfth through the earl" fifteenth centur". $epalese art also had a profound influence on that of Tibet from the thirteenth centur" through the fifteenth. =rom the fifteenth centur" onward, the Tibetans forged their own uniEue st"le with elements from India, $epal, and %hina. ,uslim Invasions9 )3th4)Cth centur" ,uslim traders and merchants began arriving in India through northwest mountain passes as earl" as the eighth centur", but it was not until the twelfth centur" that ,uslim rulers, bac!ed b" armies, gained control in northern India. These earl" sultans were Tur!s from %entral Asia. The militar" presence of the 1elhi Sultanate ())F34)63C+, the largest ,uslim !ingdom, ma" have saved the subcontinent from the devastating destruc tion caused b" the ,ongols throughout western and %entral Asia in the thirteenth centur". 1uring the first millennium A.1., Hinduism and Buddhism had e'isted side b" side, and the same aesthetic st"les8and often the same artists8were emplo"ed b" adherents of both. However, b" the end of the twelfth centur", Buddhism was unable to rebound from the destruction of its most important monasteries b" ,uslim invaders. Although Buddhism continued to flourish in #ast and Southeast Asia, it all but died out in India in the thirteenth cen tur". 1espite ,uslim pressure, Hindu and Jain art continued to be created in India but would never again reach the same levels of inspiration. As the 1elhi Sultanate began to wea!en, various ,uslim and Hindu pett" !ingdoms ;ostled for power. In the si'teenth centur", Si!hism was founded in $orth India in an attempt to reconcile Hinduism with Islam. A monothe istic faith, Si!hs believe that /od transcends all religious differences and caste divisions. This was the political situation when the ,ughals invaded
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India. The ,ughal #mpire9 )63C4)B6D The ,ughals established an empire that at its pea! e'tended across most of northern India. The name ,ughal is a corrupt form of ,ongol, reflecting their %entral Asian origin. Babur, the first ,ughal ruler, was a descendent of both /enghis &han and Timur (Tamurlane+. image 5: The ,ughal militar" conEuest was directed against both Hindu (.a;put+ and ,uslim !ingdoms and continued through the seventeenth centur". However, the ,ughal emperor A!bar (r. )66C4)C:6+ realized that a polic" of tolerance and inclusion would better serve ,ughal interests, allowing them to con solidate their conEuests and create an effective political s"stem (see image 5:+. As a wa" of securing lo"alties, members of the ,ughal ro"al famil" married .a;put ro"alt", and .a;put mahara;as served as ,ughal generals and states men. ,an" Indians converted to Islam in order to advance in the powerful ,ughal bureaucrac" and to participate in their networ!s of trade to the east and west. Gthers were attracted to Sufism, an Islamic sect that preached a direct approach to /od through love and devotion. Such an approach was remar!abl" similar to the Hindu belief in bha!ti, the personal devotion to /od. ,ughal painting and architecture influenced the indigenous .a;put st"les and, b" the late seventeenth centur", constituted the dominant court st"le. Although the ,ughal d"nast" continued until )B6D, it graduall" lost power and b" the second half of the eighteenth centur", its function was largel" ceremonial. %ontacts with #urope 7asco de /ama, the 0ortuguese e'plorer, sailed around Africa and made landfall on the west coast of India in )*FB. Soon, 0ortuguese merchants had established a trading port at /oa. The" introduced from the Americas emeralds treasured b" the ,ughals, and also chili peppers, which rapidl" became a staple seasoning in India2s various cuisines because of their preservative powers. Soon to follow the merchants were Jesuit priests eEuipped with #uropean prints and Bibles and eager to convert the ,ughal rulers. Although intrigued with %hristian beliefs and e'amples of #uropean art, ,ughal emperors beginning with A!bar (r. )66C4)C:6+ were much more interested in establishing trade relations with #urope. The" e'ported te'tiles, spices, and gems but acEuired ver" few #uropean goods in e'change, preferring instead pa"ment in gold and silver, which increased their wealth immensel" and enabled the court to indulge in lu'urious and highl" refined wor!s of art. =or their part, #uropeans found it eas" to com pl" with this demand because the" had plentiful supplies of these metals
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from South American mines. #uropean civilization was beginning to blend and interact with the eEuall" rich heritages of ancient India and Islam, a process that continues in South Asia toda". The 0ortuguese, 1utch, =rench, and British vied for trading advantages and began to establish inland trading centers as well as ports along the coast. As so often in the past, the ,ughals and the smaller ,uslim and Hindu !ingdoms failed to unite against these intrusions. 1uring the second half of the eighteenth centur", the British overcame their #uropean competitors, graduall" gaining control of the divided remnants of the ,ughal #mpire and what was left of the smaller !ingdoms. B" the middle of the nineteenth centur", almost the entire subcontinent was united for the first time under colonial rule, represented b" the British .a;. Independence Increasing support for independence culminated with the nonviolent protests led b" /andhi. Independence finall" came in )F*D and with it division into two states, India and 0a!istan, along religious lines. The vast ma;orit" of India2s citizens are Hindu, although there is a large population of ,uslims and small numbers of Jains, Si!hs, Buddhists, %hristians, and Jews. 0a!istan is mainl" ,uslim. Bangladesh split off from 0a!istan in )FD), forming the second ,uslim nation in South Asia. Southeast Asia The prehistoric, ancient, and medieval political subdivisions of the Southeast Asian subcontinent have little relation to the region2s modern nations8%ambodia, Indonesia, @aos, ,"anmar (Burma+, ,ala"sia, Singapore, Thailand, and 7ietnam. $onetheless, their names will be used to !eep our geographical bearings. The 0rehistoric 0eriod @ittle is !nown about the earl" indigenous cultures of Southeast Asia. It is unclear how and when potter" ma!ing and metalwor!ing were first discov ered in the region and whether the sites that have been e'cavated represent related or separate traditions. Archaeologists have investigated onl" a few Bronze and Iron Age sites such as Ban %hiang in Thailand (*th centur" B.%.4A.1. 5rd centur"+ and 1ong son in 7ietnam (Dth centur" B.%.4A.1 3nd centur"+. Their discoveries, and those made accidentall" b" local peoples in these modern nations as well as in Indonesia, suggest that there were well organized prehistoric cultures whose populations had the s!ill and technical !nowledge to ma!e fine ceramics and cast bronze ob;ects (image *:+. To what e'tent such finel" made ob;ects were traded or commissioned from other centers in Southeast Asia remains unclear. Initial %ontacts with India
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Southeast Asia came under the influence of Indian civilization toward the end of the first millennium B.%., when India, Sri @an!a, and mainland Southeast Asia became involved in the networ! of trade along which lu'ur" goods were moved both east and west b" sea from the eastern .oman #mpire to the Han d"nast" in %hina. These sea routes were length" and reEuired stopovers that changed over time due to politics and technological development. =irst the Thai peninsula and ,e!ong 1elta and later some of the Indonesian islands became important wa" stations. The .ise of Southeast Asian &ingdoms9 *th4Fth centur" %ommercial centers flourished in these areas, which had long been governed b" local chiefdoms. The founding m"ths of later Southeast Asian !ingdoms indicate that Indian merchants settled in these centers and intermarried with local nobilit", forming states ruled b" divine !ings according to the Indian model. Brahmins and Buddhist mon!s also came, bringing their religions, cosmologies, and concepts of social and political structure, the Sans!rit alphabet, and the rich religious literature of India. India continued to be a source for Southeast Asian cultures for the ne't thousand "ears. Buddhist and Hindu devotees visited hol" sites in India, returning with firsthand impressions of Indian art and architecture, religious te'ts, and portable images of Buddhist and Hindu deities. B" the si'th cen tur" A.1., !ingdoms and principalities had formed in the southern part of mainland Southeast Asia, on the Thai peninsula, and on Java and Sumatra. Their political structure was based on the Indian concept of divine !ingship, e'pressed in the ,ahabharata and .ama"ana, Indian epics recounting the heroic deeds of gods and rulers. Southern %ambodia and 7ietnam were controlled b" the Hindu rulers of the =unan !ingdom (*th4Cth centur"+, later usurped b" rulers, also Hindu, of the nearb" !ingdom of Hhenla. The earliest surviving =unan Hhenla sculpture dates from the si'th centur". B" the seventh and earl" eighth centur", stone sculpture of this combined !ingdom was created with such s!ill and assurance that its forms must have derived from an alread" ancient tradition of carving in wood (image *C and *D+. In the eighth centur", Hhenla =unan collapsed, perhaps because the lucrative trade routes that had passed through their territories now moved b" sea through the Strait of ,alacca. The fleets of the Shrivi;a"a !ingdom, which was centered on Sumatra and controlled portions of the Thai peninsula, made the sea passage safe from pirac" for the first time. =rom DD: to B66, %entral Java was ruled b" !ings who were most probabl" related to the Shrivi;a"a rulers of Sumatra. This Javanese !ingdom was the most powerful Southeast Asian !ingdom of its time. The classical st"le of Indonesian art
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flourished under its patronage, and a large number of temples, both Buddhist and Hindu, were built, including the great stupa of Borobudur (image *5, *B, and 63+. At the same time, parts of Thailand and ,"anmar were controlled b" the ,on peoples, who were Theravada Buddhists. Gther small !ingdoms in the region were also strongl" influenced b" India. In Burma, Hinduism and ,aha"ana Buddhism coe'isted with Theravada Buddhism until the eleventh centur", when the newl" established 0agan !ingdom proclaimed Theravada Buddhism the state religion (image *6+. After ,ongols destro"ed the 0agan !ingdom in )3BD, Burma was divided among a number of smaller !ingdoms. The &hmer #mpire9 Fth4)5th centur" After a long sta" at the %entral Javanese court, a Hhenla nobleman returned to the mainland and founded the &hmer #mpire of %ambodia. In B:3, he gave himself the name of Ja"avarman II and built a capital, which he called >the mountain of the !ing of the gods,? in the tradition of %entral Javanese rulers who called themselves >mountain !ings.? He erected a temple mountain that mirrored the abode of the gods, and established the cult of the devara;a8the god !ing8in %ambodia. The &hmer !ings henceforth were believed to be the ph"sical incarnation of a god, usuall" Shiva but sometimes 7ishnu. 0erhaps because of this initial connection with Java, Javanese art and architecture seem to have influenced earl" &hmer art. III The Art of South and Southeast Asia The .eligious %onte't Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, the three great religions that developed in the subcontinent, share certain basic beliefs9 that time is c"clical, and the universe is created and destro"ed in endless c"cles< that the world is transi tor" and the appearance of permanence is illusion (ma"a+< that all living beings are born and reborn in different lives and bodies (samsara+< and that one2s good and bad deeds (!arma+ accumulate from life to life and determine the form in which one is reborn. The goal is to accumulate enough good deeds to finall" be released from c"cles of birth and rebirth b" attaining nirvana (e'tinction or Euiescence+ in Buddhism, or mo!sha (release or liber ation+ in Hinduism. Gver the centuries, as these religions have evolved, the" have incorporated a variet" of ph"sical disciplines and esoteric and magical practices such as "oga, meditation, trance, breath control, and the repetition of mantras (words of power+. An essential feature of all three religions is a holistic view of life9 all forms of life8gods, demons, humans, animals, and vegetation8 are integrall" connected.
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Although Buddhists and Jains believe in ma"a, samsara, !arma, and eventual release (as Hindus do+, the" re;ect caste, Hindu gods, sacrifices, and the power of the priestl" caste (Brahmins+. The founders of Buddhism and Jainism both lived in the si'th centur" B.%. and were born in the warrior, or !shatri"a, caste. #arl" .eligious 0ractices in India An ancient form of religious practice was the worship of spirits believed to dwell in trees, rivers, and roc!s. ,an" Indians still hold such beliefs. Gne form these beliefs too! is the worship of "a!shas and "a!shis, male and female deities associated with the fertilit" of the earth. Serpent !ings called nagara;as and their consorts, naginis, as well as ma!aras, fabulous croco dileli!e creatures, are all associated with the cult of life giving waters. These earl" deities were incorporated into the ma;or Indian religions as minor gods. Gnl" fragmentar" information can be pieced together about the religion of the Indus 7alle" civilization. Horned animals (image )+, trees, man" female figurines (probabl" mother goddesses+, and phallic sculptures suggest that the people practiced some !ind of fertilit" worship. 1epictions of figures in "ogic postures suggest that meditation was used. These images relate to those of later Indian religions, and some ma" be protot"pes of later Indian deities. Some time after the collapse of the Indus civilization, Ar"ans migrated down to the subcontinent from %entral Asian steppes, bringing with them beliefs in gods, predominantl" male, who personified forces and nature and were worshipped in elaborate sacrifices performed b" Brahmins, the priestl" class. The Ar"ans composed religious te'ts beginning with the .ig 7eda, Soma 7eda, and Athar 7eda (ca. )6::4)3:: B.%.+, which contained h"mns to the gods and descriptions of the customs, behavior, and traditions of Ar"an life. The Apanishads, composed later (D::46:: B.%.+, contain profound philosophical speculations about the >Gne who lies behind.? This >Gne,? called Brahman, is eternal, formless, all encompassing, and the origin and essence of all things. Hinduism There is no single founder or doctrine of Hinduism. It has evolved over the centuries, incorporating previous doctrines and deities, for instance, main taining reverence for the ancient 7edic te'ts and adopting some of the 7edic deities but in new guises, and responding to non 7edic religious movements such as Buddhism and Jainism. Hinduism as we !now it seems to have coalesced at the beginning of the first millennium A.1. Initiall", Hinduism was centered around three male gods9 Brahma, creator of the cosmos< 7ishnu, preserver and protector of the universe< and Shiva,
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destro"er of the universe so that from the formless void it ma" be created again. Brahma has never had a large number of worshippers. Shiva, 7ishnu, and the /reat /oddess 1evi (,ahadevi+ in their m"riad forms are the most widel" worshipped Hindu gods. The" are described in the 0uranas, a group of te'ts formulated between A.1. 3:: and B::. Shiva is worshipped as the ascetic god, remote when in meditation but also at times wild, passionate, and loving. As @ord of the 1ance (image 33+, he both destro"s and creates the universe. His cosmic dance visualizes the c"cles of creation and destruction in human lives, in the histor" of nations, and in the universe. Shiva is also manifest in a phallic emblem called a linga (image )D+, and it is in this form that he is most often portra"ed in the inner sanctum of his temples. -orshippers of Shiva believe that he is the supreme god who contains and controls all creation. 7ishnu (image )C and 3:+ preserves and maintains order in the universe. -henever destructive forces, usuall" s"mbolized b" demons, threaten to overwhelm the world, 7ishnu descends in the form of an avatar to restore moral order. His concern for human political and social activities e'presses the gentle and ;ust minded side of the Gne. It is believed that in our present universe, 7ishnu has alread" appeared in nine incarnations, ta!ing such animal forms as a fish and a tortoise and various human forms such as &rishna, .ama, and the Buddha. It is believed he will appear once more in the future. As .ama (image 5B+, he s"mbolizes the importance of lo"alt" and obedience. As &rishna, he is the divine lover (image 5:+ as well as a sla"er of demons (image )6+. &rishna2s consort, .adha, and his female devotees, in their passionate longing for him, s"mbolize the soul2s desire to be one with /od (image 3F+. Gne of the most stri!ing characteristics of Hinduism is the importance of goddesses. As Hinduism developed, 7edic goddesses came to the fore. @a!shmi and Sarasvati, for instance, became the consorts of 7ishnu. Gther goddesses, who ma" have been worshipped independentl" outside of the 7edic tradition, graduall" appeared as powerful deities on their own, most prominentl", 1evi, who represents the essence of female power. In the seventh centur", Hinduism and Buddhism were influenced b" Tantra, a new religious movement that emplo"ed esoteric !nowledge to speed the believer toward spiritual liberation. The Hindu pantheon of gods e'panded to include sha!tis, female counterparts to male gods and personified as their consorts. Sha!ti is female energ", which activates the powers of the male gods and emanates from the goddess 1evi. ,an" other goddesses represent aspects of 1evi2s powers, for instance, 0arvati, the beautiful, loving, and obedient consort of Shiva (image )B+, and 1urga (image 3*+, %hamunda
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(image )F+, and &ali, whose actions and moods indicate anger, ferocit", and the horrific. This range of emotions s"mbolizes their multiple purposes and the variet" of forms female energ" and power can assume. =rom its beginnings, Hinduism has possessed a remar!able abilit" to assimilate rather than re;ect new ideas. It has developed comple' overla"s of beliefs, cults, gods, and forms of worship. Hindus recognize no single founder or prophet. There is no single hol" boo! similar to the Bible or Iur2an< the religion is not supervised and interpreted b" a hierarch" of priests, and its great te'ts were not inscribed but handed down as an oral tradition. Hindu worship is based on a one to one relationship between devotee and god rather than being congregational. This practice intensified beginning in the seventh centur" with the popularit" of bha!ti, passionate personal devotion to an individual god or goddess. Gver the centuries, a number of important poets and musician saints emerged from the bha!ti tradition whose wor!s, such as the /ita /ovinda, became classics of Indian culture. Indian people have treasured, in particular, two great epics9 the .ama"ana (3nd centur" B.%.+ and the famous epic poem, the ,ahabharata (6::4*:: B.%.+, both of which ma" be based on actual historical events. The .ama"ana has been, and still is, a rich source for art. Toda" the great ma;orit" of Indian people are Hindus. Although Hindus ma" select one deit" for personal worship among the great gods and goddesses and the countless regional and local gods, all of these deities can be under stood as representing the man" aspects of the Gne. Buddhism Siddhartha /autama, who later became the Buddha, was born in $orth India in the si'th centur" B.%. According to legend, Siddhartha was the son of a !ing of the Sha!"a clan (hence the name Buddha Sha!"amuni, b" which he is often referred+. At his birth, a soothsa"er predicted he would become either a great militar" ruler or a great spiritual leader. To prevent the latter from happening, Siddhartha2s father !ept him within the palace, providing him with lu'uries and pleasures so that he would remain unaware of the harshness and suffering in the world. Gne da", alread" a "oung man, Siddhartha managed to escape from the palace. =or the first time he saw an old person, a sic! person, a corpse, and an ascetic hol" man. He was stunned and deepl" affected b" their suffering. .ealizing that pleasures are transitor" and cannot prevent suffering, he put aside all his ;ewelr" and fine clothing. @eaving his wife and son at the palace, he embar!ed on a ;ourne" to see! the meaning of life and the wa"s in which humans can attain peace (image 6+.
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At first Siddhartha turned inward in his Euest for !nowledge. He went into the forest to see! the advice of hol" men and to meditate. In Siddhartha2s time, "oga was alread" an ancient wa" to see! inner !nowledge and under standing of universal truths. He became an ascetic and attempted e'treme forms of renunciation, nearl" starving himself to death. Having recognized that e'treme deprivation was not the wa", he once again too! food. He sat meditating beneath a bodhi tree, overnight according to some accounts and da"s and da"s according to others. The evil demon ,ara, realizing that Siddhartha was close to enlightenment, tempted him with his beautiful daughters and threatened him with a powerful arm". But Siddhartha touched the ground with his right hand, calling the #arth to witness his resolve to achieve enlightenment and thereb" vanEuishing ,ara. -hen Siddhartha arose, he had become the Buddha, which means the #nlightened Gne (or the Awa!ened Gne+. He realized that the causes of human suffering la" in the attachment to ph"sical desires of all !inds, and as long as this was so, the !arma laden souls of living creatures were destined to suffer endless rebirths. Gnl" with the complete elimination of worldl" attachments could one reach release into a state of eternal selfless bliss, called nirvana, the Sans!rit word for >e'tinguishment.? Buddhism was a philosophical and ethical s"stem with the Buddha as its greatl" revered founder. The Buddha spent the rest of his life teaching his ascetic doctrine, gaining an ever growing group of followers. He taught that nirvana could onl" be achieved through first realizing the =our $oble Truths9 that all life is suffering< that suffering is caused b" desires< that to eliminate suffering, one must eliminate desires< and that this can be done b" following the #ightfold 0ath, which includes right thoughts, right inten tions, right deeds, and the right concentration in meditation. $irvana can onl" be attained through the e'tinguishment of one2s ego b" following the #ightfold 0ath. Buddhism attracted man" people for whom caste and the Brahmins2 e'clu sive control over worship were problematic. #ven before the Buddha2s death, man" of his followers had become mon!s and nuns and were settling into monasteries provided b" wealth" lait" as merit producing gifts. /raduall" the mon!s spread his teachings across northern India in peaceful conver sions. The main focus of worship became stupas, hemispherical mounds containing relics of the Buddha or other transcendent beings and often decorated with scenes from the Jata!as (fol! tales about the past lives of the Buddha+. The faithful also made pilgrimages to important places in the Buddha2s life, including his birthplace, the bodhi tree at Bodh /a"a where he reached enlightenment, and the 1eer 0ar! at Sarnath where he preached
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his first sermon. As the centuries passed, pilgrims throughout Asia came to visit these sacred sites. There the" learned about the Buddha2s life and his teachings. The earliest form of Buddhism is called the Theravada (-a" of the #lders+. It adheres strictl" to the Buddha2s teaching and to his austere life of meditation and detachment. Theravada Buddhists believed that ver" few would reach nirvana. Initiall", in this s"stem, the Buddha was represented in art onl" b" s"mbols, but in the first centur" A.1., under the &ushan rulers, the Buddha began to be depicted in human form. At about this time, a new form of Buddhism emerged called the ,aha"ana (the /reat -a"+, which held that the Buddha was more than a great spiritual teacher but also a savior god. It was believed that he had appeared in perfect human form to relieve suffering with the message that, b" performing good deeds and maintaining sincere faith, ever"one could reach nirvana through means less strict and arduous than in Theravada (which ,aha"ana Buddhists called the Hina"ana, or @esser -a"+. A whole pantheon of ,aha"ana Buddhist deities began to appear to aide the devotee8Buddhas of the past, bodhisattvas such as ,aitre"a (Buddha of the =uture+, and 7a;rapani (>thunderbolt bearer?+, who had evolved from the chief 7edic god Indra. ,ost appealing and approachable of all is the gentle Avalo!iteshvara, the bodhisattva of infinite compassion, who can be called upon to help people in all !inds of trouble. A bodhisattva is a being who has reached the moment of spiritual transcendence but foregoes nirvana in order to guide all beings in their Euest to attain enlightenment. The ,aha"ana faith became the more popular form of Buddhism and was carried b" mer chants and mon!s across %entral Asia along the trade routes to %hina, and from there to &orea and Japan. Another form of Buddhism, called #soteric and also !nown as Tantric or 7a;ra"ana Buddhism, grew out of ,aha"ana Buddhism beginning in the late si'th or earl" seventh centur". #soteric Buddhists accepted the tenets of the ,aha"ana but also used forms of meditation subtl" directed b" master teachers (gurus+ involving magical words, s"mbols, and practices to speed the devotee toward enlightenment. The" believed that those who practiced compassion and meditation with unwavering effort and acEuired the wis dom to become detached from human passions could achieve in one lifetime a state of perfect bliss or >clear light,? their term for ultimate realization and release. Their practices paralleled concurrent developments in Hinduism. ,an" new deities appeared in the #soteric Buddhist pantheon who, in their poses, gestures, and e'pressions, visualize philosophical ideas (image )3+. =or
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instance, male and female deities shown in embrace e'press the union of wisdom and compassion. -rathful deities s"mbolize protection, and their violent and horrific appearance helps devotees to overcome the passions that hinder salvation. Also central to #soteric thin!ing were the five celestial Buddhas (the four directions and the zenith+, who represent both the energ" of the universe and the potential for wisdom within the ps"chological ma!e up of the individual (image B, ):, and *5+. B" the twelfth centur", Buddhism was concentrated mainl" in northeastern India, where the Buddha lived and preached. Its near e'tinction seems to have been caused b" ,uslim invaders who destro"ed the Buddhist monastic universities. Teachers and mon!s fled to $epal, Tibet, and Burma. Toda" onl" a small percentage of India2s population is Buddhist. Buddhism and Hinduism in Southeast Asia Hinduism and Theravada, ,aha"ana, and #soteric Buddhism had spread throughout Southeast Asia b" the seventh centur", and important monu ments and sculptures of both faiths survive from that period onward. Throughout the region, ancient indigenous animistic and pantheistic beliefs survived and complemented the tenets and practices of the Indic faiths. Theravada Buddhism spread to Sri @an!a at an earl" date and is still the dominant religion there. It was also carried along sea routes to Thailand and Burma (,"anmar+. It is the form of Buddhism still practiced in those countries toda", as well as in %ambodia and @aos. In neighboring 7ietnam, the population is largel" ,aha"ana, perhaps due to the pro'imit" to %hina, where the Buddhism that still e'ists is largel" ,aha"ana. In Indonesia, Hinduism and #soteric Buddhism, which had coe'isted peacefull" for cen turies, were graduall" displaced b" the spread of Islam through not onl" Indonesia but also ,ala"sia in the fifteenth centur". Indonesia now has the largest ,uslim population in the world. Bali, however, remains largel" Hindu. Jainism ,ahavira, the founder of Jainism, and Siddhartha /autama, the founder of Buddhism, both lived in the si'th centur" B.%., and both were princes who left their fathers2 !ingdoms for the life of an ascetic. The" shared the belief in !arma and samsara, and sought release (mo!sha+ through meditation and control of one2s desires. Anli!e Buddhism, however, Jainism never spread be"ond India. Toda" there are some two million Jains in western India, where ,ahavira taught. As a prince, ,ahavira2s name was 7ardhamana. The ideal Ar"an prince was a vira, meaning >brave warrior.? 7ardhamana also wished to be !nown as a brave warrior, not in a battle against human foes but in his battle against his own desires. So he too! the name ,ahavira (maha J great+. A person who
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has absolute control over his senses and has become a great teacher is !nown as a ;ina or tirthan!ara. ,ahavira2s followers believed that he was the last of twent" four tirthan!aras (image 3D+. ,ahavira led an austere life, teaching, meditating, begging for food, and den"ing his bod" an" comforts. -hen his clothes fell into tatters, he went without them, >s!" clad? for the rest of his life. Jain mon!s disagreed about how far their austerities should go. Gne group held that, li!e ,ahavira, the" should teach >s!" clad,? or na!ed. Those opposed wore white robes. ,ost present da" Jain mon!s are >white clad.? ,ahavira taught his followers to detach themselves from worldl" desires and also from their own viewpoints. He suggested that it is often easier to give up material possessions than it is to part with one2s opinions. According to ,ahavira, a person can see onl" a ver" small part of the truth, and what one believes to be true depends on man" factors li!e social status, education, and conte't. An ancient Jain parable interpreted b" a nineteenth centur" poet clarifies this point. It was si' men of Indostan To learning much inclined -ho went to see the #lephant (Though all of them were blind+ That each b" observation ,ight satisf" his mind. The first approached the #lephant And happened to fall Against his broad and sturd" side At once began to bawl9 >Bless meK But the elephant Is ver" li!e a wall.? The second, feeling of the tus! %ried, >HoK -hat have we here, So ver" round and smooth and sharpL To me 2tis might" clear This wonder of an #lephant Is ver" li!e a spear.? The third approached the animal, And happened to ta!e The sEuirming trun! within his hands, Thus boldl" up and spa!e9 >I see,? Euoth he< >the #lephant
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Is ver" li!e a sna!e.? The fourth reached out his eager hand And felt about the !nee. >-hat most this wondrous beast is li!e Is might" plain,? Euoth he< >2Tis clear enough the elephant is ver" li!e a tree.? The fifth, who chanced to touch the ear, Said >#2en the blindest man %an tell what this resembles most< 1en" the fact who can, This marvel of an #lephant Is ver" li!e a fan.? The si'th no sooner had begun About the beast to grope Than seizing on the swinging tail That fell within his scope, >I see,? Euoth he, >the elephant Is ver" li!e a rope.? And so these men of Indostan 1isputed loud and long, #ach in his own opinion #'ceeding stiff and strong, Though each was partl" in the right, And all were in the wrong. 8John /odfre" Sa'e (American, )B)C4)BBD+ ,ahavira taught that to avoid accumulating bad !arma, one should not harm an" living things. This is the doctrine ahimsa, the most important concept in Jain teaching. Because of their reverence for all life, Jain mon!s preached against brahminical animal sacrifices and introduced strict vegetarianism. Since a human soul can be reborn as an animal or insect, and since all forms of life have souls, even the smallest creature should not be harmed. To prevent this, devout Jains wear face mas!s when the" are out side to avoid inhaling insects, and gentl" sweep the path in front of them before ta!ing a step. Jains avoid farming because their ploughs might in;ure burrowing animals. The Jain emphasis on nonviolence influenced both Buddhism and Hinduism and established a tradition which man" prominent Indians such as /andhi have followed. Islam The faith of Islam arrived in India graduall" from western Asia beginning as
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earl" as the seventh centur" A.1. Islam, an Arabic word meaning >submis sion to /od,? was founded b" the 0rophet ,uhammad (ca. A.1. 6D:4C53+ after /od (Allah+ had appeared to him as the archangel /abriel in the desert outside of ,ecca. In those times, South Arabia was a crossroads of inter regional trade and a place where the traditional beliefs of idol worshippers who gathered around the &a2ba, the sacred center of ,ecca, clashed with the religious ideas and practices of %hristianit" and Horoastrianism, an ancient Iranian religion. >.ecite in the name of the @ord,? commanded Allah as he gave to ,uhammad the final and complete instructions about the relationships between human!ind and /od. These relationships had been onl" partiall" revealed to the Gld Testament prophets and to the $ew Testament prophet Jesus. ,uhammad immediatel" began to teach /od2s divine message, converting man" in ,ecca. He e'perienced a temporar" setbac!, however, when he and the newl" faithful were driven from ,ecca b" local merchants who feared his preaching against idol worship would divert the lucrative trade routes elsewhere. This forced migration in C33, called the Hi;ra in Arabic, mar!s the beginning of the Islamic calendar, the "ears of which are referred to as A.H. (Anno Hi;ra+. B" the end of his life, ,uhammad and the faithful had returned triumphantl" to ,ecca, cleansed the &a2ba of idols, and declared it sacred to Allah. -ithin a centur" of his death, ,uhammad2s followers had spread Islam through the ,iddle #ast to the borders of India and westward across Africa to Spain. Islam is a strictl" monotheistic religion. Although ,uslims revere ,uhammad as /od2s greatest prophet, the" worship onl" one god, Allah, who controls the fate of all beings. Allah2s words which he ordered ,uhammad to recite were written down after the 0rophet2s death in the Iur2an, the ,uslim hol" boo!. Iur2an means >recitation? in Arabic. Because /od spo!e in Arabic, the Iur2an must be written and read in Arabic. As a conseEuence, within Islamic cultures Arabic calligraph" (the art of writing beautifull"+ has traditionall" been deemed the highest form of art. 1escribed in the Iur2an are the five obligations of all ,uslims, often called the =ive 0illars of Islam9 the profession of faith (>There is no god but /od< ,uhammad is the messenger of /od?+< pra"er five times a da" at dawn, noon, afternoon, evening, and night< the giving of alms< fasting from sunrise to sundown during the month of .amadan< and ma!ing a pil grimage to ,ecca at least once in a lifetime if ph"sicall" possible. $earl" a Euarter of the world2s population is ,uslim. The nation with the largest ,uslim population is Indonesia. Although ,uslims come from diverse cultures and spea! man" different languages, the" are united b" their
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faith and, historicall", b" a bus" networ! of #ast -est trade. At the same time, there was and continues to be diverse political, cultural, and artistic e'pressions in regions of the Islamic world that were not part of the Arabic spea!ing heartland of Islam and where there e'isted strong pre Islamic indigenous traditions. Art of South Asia (before ca. A.1. )6::+ %ontent .eligious images dominate the surviving art of the great periods of South Asian sculpture, from the second centur" B.%. to about A.1. )6::. -hat remains are stone temples, stone and metal temple sculpture, and smaller religious sculpture created for personal worship. @i!e much ancient sculp ture8for instance, /ree! and medieval #uropean8man" of these images were probabl" originall" painted. A few retain original gilt surfaces and inlaid gems. The walls of sacred structures were also sometimes enriched with mural painting and te'tiles. >Surviving? is a !e" word because not all art created in this time span was religious. Archaeological e'cavations have proven the e'istence of man" palaces that were constructed in bric! and wood. As described in literature, the interiors were decorated with richl" carved wood and murals depicting courtl" life. Gne can onl" imagine the opulent colors, the lavish ro"al ;ewelr" made of precious stones set in gold, and the lu'urious costumes of sil! and diaphanous cotton for which India has been famous in the -est since ancient .oman times. The details of costume and adornment found on the sculpture and paintings of Hindu and Buddhist deities give some idea of this splendid finer". ,uch more Indian art from the last four hundred "ears has survived, providing a more complete picture of the rich secular arts of India. This sumptuous later ro"al art is described on pages 5C45D. The Ideal Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain deities are depicted in ideal human forms to s"m bolize their transcendent and divine natures. Gther civilizations8such as the /ree!, #g"ptian, and sub Saharan African peoples8have also used ideal human forms to visualize beliefs about divinit", moral behavior, and beaut". A comparison of their creations with South and Southeast Asian images (and with images from our own culture+ shows that how the ideal human bod" is portra"ed depends upon the beliefs of the culture in which the art is made. ,etaphors from $ature Artists created ideal human forms b" using a vocabular" of metaphors derived from nature. This vocabular" was codified during the /upta period (mid *th4Cth centur"+, and artists wor!ed from this repertor" to ma!e their images. #"es were to be shaped li!e the curve of a little fish or a lotus
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petal, e"ebrows li!e an archer2s bow, lips li!e lotus blossoms, the chin li!e a mango stone, and arms li!e an elephant2s trun!8or, in the case of a woman2s arms, long and tapering li!e a perfectl" formed edible root. The male torso should resemble the frontal view of a bull2s head or the chest of a lion, and the female torso should be shaped li!e a narrow waisted drum (called a damaru+. Gften Buddhist and Hindu deities, male and female, are depicted with three rings around the nec!, a s"mbol of beaut" and good fortune. The" are a metaphor for the three folds at the opening of the conch shell. The genius of the Indian artist was the melding of these disparate Euotations from nature into ideal bodies that are at once human and tran scendent8appropriate vessels for gods and spiritual beings. Identification of Hindu and Buddhist 1eities In Indian art, worshippers recognize images of an individual deit" or spiritual being b" the particular attributes he or she holds, and b" the deit"2s pose, gestures, color, and adornment. %ertain s"mbols are common in the iconog raph" of all three religions. The @otus. The Indian s"mbol par e'cellence is the lotus, sign of spiritual perfection. As its flower rises unsullied from the mudd" waters and blooms to the sun, so the devotee attempts to rise above the impure, illusor" world and become transformed through enlightenment into a spirituall" perfected being. The lotus appears in art both as a complete blossom and as st"lized petals that form the pedestal upon which spiritual beings sit or stand. lotus lotus pedestal wheel The -heel (cha!ra+ is another s"mbol with several la"ers of meaning. It represents the doctrine preached b" the Buddha in his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. The words he spo!e are called >turning the wheel of the law.? In Hindu thought, the wheel s"mbolizes time and the c"cles of creation and destruction that form successive universes. It is also one of 7ishnu2s attributes, where it functions as a weapon in the form of a discus. The halo or nimbus of light freEuentl" surrounds the heads of deities, particularl" Buddhas and bodhisattvas, and often envelops their entire bod" to signif" transcendent radiance. It is thought that this luminous s"mbol originated somewhere in western or %entral Asia and spread eastward to India b" the second centur" A.1. and westward b" the fourth centur", when it appears in %hristian art to signif" spiritualit". Halos also appear in Hindu sculptures and were later adopted b" the ,ughal
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and .a;put aristocrac" in their portraits. Adornment. Hindu deities and bodhisattvas wear the lavish ;ewelr" and elaborate hairst"les of Indian ro"alt" (image 3 and 5+ as well as the >sacred thread,? a s"mbol of learning and the transition to adulthood worn b" the upper castes. It crosses the left shoulder and falls in a curve across the torso and around the right hip. ,ultiple =eatures. Gne of the most stri!ing features of Hindu and Buddhist art is the portra"al of multiarmed and occasionall" multiheaded gods. These images e'press the multiple powers and responsibilities of the gods. The several hands were needed to displa" the deit"2s attributes and to ma!e gestures that s"mbolize concepts associated with the deit". Because the attributes, gestures, and ph"sical form of each god are dis tinct, worshippers can identif" each god b" these features. #'pressions. Although the ma;orit" of sculptural figures are idealized and sublime, occasionall" the" are ugl" and horrific. To the Hindu and Buddhist faithful, these wrathful deities are protective because their terrif"ing energies are directed against evil and ignorance. In #soteric Buddhist thought, the" represent human failings such as greed, hatred, and ignorance which one must recognize and overcome on the path to enlightenment. Gften Hindu and Buddhist gods are depicted as serene in one guise and wrathful in another. Such contrasts reflect the Indian belief that dualities in our world are onl" an illusion. Seemingl" opposite forces are merel" aspects of the same ultimate realit". 0oses. ,an" poses commonl" found in art8such as the lotus position8 are drawn from "oga which, according to m"th, was practiced b" the gods. Another source for poses and gestures in South Asian sculpture is classical dance, which evolved in Hindu temple ritual and in perfor mances at ro"al courts. -ith a visual vocabular" of particular movements and gestures well !nown to their audience, dancers acted out the adven tures of the gods and heroes of India2s great epics. %ontemporar" dance performances in the traditional st"le have been revived b" following descriptions in ancient te'ts on dance, called the $at"ashastras, and also b" stud"ing the poses of figures in temple sculpture and wall reliefs. The most common poses in art are9 M An iconic frontal pose (samabhanga+ with both feet eEuall" supporting the weight or with one !nee ver" slightl" bent. M A swa"ing pose with the weight on one leg, the head and lower bod" slanting in one direction, and the torso moving in the opposite direction. This thrice bent (tribhanga+ pose suggests potential movement. M The seated meditation pose derived from "oga commonl" !nown as the
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lotus position (padmasana+ in which the legs are crossed with feet upturned. M The seated pose of ro"al ease (lalitasana+ in which one leg is folded so that the foot rests on the seat and the other leg hangs down. M A dancing pose in which all the weight rests on one leg. M An active standing pose in which a deit" tramples upon a demon< one leg is bent, the other is stretched out at an angle. Architectural 1ecoration. Sacred Hindu and Buddhist architecture is dec orated with flora, fauna, m"thical creatures, and human forms. %arvings of fantastic, powerful animals signif" protection. 0atterns of flowers, trees, vines, figures of "a!shas and "a!shis, loving couples, and sensuous women (image 35+ allude to fertilit", abundance, and the generative pow ers of the divine. ,ural paintings survive in some sacred sites and rich te'tiles ma" also have adorned the walls. S"mbols and Attributes in Buddhist Art The Buddha #arl" Buddhist art did not show the Buddha in human form. In relief sculp tures at earl" stupa sites, his presence is indicated b" s"mbols such as the lotus (signif"ing purit"+, the eight spo!ed wheel (emblem of the Buddha2s law+, the parasol (ancient s"mbol of ro"alt"+, and a footprint (the Buddha2s presence+. It ma" be that this s"mbolic wa" of representing the Buddha arose from the view that with enlightenment he had transcended human form. $ot until the first centur" A.1., more than five hundred "ears after his death, do images of the Buddha in human form begin to appear. 0erhaps these figures were a response to emerging beliefs that the Buddha was not onl" a great spiritual teacher but also a savior god who, with personal devo tion, could help others achieve nirvana. =igures of the Buddha have particular features, called la!shanas, which e'press his e'alted state as the #nlightened Gne. The bulge at the top of his head8the ushnisha8signifies his transcendent !nowledge. The urna, a whorl of hair between the e"ebrows that can also be depicted as a dot, is another s"mbol of his transcendent nature< its placement corresponds to that of the pineal gland. The Buddha2s webbed hands and feet are also la!shanas. Images of the Buddha have other distinguishing mar!s. His earlobes are elongated from wearing heav" gold earrings when he was a prince. After gaining enlightenment, he discarded such adornments, which represented attachment to the ph"sical world. 0rinces traditionall" had long hair piled up in an elaborate coiffure. -hen the Buddha became an ascetic, he cut his hair short as a sign of renunciation and humilit"< in visual art, it is often shown curled in tight snail li!e whorls.
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The Buddha wears the simple garments of a mon!9 an undergarment, robe, and sometimes a shawl. His serene e'pression and half closed e"es signif" meditation and inner peace. His e"es are also half open to show awareness and compassion for the devotee. Gften his lips reveal the hint of a smile, another sign of compassion (image C and poster A+. -heels, emblems of Buddhist law, or st"lized lotus blossoms are often inscribed on his palms and the soles of his feet. #vents from the Jata!as were popular sub;ects in relief sculpture (image *)+. These were fol! tales written down after the Buddha2s death describing the animal and human forms he had ta!en in his 66: past lifetimes on his ;our ne" to enlightenment. Hand /estures The elongated fingers of the Buddha2s hands emphasize his gestures (mudras+, which conve" meaning to his worshippers. The most common gestures are illustrated below, along with their meaning9 alla"ing gesture meditation teaching pra"er bestowing calling the earth to witness teaching the law or turn discussion (signif"ing the Buddha2s ing the wheel of the law right to enlightenment+ Bodhisattvas Bodhisattvas are beings who have reached enlightenment but elect to sta" on earth to help others attain >release.? Thus, the" are intermediaries that aid in human!ind2s enlightenment. Bodhisattvas are identified b" their princel" dress and adornment (image *, ):, and )3+. As spiritual princes, the" have earned regalia of the highest order. Individual bodhisattvas are identified b" the gestures the" ma!e, the attributes the" hold, their color, and in some cases s"mbolic elements in their headdresses. #soteric Buddhist 1eities #soteric (Tantric+ Buddhism e'panded the pantheon of deities, both male and female. The" are identified b" a variet" of hand gestures, bod" positions, and s!in color. ,an" are depicted with multiple arms and hands to show their diverse powers, and ma" have more than one face. #soteric deities ma" have animal mounts or vehicles, as Hindu gods do, to carr" them through the universe. These new deities include the cosmic Buddhas, Buddhas of past ages, and personified aspects of the most important bodhisattvas por tra"ed in pacific or wrathful forms (image ):, )3, )5, and )*+. Identification of the Hindu /ods @i!e Buddhist deities, Hindu gods are identified b" the attributes the" hold, their attendants, their color, and their adornment. ,an" wear the lavish ;ewelr" and elaborate hairst"les of Indian ro"alt", and most wear the >sacred
35

thread.? (Bodhisattvas are also sometimes depicted wearing the sacred thread.+ Gften male gods have female goddess consorts, and most gods and goddesses have an animal or a bird (called vehicles or mounts+ upon which the" travel about the universe. The deities described here are among the most important in the Hindu pantheon and their images are the ones most freEuentl" encountered in the ,etropolitan ,useum galleries. Shiva Shiva has man" roles and guises, each identified b" particular attributes and poses (image )D, 3), 33, and 5C+. He is sometimes depicted with two arms but more freEuentl" four, and he often carries a trident. In the center of his forehead is a third e"e, shown verticall". His hairloc!s, long and matted from his ascetic practices, are piled up in a tall chignon. Some of Shiva2s most common attributes are9 the third e"e, indicating divine omniscience damaru, a hand drum, a crescent moon in his indicating the primordial hair, representing the sound of creation c"clical nature of time an antelope, representing a trident and battle a', animal fertilit" (Shiva is s"mbols of Shiva2s lord of the animals+ militance agni, the consuming fire of destruction 7ishnu 7ishnu is usuall" depicted with four arms (image )C, 3:, and *C+ and wears a tall conical crown. T"picall", one of his hands ma!es the fear alla"ing gesture. His animal mount is /aruda, a man bird and ancient solar s"mbol of power. In 7ishnu2s nine previous avatars, he appeared as a fish, tortoise, boar, man lion, dwarf, the a' bearer 0arashurama, .ama, &rishna, and the Buddha. 7ishnu2s tenth appearance, "et to come, will be &al!i. His two most popular avatars are &rishna (image )6, 36, 3F, 5:, and *B+ and .ama (image 5B+, both of whom, li!e 7ishnu, are portra"ed with dar! blue gra" colored s!in. 7ishnu2s usual attributes are9 The conch shell, a war trumpet which in spiral form s"mbolizes the origin of e'istence The war discus, a wheel shaped weapon
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with a sharp cutting edge A club or mace, s"mbol of authorit" and the power of !nowledge The lotus, s"mbol of transcendence and purit" The /reat /oddess 1evi, the /reat /oddess, appears in m"riad forms. As @a!shmi, goddess of wealth and beaut", she is one of the most popular deities in India and is sometimes shown flan!ed b" two elephants who honor her b" pouring water over her head with their trun!s. 1evi, in the form of @a!shmi, is 7ishnu2s wife. 1evi also appears as 7ishnu2s wife in two of his incarnations9 when he is .ama she is Sita, and when he is &rishna she is .adha. 0arvati (image )B, 3), 5C, and *F+ is another form of 1evi. In Hindu m"thol og", she is the reincarnation of Shiva2s first wife Sati, who !illed herself because of an insult to her husband. (The traditional custom, now outlawed, in which a Hindu widow throws herself upon her husband2s funeral p"re is called suttee, a word derived from Sati. As the name implies, suttee recre ates Sati2s final act of lo"alt" and devotion to her husband.+ Beautiful 0arvati was born to lure the mourning Shiva into another marriage, thus ta!ing him awa" from the life of the ascetic into the more active realm of husband and father. @i!e @a!shmi, 0arvati represents the ideal wife and mother. She is portra"ed as a perfect balance between purit" and sensualit". The militant 1urga (image 3*+, another incarnation of 1evi, was created b" the gods to !ill a demon that the male gods, even combining their powers, could not vanEuish. 1urga holds in her multiple hands the weapons lent to her b" the gods< for instance, Shiva2s trident and 7ishnu2s war dis!. She also holds a sword, bell, and rh"ton (drin!ing vessel+ shaped li!e a ram for drin!ing the blood of demons she has !illed. 1espite her awesome powers, when she !ills the demon ,ahisha, her face is serene and beautiful and her bod" is the female ideal. 7iolent, ferocious images of the goddesses %hamunda (image )F+ and &ali s"m bolize the dar!er side of the /reat /oddess, who in these forms !ills demons, repels evil, defeats ignorance, and protects the devotee and the temple. /anesha -ith his elephant head and chubb", childli!e bod", /anesha is the most beloved of all Hindu deities (image 3C+. He is the remover of all obstacles and so is called upon before the start of all !inds of ventures. But /anesha has a deeper significance, made clear in a Hindu pra"er that begins, >@ead us as a
36

tus!er would out of the forest of false ideas to the path of truth.? His animal vehicle is the rat, which, though small b" contrast, can gnaw through an" obstacle. This comparison suggests that there are two wa"s to remove obsta cles9 to be li!e an elephant who tramples ever"thing in its path, or, li!e the rat, to find a wa" through small openings to achieve the same goal. /anesha is usuall" shown with four arms. -ith his trun! he reaches for a bowl of the sweets he so loves and holds a string of pra"er beads, an elephant goad, sometimes a sna!e, and his bro!en tus!. Sculptures of /anesha are usu all" found at the beginning of a seEuence of deities on the e'terior walls of a Hindu temple, placed there to eliminate obstacles faced b" the worshipper in his or her religious Euest. Hanuman in the .ama"ana, Hanuman is the chief minister to the mon!e" !ing. Together with the !ing and his arm" of mon!e"s, Hanuman helped .ama battle against .avana, the evil demon !ing (image 5B+ who had abducted .ama2s wife Sita. Hanuman was so agile, clever, strong, and lo"al to .ama that he s"mbolizes the ideal of lo"alt" and service. The =ormal #lements of South Asian Art #mphasis on 7olume -ith the e'ception of certain areas li!e the /andhara region, which was influ enced b" late .oman art (image *+, the anatom" of figures does not emphasize the internal structure of muscle and bone. .ather, it e'presses a bod" purified of these elements and instead filled with spiritualit". As the vessel of prana, sacred breath of life, the bod" seems to swell from within< flesh is rounded and the s!in is taut, so that the volumes of the entire bod" flow smoothl" one into another. This conception of prana derives from "oga, an ancient method of achieving spiritual insight through control of mind and bod". 1espite the strong sense of volume in most forms of Indian sculpture, stone figures are rarel" portra"ed full" in the round. The" are actuall" in ver" high relief, perhaps because most sculptures were set on the e'ternal walls of religious structures and were meant to be seen from onl" one side. The sensual female figures in Indian art ta!e their forms from ancient nature goddesses whose full breasts, narrow waists, and generous hips s"mbolize the abundance of the land and the female2s procreative powers. Images of the ma;or male deities have broad shoulders and curving contours with slender waists and powerful thighs, a ph"siEue that suggests both power and spiritualit". The prana filled bodies of both males and females in Indian art evo!e a serene otherworldliness. This is not surprising, as the" are spiritual beings who have passed be"ond the actual ph"sicalit" of the
3C

human bod". ,easured 0roportions %anons of proportion were devised to create the ideal anatom". The figure was divided according to the number of tallas in its height. A talla is a hand span from chin to top of forehead. These canons varied slightl" from age to age and region to region. In general, earlier figures tend to be shorter and stoc!ier than later ones. Scale and 0lacement -hen sculptors and painters depicted groups of figures surrounding the main deit", the" used a hierarch" of proportion to clarif" each figure2s rela tive spiritual importance (image B, ):, )), )5, )*, 3:, and 5F+. #ven important deities are shown smaller (image 3:+ if the" are not the main gods in the scene. In iconic (rather than narrative+ representations, the placement of the figures is balanced b" the main deit" in the center. @esser gods, guardian figures, celestial musicians, and dancers often appear as the god2s entourage in both Hindu and Buddhist art. Again, size indicates their rela tive importance and the" are placed in less prominent positions flan!ing the central figure. Surface %ontrasts Gn images of bodhisattvas and Hindu deities, intricate details of the head dress, hair, ;ewelr", crowns, scarves, garlands, and draper" create pleasing contrasts with the smooth prana filled flesh. %olor Indian stone sculpture was probabl" originall" painted, as is modern sculpture on Indian temples. ,arble figures, however, were generall" left unpainted to preserve the purit" of the white stone. Gnl" the e"es were inlaid or colored (image 3D+. ,an" bronze statues were gilded. Ancient te'ts and illustrations on palm leaf (the traditional surface for writing and paint ing before the ,uslim introduction of paper in the thirteenth centur"+ indicate that specific colors were associated with specific deities. -hen a god had multiple faces, each face often had a distinctive color. %olors were also used s"mbolicall" in Buddhist cloth paintings of $epal and Tibet =unctions of South Asian Art =igural Art Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain statues and paintings of the gods were created as a focus for worship and meditation. $arrative reliefs illustrating stories about the Buddha or other deities contained an underl"ing ethical lesson. At another level of meaning, these religious images e'pressed in visual form comple' philosophical concepts about the nature and wor!ings of
3D

the universe. Smaller images were made, perhaps for personal worship and contemplation in monastic or domestic shrines, or as votive offerings (image B, ):, )), )3, )5, 3*, and 3C+. ,ost larger Indian sculpture was set into the e'terior walls of a sacred structure, to be worshipped b" devotees as the" circumambulated the e'terior. Jain temples, however, were set in walled court"ards and their interiors were covered with sculpture. The Buddhist Stupa ,odel of a Stupa 0a!istan (ancient region of /andhara+. &ushan period, ca. *th centur". Bronze. /ift of ,r. and ,rs. 1onald J. Bruc!mann, )FB6 ()FB6.5BDab+ a votive model of a stupa in bronze .elics of the Buddha and venerated Buddhist saints were buried inside stupas, hemispherical mounds of earth that were circumambulated b" wor shippers. In earl" times, the paths around the stupa were delineated b" a stone railing with four gatewa"s oriented to the cardinal directions. Gften these railings and gatewa"s were decorated with reliefs depicting the life of the historical Buddha Sha!"amuni and his past lives. 0ilgrims traveled great distances to be near the hol" relic within the stupa and to see the sculptural narratives as the" meditated upon the Buddha2s teachings. The stupa was topped b" a small sEuare structure with a multitiered spire of umbrellas of decreasing size rising from its center. This ensemble ma" derive from the ancient custom of fenced sacred trees that probabl" were worshipped as the a'is mundi (world a'is+ or as the abode of a deit". The la"ered parasol s"m bolicall" honors and shelters the relics, ;ust as parasols honor !ings in South Asia. In #ast Asia, the tall spire minus the hemispherical mound developed into the pagoda tower. Small stupas were often incorporated into monastic halls and monasteries. The /reat Stupa at Sanchi Hindu Temples Hindu temples are themselves ob;ects of worship. Their t"pical form emu lates the cosmic mountain that is the abode of the deit" honored and housed in the temple. As the devotee circles the temple e'terior in the proscribed
3B

direction, he or she worships the various gods portra"ed on the walls, partic ularl" the deit" honored within. These images are arranged to aid the viewer on the path to spiritual release. -orship is usuall" individual rather than congregational, and onl" at times of religious festivals do crowds throng the temple compounds. A porch and gathering chamber lead to the inner sanc tum, which lies beneath the central tower of the temple and contains the image of the main deit", usuall" made of stone. Hindu worship has several distinctive features. ,erit gathered through sight is called darshan. 7iewing a temple itself accrues merit to the pilgrim who comes to see the god and ma!es offerings in the hope of receiving divine blessings. Hindus believe that the image of a god contains the actual living god, and that the god can see the devotee and thus bestow blessings upon him or her. %onseEuentl", the e"es of the image are open. The consecration of a deit" image includes a ritual to fill the figure with the breath of life (prana+, followed b" the >opening of the e"es? ceremon", in which the carv ing or painting of the e"es is finished and the e"es are opened with a ritual implement. 0u;a, the offering ritual before the image of a god, involves the other four senses as well. Through the intermediar" of a priest, worshippers present flowers, food, and pour libations of water and mil! over the image as the" as! for its blessings. ,antras are chanted and bells rung. a Hindu temple In South India, copper statues of deities were worshipped both inside and outside the temple. The" were eEuipped with rings and carr"ing bases so the" could be carried in processions on festival da"s. @i!e a living !ing, the" could view and be viewed b" their followers. -ithin the temple, statues of deities were bathed, fed, clothed, and entertained b" singing and dancing (image )B, 33, and 36+. -hether in a temple or a home, dail" acts of devo tion include wa!ing the image in the morning, washing, dressing, and feeding it. The image is honored as a guest would be. In this wa", the devo tee develops a close and loving relationship with his or her god. Seeing the image of a god in a Hindu temple is a ver" different e'perience from viewing sculpture in a museum galler"9 although sculptural figures of the gods are depicted with lu'urious ;ewels and diaphanous garments that fall in delicate folds, in dail" pu;as the" are covered with real clothing and garlands of flow ers, and the carved details of the sculpture would be seen onl" b" the priests. Jain Temples Jain temples have ground plans similar to Hindu temples, with an entrance
3F

porch and a central gathering chamber or pavilion (image 3B+ which opens into a sanctuar" containing an image (image 3D+ of one of the twent" four tirthan!aras (>Those who show the path to enlightenment?+. A walled court"ard filled with man" small shrines dedicated to other Jain saints usu all" surrounds the temples. ,uslim and Hindu Art (after ca. A.1. )6::+ In the earl" eleventh centur", the first large numbers of ,uslims began to raid India from /hazna in Afghanistan. In the subcontinent, ,uslims encountered an ancient civilization whose peoples worshipped the powers and perfection of the gods in idealized human forms and, though of different faiths, managed to coe'ist peacefull". Tur!o Afghan invasions continued through the twelfth centur" and the first ,uslim !ingdom in India, the 1elhi Sultanate, was proclaimed in )3:C. Buddhism, which had graduall" lost adherents in India, seems to have been dealt a deathblow when ,uslim invaders destro"ed the great Buddhist monaster" universities in northeast India. Although man" Hindu temples were destro"ed as well, the Hindu faith continued to be the religion of most Indians. The ,uslim invaders brought new forms of architecture and art rooted in 0ersian court traditions. Artistic creativit" resurfaced under the patronage of ,uslim and Hindu ro"al courts, and the greatest achievements shifted from the religious to the secular realm. The ma;or Indian art forms, sculpture and figural reliefs, gave wa" to painting and architecture. However, human and animal figures continued to be the main sub;ects of >miniature paintings,? that is, pages from illustrated boo!s and folios. %ontent and =unction9 %ourt Art The Art of the Boo! The hol" boo! of the ,uslims, the Iur2an, was often adorned with beauti ful calligraph", geometric patterns, and vegetal designs. The depiction of humans and animals was taboo. However, the production of elaborate illus trated boo!s was the hallmar! of a sophisticated Islamic court. 0articularl" in 0ersia, boo!s about the adventures of m"thic heroes were filled with remar!able scenes of humans and animals created for the en;o"ment of the !ing and his courtiers. ,uslim invaders brought this art of the boo! to the courts of South Asia, along with the use of paper, which graduall" replaced flattened and cut palm leaves for writing and painting. The Hindu (.a;put+ courts made unbound manuscripts of traditional te'ts, while the ,ughals created bound volumes that included not onl" ,uslim sub;ects and historical te'ts but also, under the earl" ,ughal emperor
5:

A!bar, great Hindu epics (image 5:+. Although imperial boo! commissions continued throughout the seventeenth centur", illustrations of ever"da" life became popular as well, including portraits of court officials, harem scenes, and realistic depictions of animals and flowers. The Hindu courts were influenced b" these trends, particularl" in the late seventeenth and earl" eighteenth centur", when a number of ,ughal artists departed the imperial ateliers to see! wor! at .a;put courts. Te'tiles Since ancient times India has been famous for fabrics. /ree! and .oman te'ts mention the lu'urious and finel" woven cottons of Benares. These te'tiles are called >muslins? in tribute to their place of origin. I!at weaves and permanentl" d"ed cottons (chintzes+ are eEuall" ancient te'tile tech niEues (image 56+. The weaving of pile carpets, however, was not native to India. In the hot and often damp climate, a heav" floor covering was deemed unnecessar" and impractical. ,uslims introduced the techniEue in the fifteenth centur", but it was A!bar (r. )66C4)C:6+ who first established pile carpet weaving as a ro"al art. He had become accustomed to their use and to their rich patterns and colors during his sta" at the 0ersian court before his conEuest of northern India (image 55+. 0alace 1ecor It is from the ,uslim !ingdoms of India that we have the earliest surviving stone palaces. Inset stones, tiles, and openwor! windows (poster B and drawing of a ;ali on page 6C+ decorated walls, fountain court"ards, domes of palaces, and the homes of wealth" court officials. 1oors, shutters, and pan eling of walls and ceilings were carved and inlaid in geometric and vegetal patterns. =urniture was sparse. 0eople sat on pillows or low settees, and slept in bedding on the floor. The onl" pieces of wood furniture were storage chests and collapsible stands supporting metal tra"s from which people dined. 0ersonal Art Gb;ects It was a tradition in the ,ughal and .a;put courts to give elaborate gifts to impress and gain favor at court. /iving beautiful, s!illfull" made ob;ects that could be held or worn advertised the refined taste of the donor, another wa" to advance one2s position at court. The most treasured possessions, and therefore the most prized gifts, were ;ewels (image 53+, be;eweled daggers and turban ornaments, fancifull" designed containers made of precious materials for food and drin!, incense, ;ewelr", perfume and water for bathing, writing implements, and hunting eEuipment (image 5D+. At the biannual weighing ceremon" of the ,ughal emperor, his weight in gold and silver, made from gifts b" his courtiers and sub;ects, would be distributed to
5)

hol" men and the poor. The emperor, in e'change, bestowed costl" personal ob;ects on his favored princes, ambassadors, and officials. .eligious Art The ,osEue and %alligraph" Inspired b" 0ersian architecture, the ,uslim sultanates constructed mosEues using the arch and dome, building techniEues that were un!nown in India. These rounded shapes were set within rectangular walls in harmo nious and balanced geometrical arrangements. Interiors and e'teriors were decorated with traditional Islamic geometric and floral patterns, based on geometric principles believed to reflect /od2s order in the universe. These patterns can also be interpreted as a wa" of visualizing /od2s infinite pow ers, since man" of them can be repeated endlessl" in all directions (see the ;ali drawing on page 6C+. The most important decorative element was Arabic calligraph", which perpetuates /od2s words to ,uhammad. The most famous ,ughal religious structure, the Ta; ,ahal, is not a mosEue but a tomb. Built b" #mperor Shah Jahan for his wife, it includes a small mosEue in its walled enclosure. =rom a distance the measured geometric architectural shapes and their s"mmetrical arrangement evo!e harmon" and grandeur. %loser up, the white marble walls are seen to be inlaid with beautiful calligraph" and delicate patterns of semiprecious stones representing flowers. =ormal #lements of the Art St"les of 0ainting Although mural paintings are !nown to have decorated the walls of palaces and mansions, few survive. However, secular manuscripts dating from the si'teenth centur" onward are e'tant. The indigenous .a;put painting st"le favored flat areas of bright color, shallow space, and decorative patterning to depict timeless events (image 3F+. In contrast, ,ughal painting featured greater naturalism and a sense of deeper space, and portra"ed both historical scenes and m"thic events. =igures are individualized through livel" e'pres sions, gestures, and poses. .ealistic details of costume, adornment, personal possessions, architecture, gardens, and animals abound. %olors are nuanced. This interest in naturalism was fueled b" the prints and paintings brought to the court b" #uropean merchants and missionaries in the si'teenth and seventeenth centuries. #'posed to new wa"s of depicting the world, ,ughal painters e'perimented with modeling in light and shadow and other #uropean techniEues such as perspective to create the illusion of volume and depth. ,ughal painting evolved during the reigns of the three greatest ,ughal
53

emperors. A!bar (r. )66C4)C:6+ commissioned illustrated d"nastic histories and translations of Hindu classics into 0ersian (image 5:+. The artists of Jahangir2s court (r. )C:643D+ gratified the emperor2s taste for individual por trait studies of birds, animals (image 5)+, flowers, and members of his court. Shah Jahan (r. )C3B46B+ shared this interest in lifeli!e portraits, especiall" of the ro"al famil" and court members (image 53+, and resumed his grandfa ther2s interest in histor" painting. As ,ughal power and patronage waned in the late seventeenth centur", some court painters were drawn to the man" small .a;put !ingdoms. The" began to develop increasingl" distinct artistic st"les. Some drew inspiration from ,ughal art, adopting its naturalism, deeper space, more varied colors, and sub;ect matter. Gthers produced paintings inspired b" the indigenous .a;put love of bright color, shallow space, e'pressive gesture, and m"thic sub;ect matter. Still others s"nthesized elements of both. In the nineteenth centur", this profusion of st"les, at first vivid and e'citing, seemed at a loss for inspiration in the face of India2s changing world. 0aint ing ateliers declined, as the British preferred to build elaborate palaces, and the advent of photograph" to record ro"al events further undermined the traditional role of painting at the courts. 0attern 0attern8floral and geometric8is another distinctive feature of court art, whether spread across a wall, on a boo! cover or border of an album leaf, around a dagger hilt, or on a carpet. -ith straight edge and compass, artists created geometric patterns of intersecting circles upon which the" drew grids of eEuilateral triangles and sEuares (see drawing of the ;ali on page 6C+. These in turn could be elaborated into pol"gons and stars. 7ines, leaves, and blossoms grew out of each other in continuous curving patterns. In the ,ughal period, these floral designs became more and more realistic, so that man" flowers could be identified (image 53+. %olor In the ro"al art of man" cultures, colors are strong and bold. In India, sur faces both large and small8architecture, clothing, and personal art8were enriched with bright color, especiall" reds and brilliant blues (image 5F and poster B+. There was also an appreciation of the softer, subtler colors of ;ade. %olors in patterns were combined to create the rich floral and geometric designs found in ,ughal te'tiles and carpets (image 55+. %olor in miniature painting was at first fanciful and ;ewel li!e8blue roc!s, for instance, and lavender horses8as in the 0ersian court st"le. In the earl" .a;put st"le,
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a limited number of colors were used with little attempt at naturalism (image 3F+. In ,ughal painting, color became increasingl" naturalistic, although artists also used them to lead one2s e"e through detailed scenes of court crowds, battles, and hunting so favored b" the ,ughals. Surfaces image 5D ,uslim and Hindu patrons delighted in sumptuous polished surfaces9 the glisten of gold, silver, and other metals, the reflective Eualities of polished gems and stones such as ;ade and roc! cr"stal, and the sheen of sil!s and ivor" (image 5D+. Another favored wa" to enrich surfaces was the techniEue of inla", in which materials such as ivor" and shell were set into wood, and gold and silver into dar!er metal surfaces. The same formal elements8rich geometric and vegetal patterns, rich colors, and rich materials8 were applied to architecture, te'tiles, ceramics, metal wor!, and stone, stucco, and wood carvings. $o distinction e'isted between what is called fine art in -estern cultures and the decorative arts. Southeast Asian Art A .eligious %ontent Although rich and varied court art was produced in Southeast Asia, as we !now from temple reliefs, religious sub;ects in stone and metal dominate the surviving art from the classical period (Dth4)5th centur"+. @ittle art made from other materials has withstood the region2s tropical climate, although a few e'tant pieces of earl" wood sculpture8now ver" worn8 point to the e'istence of an important earlier tradition of carving. $o earl" te'tiles have survived, and we can onl" imagine the beaut" of the ancient costumes. Similarl", paintings on palm leaves and paper deteriorated long ago, and we have onl" second hand evidence for the elaborate wood carvings and murals that ma" have decorated palace and temple walls. Some %ambodian stone palace architecture e'ists, but it is devoid of such decoration. The South Asian %onnection9 Assimilation and Adaptation The iconograph" of Southeast Asian sculpture strongl" reflects Indian influences, which began to penetrate the region earl" in the %ommon #ra. Buddhism and Hinduism were adopted with the identif"ing attributes and gestures of deities basicall" unchanged. Ideals of ph"sical perfection and its representation in sculptural form, however, present Euite distinct local characteristics such as regional facial t"pes and bodies that reveal under l"ing musculature and s!eleton.

5*

=ewer Hindu deities are depicted in Southeast Asia than in India. 7ishnu (image *C+, Shiva, /anesha, and 1urga are the most popular, together with a s"ncretic deit" called Hari Hara (image *D+, who combined aspects of Shiva and 7ishnu. In Buddhist sculpture, emphasis was placed on the interceding role of bodhisattvas such as Avalo!iteshvara (image *3 and **+ and ,aitre"a, the Buddha of the =uture. $arratives .o"al courts, particularl" in %ambodia and Java, commissioned e'tensive narrative reliefs for temple walls which portra" episodes from the Buddha2s life and scenes from Hindu legends and m"tholog". The" also offer a wealth of detail about courtl" and vernacular life, domestic customs, agriculture, industr", transport and architecture, music and dance. ,ost remain on temple walls in %ambodia and Java. =unctions of Southeast Asian Art -orship As in India, the ma;orit" of sculptures covered the e'terior of temples that were circumambulated in worship. Sculptures of deities in the round ma" have been placed in the interior of temples and shrines, where dim light would have added to the m"ster" of the divine being. -h" small statues were made and how the" were used is not !nown. The" ma" have been votive images created as gifts to temples and shrines, or intended for per sonal use. Hindu temples and Buddhist stupas were themselves ob;ects of worship. The" can be seen as microcosms of the universe, with their architectural forms replicating the cosmic mountains where the gods dwell. T"picall", Hindu temples had towers that were oriented to the cardinal directions. Sometimes the ground plan is rectangular, with the temple surrounded b" walls, a plan that resembles the sacred form of the mandala (image B and )5+. 1iffering versions of this sacred cosmolog" in bric! and stone occur throughout Southeast Asia, the most famous e'amples being the Buddhist monuments of Borobudur in Java, the Ba"on at Ang!or, and the stupas of 0agan in Burma, and the Hindu temples of Ang!or, in particular Ang!or -at. Buddhist Shrine Thailand or %ambodia. &hmer st"le of central and northeast Thailand, )5th centur". Bronze. /ift of #nid A. Haupt,
56

)FF5 ()FF5.5BD.Da c+ bronze model of a Buddhist shrine To /lorif" the &ing In &hmer %ambodia and in Java, the devara;a (god !ing+ cult embodied the belief that the living !ing transmitted divine will through his relationship with a particular god, and that the deit"2s images in the temple constructed b" the !ing s"mbolized the god2s approval of the !ing2s divine right to rule. The devara;a cult was appropriated from India. Hindu rulers turned to Shiva or 7ishnu as their patron deit". Buddhist !ings derived their authorit" not from Buddha, who had renounced his worldl" position, but from bod hisattvas, who were still of this world and possessed e'traordinar" powers. In !eeping with these beliefs, occasionall" representations of the monarch were made in the image of the god, often complete with the attributes of a deit" (image 6:+. ,an" of the greatest &hmer temple mountains were centered on a funerar" shrine8the inner core of Ang!or -at, for instance8 in which such statues were placed. To Teach Along with the cosmic and spiritual truths embodied in the temple2s architectural form, e'tensive narrative reliefs on temple walls performed on educational role b" instructing worshippers in both religious and histor ical events. =or instance, as the pilgrim ascends the galleries at Borobudur, circling each level before climbing to the ne't, he or she is inspired b" depictions of the Buddha2s life and the compassion of bodhisattvas. 0recious 0ossessions In comparison with India, where little ancient gold survives, hoards of ;ew elr" and ritual vessels have been found in Indonesia and, to a lesser e'tent, %ambodia and 7ietnam. The ;ewelr" includes gold adornments for the head, ears, nec! and chest, waist, fingers, upper and lower arms, and an!les and toes. Gther e'amples of sophisticated metalwor! are bronze, silver, and gold vessels for religious and court ceremonies, ritual weapons with elaborate finials, temple lamps and bells, and ritual ob;ects such as the va;ra (thunder bolt+ and processional staffs. The fate of a large number of these precious ob;ects was (and still is+ to be melted down for the value of the metal. St"les of Southeast Asian Art Idealized Human =orms =ollowing the conventions of Indian art, Southeast Asian artists sought to visualize the spiritual perfection of the gods in idealized human form. Although the iconograph" was imported from India, notable differences are
5C

evident in Southeast Asian sculpture. Anatomical Structure The sculpture combines sensual forms with a strong architectonic basis, as if the sensualit" of Indian sculpture had been merged with the formal, hieratic Eualities of #g"ptian sculpture. Although surface flesh seems to be inflated b" prana (inner breath+, the bod" is not usuall" as taut as in Indian sculpture. Beneath the s!in surface, whose ;unctures are subtl" indicated, there is the sense of muscle and bone. The sensualit" and fecundit" e'pressed in &hmer female figures (image *F+ are not as e'aggerated and seem restrained when compared with the voluptuous femininit" t"pical of Indian art. @ater Southeast Asian sculptures are even more abstracted, and forms cease to have a direct relationship to the human anatom" (image *6+. 0ose In general, a sense of dignit" and restraint is created in the sculpture b" an erect posture, frontal pose, and balanced forms. Serene e'pressions empha size the compassion, purit", and introspection of transcendent beings. Surfaces In comparison to Indian sculpture, less emphasis is placed on adornment. Smooth areas contrast with the rich patterns of the figure2s hairst"le and the pleats of the garment and the elaborate wa" in which it is worn. Some images were probabl" adorned with actual ;ewelr". Sculpture in the .ound and in .elief Anli!e Indian sculptural figures, which were rarel" more than carvings in ver" high relief as part of a stela or for displa" in a niche, Southeast Asian deities were often carved full" in the round. A tradition of low relief sculp ture also flourished. Scale As in South Asian art, to e'press the power and comple'it" of the gods or !ings, sculptures of them were sometimes represented on a superhuman scale, while lesser spiritual beings were portra"ed smaller. Artists and ,aterials Artists in the %lassical 0eriod of Indian Art Artists were born into their craft and trained in famil" guilds under the supervision of a master craftsman. The" followed detailed instructions, outlined in te'ts and given b" mon!s and priests, describing the appropriate proportions, poses, and e'pressions for each deit". Artistic talent and imagi nation were not entirel" curbed, however, because st"les did change slowl"
5D

over time. This is clear when comparing wor!s of art from different periods. The most talented artists were emplo"ed b" temples, monasteries, members of ro"al courts, and wealth" merchants. %arvers, painters, and sculptors often congregated in regional wor!shops and were emplo"ed whenever a local temple was being constructed. -hether the temple was Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain did not seem to matter. 0resumabl", the same artists were also emplo"ed to create secular buildings, few of which survive. @ittle is !nown about these carvers and metalwor!ers. Artists rarel" signed their wor!s (image D+. It is not !nown whether this anon"mit" was purpose ful (perhaps for religious reasons+ or related to the craftsman2s rather low position in the social hierarch". It was believed that erecting a sacred struc ture accrued merit (good !arma+ for the patron in this life and in future lives, so that his name is often the one inscribed on the building. Artists in Southeast Asia It would seem from written records in temple and court accounts that artists were viewed as merel" craftsmen and artisans not worth" of men tion. Sculptors, painters, and metalwor!ers probabl" congregated in court wor!shops or regional centers. Although iconograph" was based on Indian models, artistic talent and imagination were not entirel" curbed. .egional st"les emerged and developed8a fact that is clear when one loo!s at the wor!s of art in the slides. Artists after the ,uslim Invasions The ,uslim rulers brought to India a new worldview in which the individ ual2s role in histor" was more important and the creation of histor" and religious boo!s was a central part of the culture. At the same time, the Hindu .a;put courts began producing unbound manuscripts. These ,uslim and .a;put rulers attracted the finest craftsmen, both Hindu and ,uslim, and the prestige attached to their manuscript commissions occasionall" afforded great honor to the artist. The ,ughal emperor A!bar2s father brought two outstanding artists from the 0ersian court to direct his atelier. At A!bar2s court and that of his son Jahangir and grandson Shah Jahan, painters of illustrated boo!s and album leaves became famous and were given impressive titles. However, although we ma" !now their names, scant biographical information about most of the artists has been uncovered. 1uring the seventeenth and earl" eighteenth centur", in periods when the ,ughal atelier was less vital, artists moved to the Hindu courts and created cross fertilization between the indigenous Indian and ,ughal st"les. ,aterials
5B

Stone and -ood Because the first Indian stone sculptures (5rd centur" B.%. in South Asia+ were so s!illfull" conceived and finished, it is assumed that there must have been an earlier, well developed tradition of carving in wood sculpture. #arl" stone architecture such as stupa railings also follows wooden construc tion techniEues. However, wood is perishable in tropical climates and few e'amples of this earl" tradition survive. A similar assumption can be made about the earl" stone sculpture of Southeast Asia, where fragments of earl" wood sculpture have been found. The tools and techniEues used in carving stone and wood are the same as those of toda"9 massive hammers and chisels are used to rough out the basic sculptural forms, then smaller ones to refine the wor!. Because of its durabilit", stone became the preferred material for temples and temple sculpture. 0robabl" all stone and wood sculpture (and architec ture+ was originall" painted, although the available pigments, derived from natural sources, would not have been as strident as the artificiall" manufac tured ones so popular in India toda". Some figures were further embellished with gold and silver leaf. 1uring the period of ,uslim rule in India, stonewor!ers did not produce figural sculpture because of the traditional Islamic aversion to the depiction of the human form. Instead, the" e'celled in creating architectural embel lishments such as openwor! screens, windows, inlaid stone, and bric!wor!. The %entral Asian origins of the ,ughals are reflected in a fondness for carved ;ade ob;ects that could be handled and admired. Jade is such a hard stone that shaping it reEuires immense s!ill. It cannot be carved with tradi tional tools. .ather, the ;ade wor!er covers the surface with pastes of ground stone and then graduall" shapes the ob;ect b" abrading it with stone and metal tools. Gnce the desired form has been created, the artist brings the surface to a high polish with further abrasion. ,etals ,etal sculpture was cast in the lost wa' techniEue and was made of bronze or brass allo"ed with various mi'tures of zinc, tin, and lead. #'cept for small figures, most Buddhist and almost all Southeast Asian metal sculptures were hollow cast in the lost wa' techniEue and had cla" cores. A simplified e'planation of the lost wa' hollow casting techniEue is as fol lows. The form of the wor! was modeled in cla". The surface was covered entirel" with melted wa'. After the wa' was hardened, the details were created in the wa' and the surfaces were then covered with several la"ers of fine cla" and a coarser cla" coating. -hen fired, the cla" mold and core were transformed into terracotta and the wa' melted out. ,olten metal was
5F

*6 poured into this mold. After it cooled, the terracotta mold was bro!en awa" to reveal the image. =or that reason, onl" one statue could be cast from a mold. The metal figure was then burnished and a few details ma" have been intensified with chasing tools. Small metal figures and most South Asian Hindu sculpture (image )B, 33, and 36+ were solid cast with no cla" core. In this casting method, the sculp ture with all its precise detail was first created in wa' stiffened with the addition of resin. The wa' model was then covered with la"ers of fine and then coarser cla". -hen fired, the wa' melted, leaving a cla" negative mold of terracotta. The molten metal was then poured into the mold. As in the lost wa' techniEue, the terracotta mold had to be bro!en to free the metal figure, allowing for onl" a single statue to be cast. ,etal sculptures were often gilded, inlaid with copper and silver (image 6:+, and adorned with semiprecious stones or glass paste. The metal was incised or hollowed out to accommodate these inla"s, which mimic!ed actual ;ew elr" or emphasized e"es, mouths, and other features (image )3, *3, and **+. Some small sculptures were cast directl" out of gold and silver. ,etalwor!ers in ,uslim and Hindu courts channeled their s!ills into ma!ing elaboratel" decorated armor, weapons, and containers for personal effects. The" enriched the metal surfaces with inla"s of gold, silver, and sometimes gemstones. In the inla"ing process, gold and silver were wor!ed into designs cut into the surface. If desired, gems could be set into gold lined cavities< the soft gold edges were then turned over the edges of the ;ewels to secure them. /old The Indian love of gold had been gratified from earl" times b" Indian rulers2 insistence that the" be paid in gold for trade goods. So great was the demand for Indian cotton in &ushan times that it almost ban!rupted .ome2s suppl" of the precious metal. /old was used e'tensivel" for ;ewelr" and for gilding precious statues. =reEuentl", small scale metal images were gilded in the mercur" gilding techniEue, in which a paste of gold and mercur" was applied to the surface and heated. Because mercur" burns at a lower temper ature than gold, the mercur" burns off, leaving the gold bonded to the underl"ing metal (image )3+. 7er" little ancient or medieval gold ;ewelr" from South Asia survives because it was melted down again and again to ma!e more up to date adorn ment. It was usuall" made of hammered gold. Because gold is soft, it can
*:

easil" be hammered into thin sheets and cut into the reEuired shapes for a finished piece. 1esigns can be pressed into a gold sheet placed on a "ielding surface such as pitch or wa'. -hen the gold sheet is turned over, the designs protrude from the surface. This techniEue is called repoussN. The gold earring illustrated in image 5 is constructed of several pieces of hammered gold sheets cut into the reEuired shapes and soldered together. The surface designs are created b" innumerable tin" gold balls adhered to the surface in a techniEue called granulation, which reEuires e'traordinar" s!ill (see /lossar" for description+. ,uch larger Euantities of ancient gold have been found in Southeast Asia. In Java and 7ietnam, gold was usuall" cast solid in the lost wa' method. =ine details were added afterward with chasing tools (image 63+. /emstones 1etails on classical Indian sculpture and in ,uslim and Hindu miniatures provide evidence that rulers through the ages had plentiful supplies of dia monds, balas rubies, and pearls. =rom the si'teenth centur" onward, the suppl" of emeralds was augmented b" gems brought from South American mines. 0ainting ,aterials ,iniature paintings, as boo! illustrations and album leaves are often called, involved the collaboration of man" artists and apprentices in the court wor!shops. The process began with discussions between patron and artist to determine sub;ect matter. After creating a s!etch and then a finished draw ing for approval, the artist would >pounce? (trace+ the lines of the drawing. This was done b" putting a transparent material, often gazelle s!in, over the drawing and pric!ing the outlines. The tracing was placed on the paper to be painted and blac! pigment was pushed into the tin" pric!ed holes creat ing dotted lines. Then the tracing material was removed and the dotted lines were connected with brushwor!. Apprentices would grind costl" minerals such as malachite (green+ and lapis lazuli (blue+. Gther pigments came from colored earths, the lac secreted b" a beetle (shades of red+, indigo (blue+ from the plant, and brilliant "ellow made of urine from cows fed on mango leaves. These colors were mi'ed with a binding medium of gum arabic or glue to ma!e an opaEue watercolor paint. Apprentices were often the "ounger members of a famil" of craftsmen in a wor!shop. The "oungest made the paintbrushes b" inserting ver" fine ani mal hairs into Euill handles. Glder assistants painted the less important details. Gften the artist applied several la"ers of paint to create particularl"
*)

bright or strong colors. The unfinished painting was laid on a smooth sur face and its bac! was t"picall" burnished with a smooth agate to create a hard and permanent paint surface. 1etails were added after this process. 0aintings on %loth from the Himala"an &ingdoms The ma;orit" of than!as (from Tibet< image ):+ and paubhas (from $epal+ were painted on primed cotton whose weave varied from the ver" fine to Euite coarse. The first step was to stretch the cloth on a rectangular wood support. The fabric was then sized on one side with animal glue and mi'ed with !aolin, a white earth powder, to create a painting surface. The artist could then begin to la" out the painting2s composition, freEuentl" using a grid s"stem following strict rules of representation, scale, and arrangement. ,ost of the pigments were mineral, for instance, lapis lazuli and azurite for blue, malachite for green, and cinnabar and other red and "ellow earth col ors. Blac! was derived from soot and white from !aolin. Grganic colors such as lac (red+ and indigo (blue+ were also used. The colors, mi'ed with warm animal glue (distemper+ and water, had to be applied Euic!l" before the glue cooled and became too difficult to appl" evenl". The finished painting was removed from its wood supports and mounted in sil! borders. Te'tiles South and Southeast Asian te'tile ma!ers have been !nown for their s!ill in creating cottons and sil!s since ancient times. However, due to the damp climate, the earliest surviving te'tiles date from the late fifteenth centur". A close loo! at the costumes depicted on earlier sculptures reveals some thing of their sumptuousness. As trade with #urope increased, finel" woven Indian cottons came to be !nown as >muslins.? Another famous fabric of India is >chintz.? To create chintz cloth, te'tile designers used the resist d"e techniEue, or reserve wor! as it is sometimes called. The entire cloth is first covered with wa' e'cept for the areas that are to receive a particular color. -hen the cloth is dipped in a colored d"e, the unwa'ed area ta!es the d"e and the wa'ed surfaces resist it. The cloth is then boiled to wash awa" the wa'. This labor intensive and highl" s!illed process is repeated for each color in the design Both flat woven (dhurrie+ and pile carpets were made in India. ,an" crafts men contributed to the production of intricate pile carpets from the ,ughal wor!shops. A master designer, usuall" in consultation with the patron, created a full scale colored drawing (called a cartoon+ of the carpet for the weavers to follow. Sitting at a vertical loom the width of the carpet, the"
*3

would begin b" weaving several rows of cotton threads, called weft, across the vertical warp threads. $e't, the" would tie a row of colored wool or sil! "arn to each warp thread from one side to the other. Then came another row of cotton weft threads woven across the width of the loom, followed b" another row of !nots, and so on. -hen carefull" clipped, the ends of the !nots form the soft surface or pile of the carpet. Terracotta I7 The 7isual ,aterials ri * Introduction to the 7isual ,aterials 0lease familiarize "ourself with the slides and %1 images and read their descriptions. Initiall", "ou ma" want to show the slides or %1 .G, images to "our class without providing an" information to see what their reactions and Euestions will be. -hen "ou are read" to loo! at the images in more depth, "ou ma" decide to lead a discussion "ourself or assign one or more images to each student, who will stud" the information and be the >e'pert? when the class loo!s at and begins to anal"ze those particular slides and %1 images. -hichever of these approaches "ou choose, students should first be as!ed describe what the" see and then tr" to identif" the ob;ect and its function. Ideas of wa"s to group the images for individual or class discussion, activities, or research assignments are offered below. Oou, alone or in con sultation with "our class, can select the themes that are most interesting and that could provide a focus for a museum visit. The groups are thematic based upon content or formal Eualities. ,an" of these themes appear in the >%lass 1iscussion and Activities? section. The $otice, 1iscuss, and %ompare notes following the descriptions for each slide and %1 .G, image are guides to loo!ing and understanding designed to stimulate visual anal"sis, to encourage theories about possible meanings, and to renew investigation as the >e'pert? leading the discussion provides more information. =urther observations will follow when the suggested comparisons are made. As "ou and "our class delve more deepl" into the material, "ou will no doubt discover other interesting comparisons. 1imensions of each artwor! are noted to avoid misunderstandings about scale when loo!ing at the slides and %1 .G, images. -hen placed proper l" in a carousel pro;ector, the star imprinted on the lower left hand corner of the slide frame should be showing at the top outside corner of the carousel slot. Glder students, individuall" or in small groups, might be assigned reports
*5

(oral, written, or both+ based on particular themes. As! them to use the descriptions of the appropriate images and the pertinent information about content, st"le, and meaning in section I7. The terracotta (fired cla"+ relief illustrated in image )6 is from a Hindu temple made of wood and bric! with terracotta embellishments. Before the fourth centur" A.1., when stone began to be used for building freestanding Hindu temples, wood and bric! were the traditional materials. Terracotta reliefs were modeled b" hand and with hand tools. Then the" were fired and probabl" painted with bright colors that no longer e'ist. The terracotta plaEue illustrated in image 3 was made from a terracotta mold in a techniEue called press molding. The images on such plaEues were first formed on the surface of a master model made of cla". -hen the cla" hardened, the surface was greased and a thin slab of fine moist cla" was pressed firml" onto the surface of the master model. As soon as this cla" la"er was firm enough, it was carefull" removed and some additional details wor!ed into its surface. Then it was fired to ma!e a negative mold for pro ducing multiple positive images li!e the ,useum2s plaEue in the slide.The &hmer d"nast" ruled %ambodia for the ne't si' hundred "ears, e'pand ing their empire into Thailand, to the borders of ,"anmar, into northern 7ietnam, and south into ,ala"a (image **, *F, and 6:+. In the ninth centur", the capital was moved to Ang!or, which over the ne't three centuries became a vast ro"al cit" of palaces, canals, reservoirs (for rice padd" cultiva tion+, and temple mountains, the most famous of which is Ang!or -at, built in the twelfth centur". @ater &ingdoms9 )5th4)Cth centur" The &hmer #mpire began a slow decline in the thirteenth centur". A large part of what had been &hmer land eventuall" was ta!en over b" the Thais, a tribal people from southern %hina who became Theravada Buddhists through their contact with the Buddhist !ingdom of 0agan in ,"anmar. =or the ne't four centuries, two Thai !ingdoms8one located in the north, the other in what is now central Thailand8vied for power and often fought off Buddhist neighbors from ,"anmar. Thai people also ruled small provincial !ingdoms in what is now @aos. The great classical sculptural traditions of Southeast Asian art came to an end b" the earl" si'teenth centur". The Southeast Asian collection of The ,etropolitan ,useum of Art focuses on this classical period and upon the art forms preceding it. %olonization and Independence In the si'teenth centur", Southeast Asia came under greater and greater pressure from ,uslim traders and #uropean seafaring nations. -ith the
**

e'ception of Bali, whose population is Hindu, the peoples of Indonesia became ,uslims. The 1utch graduall" ousted the ,uslims and the 0ortuguese from their trading centers. @ater, the 1utch and British parried for control of Southeast Asia and were ;oined b" the =rench in the nine teenth centur". Gnl" Thailand (then called Siam+ managed to remain independent. In the nineteenth centur", the British too! control of the ,ala" peninsula and graduall" anne'ed ,"anmar to British India. Indonesia became a 1utch colon", and to the =rench went %ambodia, @aos, and 7ietnam. All these nations gained independence after -orld -ar II. 0osters 0oster A (see also image C+ Standing Buddha Standing Buddha India (Attar 0radesh, ,athura+. /upta period, 6th centur". ,ottled red sandstone. H. 55 ))P)C in. (B6.6 cm+ 0urchase, #nid A. Haupt /ift, )FDF ()FDF.C+ Buddha is identified b" his cranial protuberance (ushnisha+, the shell li!e curls of his hair, his elongated earlobes, and his monastic robes. His miss ing right hand would have formed one of his most freEuentl" portra"ed gestures, the raised palm of the fear alla"ing mudra. -ell modeled and ele gantl" proportioned (his entire bod" is about seven face lengths in height+, he stands in a subtl" fle'ed posture with his right leg slightl" rela'ed. A clinging diaphanous robe descends from his broad shoulders, revealing the forms of the figure2s arms, torso, and !nees, and the !notted sash of his undergarment. At the same time, the elegant rippling folds seem to dematerialize the bod" of the Buddha. Their curving patterns would be impossible to arrange in real cloth. The serenit" and calm of this image e'presses the concept that, as the #nlightened Gne, Buddha has passed out of the c"cles of time into eternal nirvana, the attainment of perfect !nowledge and integration of the soul with the Aniversal. The Buddha2s otherworldliness is indicated b" his gen tle e'pression, idealized face, half closed e"es, and the wa" his anatom" swells as if supported b" prana, not muscle and bone. The sense of divine harmon" is enhanced b" the man" circular forms and repeated curves of the design.
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In the /upta period, artists developed a vocabular" of idealized forms derived from nature with which the" constructed images of transcendent beings9 for e'ample, e"es li!e lotus petals, head oval li!e an egg, e"ebrows li!e an archer2s bow, and chin li!e a mango stone. These conventions con tinued to be used in India after the /upta period. Gnl" a section of the halo that encircled this Buddha2s head remains. It is composed of auspi cious and transcendent s"mbols such as bands of lotus petals, scrolling plant motifs, ;ewels, and st"lized flames. $otice9 e'pression, pose, draper" 1iscuss9 mar!s of the Buddha, ph"siEue, mood, balance 0oster B (see also image 5F+ ,aharana Ari Singh with His %ourtiers at the Jagniwas -ater 0alace ,aharana Ari Singh with His %ourtiers at the Jagniwas -ater 0alace B" Bhima, &esu .am, Bhopa, and $athu. India (.a;asthan, ,ewar+, )DCD. In!, gold, silver, and opaEue watercolor on paper. 3C 5P* ' 55 in. (CD.F ' B5.B cm+ 0urchase, ,r. and ,rs. Herbert Irving, ,r. and ,rs. Arthur Gchs Sulzberger, and ,r. and ,rs. Henr" A. /runwald /ifts, in honor of ,r. and ,rs. /ustavo %isneros, )FF* ()FF*.))C+ %1 image onl" Ari Singh (>@ion?+ was ,aharana (/reat &ing+ of the .a;put !ingdom of ,ewar. @i!e other rulers, both Hindu and ,uslim, he commissioned his court painters to record palace festivities, ro"al hunts, elephant fights, diplomatic e'changes, and battles8alwa"s featuring his ran! and abilities. Adaipur, the capital of ,ewar, is built around an artificial la!e. At the center of the la!e is Jagniwas, the palace pictured here. Silver paint, now tarnished dar! gra", originall" suggested the la!e2s shimmering surface. The architectural st"le of the palace is influenced b" ,ughal architecture
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with its curving, scalloped arches, which the .a;puts adapted as the ,ughal #mpire waned. 7er" close inspection of the tin" wall paintings that line the arcade in the ,aharana2s private garden reveals depictions of the ten avatars of 7ishnu and several erotic scenes which are traditional Hindu sub;ects. In the open court"ard of the palace, Ari Singh and his .a;put clansmen have the privilege of sitting, each in a formal profile pose. Although a dance performance is ta!ing place before the ro"al group, all e"es are on the ,aharana. -ere he to stand up, he would be much larger than his courtiers, and the" in turn are much larger than the dancers and musi cians, despite the fact that the" are farther bac! in the picture. Gbviousl", scale indicates ran!. Ari Singh appears in two other episodes within this painting. Below, on the left, he admires his garden from a balcon" while being attended b" two servants. In the middle window on the second floor of the pavilion, he views his !ingdom and his people view him. The ,ughal emperors are often shown in a li!e position hearing petitions from the populace. In all three appearances, the ,aharana2s head, large in proportion to his bod", is further emphasized b" a brilliant green halo emitting gold ra"s. This s"m bol of ro"al power derives from images of ,ughal emperors whose halos were inspired b" pictures of %hristian saints brought to India b" #uropeans in the si'teenth centur". In this unusuall" large painting from a ro"al folio, court artists depicted the palace spaces from man" viewpoints, with walls tilted up and out to reveal inner chambers and court"ards that would otherwise be hidden to us. =or e'ample, we loo! down upon the blac! and white marble court"ard and into the ,aharana2s private garden. At the same time, the ro"al entourage seated in the pavilion appears to be at e"e level. The open roof galler" of the palace is tilted up and recedes in one point perspective to show the floral carpet. However, the roof galler" towers and the smaller towers in the walls sur rounding the garden are depicted in a reverse one point perspective in which the sight lines diverge rather than converge, so that three sides of each tower can be seen. These multiple perspectives can also be understood to indicate the three different time frames contained within the picture. -ith its lu'urious fittings and sumptuous activities, the palace proclaimed the wealth and power of the ,ewar rulers. 0ierced screens (;alis+ are set in the palace walls, each one in a different geometric openwor! pattern, and red te'tile hangings with tree patterns cover the tower windows. The cen tral scene is full of rich details of court life. $otice the court members2 gestures, costumes, turbans, turban ornaments, daggers, and ;ewelr". The"
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sit or stand at attention while the ,aharana, in a long gold covered coat, lounges against a soft bolster. In contrast, the performance before them is ver" livel". The dancers move in three different groups involving different poses and gestures. =our of them are men wearing orange turbans. A fourth group of dancers waits to perform in a line on the right. There appear to be two singers, one male and one female, and si' musicians. All these precisel" painted details of court life are organized within clearl" outlined architectural spaces. The color red leads the viewer2s e"e from the central dance scene to the garden to the open roof and bac! again, and a broad red border outlined in blac! encloses the entire composition. This t"pe of court painting based on ,ughal protot"pes was first adopted in ,ewar in the earl" eighteenth centur". However, the naturalism of the ,ughal school has been tempered b" .a;put decorative painting, a some what limited palette, and the use of multiple perspectives. $otice9 sub;ect, architecture, materials, and techniEue 1iscuss9 narrative sections, color, viewpoints, scale, s"mbols of power, cul tural e'change 1rawing 0ierced Screen (Jali+ (a drawing+ 0ierced Screen (Jali+ India. ,ughal, reign of A!bar, (r. )66C4)C:6+. Sandstone. D5 )P* ' 6) 5P)C in. ()BC ' )5: cm+ ()FF5.CD.)+ The earliest e'tant ;alis, or pierced screens, are found in a mosEue in India dated to the earl" si'teenth centur". The" became a common feature in ,ughal buildings of the late si'teenth centur" and were later adopted in .a;put architecture as well. The" functioned as windows, room dividers, and decorative features. The" were ideal openings in outer walls of buildings in the warm climates of South Asia because the" screened the sunshine "et allowed air to circulate freel". =rom earl" morning to sunset, the shadow patterns the" cast continuousl" moved, adding richness to the interior of the room. This drawing shows the intricate openwor! design of a ;ali. The patterns consist of octagons containing eight pointed stars around which radiate he'agons containing five pointed stars. These geometric patterns could be endlessl" repeated in all directions "et are contained within a t"picall"
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shaped ,ughal arch and rectangular outer frame. -ithin the corners above the arch is a smaller, more delicate pattern based on overlapping circles and stars. The most s!illed craftsmen carved openwor! out of one piece of sand stone8a feat reEuiring tremendous precision. Although most ;alis are geometric, some incorporate flowers and leaves into their designs. South Asia9 The .ise of %ivilization ) Seals with 1esigns of a Anicorn, Bulls, and an #lephant Seals with 1esigns of a Anicorn, Bulls, and an #lephant 0a!istan, Indus 7alle" civilization (5:::4)6:: B.%.+. Ba!ed steatite. H. from left9 )5P)C in. (3.) cm+, ))P3 in. (5.B cm+, ))P B in. (3.F cm+, )5P)C in. (3.) cm+ )FB*.*B3, *F.*:.3, and promised gifts Thousands of steatite seals li!e these have been discovered in the ruins of ancient sites throughout 0a!istan and $orth India. %arved with a copper or bronze burin, the images on the seals depict powerful animals such as elephants, lions, rhinosceri, and bulls. #ach seal bears letters in a writing s"stem that is still undecipherable. Gne famous seal shows a figure seated in a "ogic pose of meditation surrounded b" animals, perhaps a protot"pe of the Hindu god Shiva as >lord of the animals.? Gn these seals, the powerful creatures face ritual stands. Above them are letters or characters, which ma" represent the name of a famil" or merchant organization involved in the networ! of trade e'tending across western Asia. Indus 7alle" stamp seals found in ancient ,esopotamian cities and ,esopotamian seals found at Indus 7alle" sites prove the e'is tence of long distance trade. Stamp seals were used in the following wa"9 cla" was pressed over cords binding bundles of merchandise and then the seal was stamped into the cla". An" attempt to tamper with the contents would be immediatel" evident. $otice9 content, size, material, techniEue 1iscuss9 writing, function, trade 3 0laEue with a .o"al =amil" 0laEue with a .o"al =amil"
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India (-est Bengal, %handra!etugarh+. Shunga period, )st centur" B.%. Terracotta. )3 5P* ' ): )P* in. (53.* ' 3C cm+ 0urchase, =lorence and Herbert Irving /ift, )FF3 ()FF3.)3F+ Although most earl" terracotta plaEues portra" deities, this one shows a porch with two columns framing a scene of a ro"al famil" at ease. The man is seated on a throne and his wife stands to his left. The" wear e'traordinar" headdresses (hers counterbalanced b" a large curving blos som, probabl" a fo'tail lil"+, lavish ;ewelr" (some of which was probabl" made of strung flowers+, and elaboratel" pleated costumes. Affectionate gestures lin! the couple9 the" touch each other as the woman leans grace full" toward her husband and loo!s toward us, drawing us into the scene. Her full breasts, narrow waist, and wide hips represent the female ideal in Indian art. Below the ro"al pair sits a chubb" child wearing a beaded cap and heav" pleated robe. He seems unaware of the howling dog he holds on a chain, or the two duc!s and the mon!e" that surround him. The patterns on the floor where he sits and the carved details on the column capitals and bases and on the lintel suggest the lu'urious decoration of ancient palaces con structed of wood. Terracotta plaEues li!e this were made from terracotta molds, which means the image could have been duplicated several times. -or!ing in cla" enabled the mold ma!er to create the remar!able details seen here, some of which were created after the impression had been made with small stamps. The function of such plaEues is un!nown. It might have been suspended from a cord passed through the two holes near the upper edge. $otice9 figures, costume, setting, material 1iscuss9 relationship between figures, wor!ing in cla", details 5 Gne from a 0air of .o"al #arrings Gne from a 0air of .o"al #arrings India (probabl" Andhra 0radesh+. ca. )st centur" B.%. /old. -. 5 in. (D.C cm+ /ift of The &ronos %ollections, )FB) ()FB).5FB.5+
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This ear ornament resembles a tightl" curving gold vine ending in two large flaring buds. 7ines, sometimes sprouting fantastic fruits and flowers, are a common s"mbol of fertilit" in ancient India. Gn the underside of each bud is a vase from which foliage grows, a design of classical origin that was adopted into the Indian art repertoire as a s"mbol of the earth2s bount". Gn one side of each of the buds are animals, either a winged lion or an elephant (which can be seen here+. Both animals are ro"al emblems. #ar ornaments li!e these were so large and heav" that the" distended the earlobes of the wearer almost down to the shoulders. At the center of the curving vine is a narrow slit that can be partiall" seen on the right. The distended earlobe was passed through this slit so that the earring hung from the earlobe of the wearer. =igures wearing similar large earrings appear in image 6. 7er" little ancient Indian ;ewelr" has survived. .ather than being passed from one generation to the ne't, most ;ewelr" was probabl" melted down in order to avoid transmitting the !arma of the former owner. This earring and its mate are the finest and most elaborate e'amples of earl" Indian ;ewelr" !nown. The" remind us of the e'traordinar" cultural remains8 domestic architecture, wooden sculpture, ;ewelr", and te'tiles8that have largel" perished and can onl" be imagined b" reading descriptions in literature and b" loo!ing at the surviving art. =or instance, the elaborate ;ewelr" depicted on deities in Indian sculpture and painting was undoubt edl" based on real models. The basic forms of this earring were made from flat hammered sheets of gold. The animals were made from separate sheets hammered from the bac! to create their forms (repoussN+ and then decorated with gold granulation. In granulation, tin" globes of gold are adhered to the surface. /ranulation was also used to outline the foliage and abstract designs and to add te'ture to the smooth surfaces. Twisted wires of different thic!ness and small pieces of gold sheet enliven the surfaces. $otice9 material, size, form, surface decoration 1iscuss9 function, how worn, s"mbols, status of wearer, gold wor!ing techniEues South Asia9 Buddhist Art * Standing Bodhisattva ,aitre"a (The Buddha of the =uture+ Standing Bodhisattva ,aitre"a (The Buddha of the =uture+ 0a!istan (ancient region of /andhara+.
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&ushan period, ca. late 3nd4earl" 5rd centur". /ra" schist. H. C* )P* in. ()C5.3 cm+ 0urchase, @ita Annenberg Hazen %haritable Trust /ift, )FF) ()FF).D6+ Slide and %1 image In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a being who has accumulated sufficient merit and wisdom to escape the c"cle of death and rebirth but chooses to remain on earth to help others achieve this goal. It is believed that ,aitre"a will be the Buddha of the =uture, when the ne't great world age begins. He is identified b" the sacred water flas! (onl" a fragment remains+ held in his left hand, and b" the double loop top!not of his hair. A circle of radiance s"mbolizing his divinit" surrounds his head. The low relief carving beneath his feet represents si' mon!s adorning a c"lin drical cas!et of Buddhist relics that rests beneath a canop". At the time this statue was made, ma;or trade routes from .ome to India and %hina passed through the ancient region of /andhara (toda" mostl" in 0a!istan and Afghanistan+ and descendants of Ale'ander the /reat2s armies still lived in the region. %onseEuentl", the peoples of /andhara were e'posed to an international mi' of beliefs and st"les. This bod hisattva was carved during the reign of the &ushan !ings, some of whom had converted to Buddhism. ,an" stupas and monastic assembl" halls were erected during their reigns. The &ushan court had two capitals, one at 0eshawar in /andhara (0a!istan+ and the other further east at ,athura in India. In /andhara, the &ushan carvers portra"ed Buddhist sub;ects in gra" schist stone in a st"le that reflects classical protot"pes, while those in India wor!ed in red sandstone in an indigenous st"le that was more conceptual. In this image, the bodhisattva2s muscular, heav"set bod", his togali!e robe with realistic three dimensional folds, and his coiffure show inspiration from ,editerranean cultures. /andharan images of the Buddha were depicted in a similar st"le. $otice9 adornment, ;ewelr", draper", ph"siEue 1iscuss9 identit" of figure, sense of power, weight shift, /reco .oman influence, cultural diffusion 6 The /reat 1eparture and the Temptation of the Buddha The /reat 1eparture and
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the Temptation of the Buddha India (Andhra 0radesh, $agar;una!onda+. I!shva!u period, ca. first half of 5rd centur". @imestone. H. 6C 5P* in. ()**.) cm+ =letcher =und, )F3B (3B.):6+ image 5 The I!shva!u rulers, whose !ingdom was located on the east coast of India, built man" stupas whose surfaces were covered with Buddhist reliefs. This fragment illustrates two episodes from the life of Siddhartha, the name of the Buddha before he reached enlightenment. He is pictured riding out from his palace accompanied b" an attendant who holds his sword. Siddhartha is about to dismount, set aside his ro"al regalia, and leave his wife and son behind to see! a solution to human suffering. To avoid wa!ing the occupants of the palace, "a!shas (earth deities+ hold up the feet of Siddhartha2s horse and his attendants. %elestial musicians and dancers throng around Siddhartha, celebrating his future enlightenment. Gne holds a parasol over Siddhartha2s head to s"mbolize his ran! as a prince and the much greater ran! he will assume as the #nlightened Gne. The fragment above the main scene shows Siddhartha seated in medita tion, ignoring the temptations of worldl" power and pleasures being offered to him b" the evil demon ,ara. This region, li!e /andhara, was situated on trade routes between #ast and -est, in this case sea routes, and its artists were influenced b" classical traditions of relief carving. $otice the illusion of depth created within the fairl" shallow relief b" placing the figures in a series of overlapping planes. Those that are slightl" higher up are understood to be farther bac!. The scene is pac!ed with figures in man" positions, "et at the center of the swirling action Siddhartha is clearl" visible astride his horse. Although the surface is damaged, details of adornment and decoration are still visible, suggesting the splendor of ancient court life. The large earrings worn b" Siddhartha resemble those in image 5. $otice9 action, adornment, center of interest, detail 1iscuss9 the narrative, illusion of depth, probable function Seated 0reaching Buddha Seated 0reaching Buddha India (Bihar, probabl" Bodh /a"a+.
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0ala period, ):th4))th centur". Blac! stone. H. 3* )P* in. (C).6 cm+ .ogers =und, )F3: (3:.*5+ image C The Buddha sits on a double lotus throne in the classic "oga position of meditation8a pose in art that originated in India. His half closed e"es and faint smile e'press ultimate serenit" and !nowledge. This sense of transcendent calm is reinforced b" the balanced composition and the pose of the Buddha2s bod", which fits within the stable shape of an eEuilateral triangle. #ven his simple mon!2s robe seems to surpass realit". As in the /upta Buddha (image C+, it falls as no real draper" ever would, in graceful patterns, each fold no more than a curving line. The Buddha is identified b" the ushnisha, urna, the lotus blossom designs on his palms and soles, the elongated earlobes, halo, spiral curls of hair, and the gesture he ma!es. His hands are positioned in the teaching mudra8he is naming the =our $oble Truths and the #ightfold 0ath, the wa" to final release from the c"cles of life. Gn each side of the Buddha are columns, suggesting a temple niche, the frame of which displa"s prancing leogr"phs, a part lion part ram beast who assures protection. A Sans!rit inscription on the lotus throne base sa"s, >To the cause of the divine reli gion b" the stonecutter 7i;a!a.? $otice9 pose, e'pression 1iscuss9 s"mbols, mudras, variations in scale, mood, transcendence, inscription B 0aramasu!ha %ha!rasamvara ,andala 0aramasu!ha %ha!rasamvara ,andala $epal. ca. ))::. 1istemper on cloth. 3C DPB ' )F DPB in. (CB.3 ' 6:.6 cm+ .ogers =und, )FF6 ()FF6.355+ Slide and %1 image The painting depicts the 0aramasu!ha %ha!rasamvara (Supreme Bliss -heel+ mandala. The main circular area contains a diagram of a palace with four elaboratel" decorated gatewa"s. This structure should be imag ined as three dimensional. =rom the sEuare base, the palace rises up as a
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p"ramid and is topped b" a circle within a sEuare containing the ma;or deit", in this case %ha!rasamvara, a horrific form of the Buddha A!shobh"a, one of the five cosmic Buddhas from the #soteric Buddhist pantheon. He is shown in union with his consort, the goddess 7a;ravarahi, a metaphor for the union of wisdom and compassion, wa"s and means. The main figures are surrounded b" a group of si' attendant deities stand ing within st"lized lotus petals. Surrounding the main circular area are vivid depictions of the traditional eight charnel grounds of India, auspicious sites for meditation on wrathful deities. Here the worldl" e'istence of transitor" pleasure and the inevita bilit" of death contrast with the realm of the Buddha envisioned in the center. The horizontal shape of the lower register resembles ancient Indian wooden boo! covers used to bind manuscripts written on palm leaves. The 0ancara!sha, the five protective goddesses especiall" favored in $epal, are flan!ed b" donors on the right and a mon! on the left, each seated in front of offerings. This is the earliest paubha (painting on cloth+ !nown from $epal. The st"le of apparel worn b" the mon! in the lower register is t"picall" $epalese rather than Tibetan. $otice9 organization, pattern, geometric shapes, color, scale, action 1iscuss9 function, meaning, how one travels into a mandala, meditation F Standing Buddha Standing Buddha Sri @an!a. 0olonnaruva period, ))th4)3th centur". /ilt bronze. H. 35 6PB in. (C: cm+ /ift of #nid A. Haupt, )FF5 ()FF5.5BD.B+ Several different models for describing the Buddha2s appearance developed in India. His anatom" and the st"le of his mon!2s robe in /andharan sculpture (image *+ differ from the sculptural traditions of the /upta period (image C+. Another variation formulated in southeast India in the I!shva!u period (image 6+ spread to Sri @an!a and Southeast Asia and became the standard wa" of depicting the Buddha. This imposing gilt bronze statue shows the Buddha with his right hand raised in a variant of the fear alla"ing gesture and with the fingers of his left hand positioned
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to hold the edge of his robe (see image C+. His facial t"pe has become broader and the features are somewhat sharper and less curvilinear. A flame surmounts his ushnisha. The Buddha2s robe falls in diagonal curving patterns across his upper bod" and down his right side. It does not cover his right shoulder as in sculptures from ,athura. 0art of the length of cloth has been grasped in his left hand, drawing up the fabric so that on the inner side it falls down across the bod" in a series of near vertical folds, and on the outer side, straight down from the wrist. $otice9 material, proportions 1iscuss9 gesture, s"mbols, line, rh"thm, contrasts ): The Buddha Amoghasiddhi Attended b" Bodhisattvas The Buddha Amoghasiddhi Attended b" Bodhisattvas Tibet. =irst half of )5th centur". 1istemper on cloth. 3D )PB ' 3))P* in. (CB.F ' 6* cm+ 0urchase, ,iriam and Ira 1. -allach 0hilanthropic =und /ift, )FF) ()FF).D*+ Than!as are Tibetan paintings on cloth. In Buddhist monasteries, the" are often used to focus meditation. This than!a depicts the transcendent Amoghasiddhi, one of the five cosmic Buddhas. #ach of these Buddhas has a particular gesture, color, and vehicle and is associated with one of the five directions9 north, south, east, west, and straight up. Amoghasiddhi sits in his northern paradise< his gesture alla"s fear, his color is green, and his vehicle for traveling through the cosmos is /aruda. A /aruda appears on both sides of the throne. He sits in the cross legged "ogic position in front of a large striped bolster and wears lavish ;ewelr", which s"mbolizes his spiritual perfection. The soles of his feet and palms of his hands are henna colored, an ancient form of aristocratic adornment. Two bodhisattvas in tribhanga poses flan! him, while above him are smaller bodhisattvas seated in rows who also attend his sermon. The rela tive sizes of the figures in this crowded scene reflect the degree of their spiritual perfection, and the entire entourage is arranged s"mmetricall" around the central figure of Amoghasiddhi. image )3
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=ive forms of the goddess Tara, the protector and guide of Buddhist pil grims (image )3+, are shown seated in a row at the bottom, each a different color and with var"ing numbers of arms. In the lower right corner is a mon! seated before an offering stand. He ma" have officiated at the cere mon" consecrating the set of than!as portra"ing the five cosmic Buddhas to which this painting belonged. $otice9 arrangement, balance, scale, e'pression 1iscuss9 identit" of figures, function, meditation, female energ" )) 0ortrait of Jnanatapa Surrounded b" @amas and ,ahasiddhas 0ortrait of Jnanatapa Surrounded b" @amas and ,ahasiddhas #astern Tibet, .iwoche monaster". )*th centur". 1istemper on cloth. 3D ' 3))P3 in. (CB.C ' 6*.C cm+ 0urchase, =riends of Asian Art /ifts, )FBD ()FBD.)**+ The large figure at the center of this cloth painting is a great Indian practi tioner of #soteric Buddhism called Jnanatapa. His large, unfocused e"es indicate that he is in an ecstatic trance. He wears a distinctive golden hel met with a pleated fringe, a large amount of delicatel" made ;ewelr", and an apron of carved bone over his red lion cloth. In his right hand is a horn and in the left a golden cas!et surmounted b" a lion. The palms of his hands and soles of his feet are hennaed in brilliant red, an ancient aristo cratic sign of beaut" often used in the portra"al of deities and spirituall" evolved beings, including abbots. A small golden halo encircles his head with an outer rim of red, "ellow, and blue bands s"mbolizing wisdom and protection. A pair of lions guards the double lotus throne with ;eweled decoration. Behind his throne, vertical shapes with pointed and hoo!ed tops s"mbolize mountains. Gnpo .inpoche, the founder of .iwoche monaster", for which this painting was made, was believed to be an incar nation of Jnanatapa. 1irectl" over Jnanatapa2s head is a portrait of a Buddha with his consort. Both were Jnanatapa2s spiritual masters. To each side are three seated figures of abbots. The four central ones are the first abbots of Ta!lung monaster". The one to the far left is the teacher of its first abbot and the one to the far right, the second abbot of .iwoche. The eight figures along
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the sides of the lower half of the painting are famous mahasiddhas (great practitioners+ of #soteric Buddhism whose revelations included nontraditional means to achieve spiritual perfection. Their !nowledge was !ept secret to all but their most spirituall" evolved student mon!s and was passed directl" from teacher to adept from generation to generation. $otice9 figures, scale, pose, gesture, e'pression 1iscuss9 use of color, meditation practices )3 Standing Tara Standing Tara $epal. )*th centur". /ilt copper allo" with color, inlaid with semiprecious stones. H. 3: )P* in. (6).* cm+ @ouis 7. Bell =und, )FCC (CC.)DF+ Tara, the Buddhist savioress whose name means >star,? guides pilgrims on their ;ourne"s to sacred sites and protects them from peril. Gn another level of meaning, she also guides and protects the adept on his or her ;our ne" toward enlightenment. As the female counterpart to the Bodhisattva Avalo!iteshvara, she is the goddess of compassion. She ta!es man" forms (image ):+. Here she stands in the tribhanga pose, her left hand raised in the teaching mudra. Attached to her left upper arm is a lotus. She holds a small citron or pomegranate in her right hand, signif"ing her gift of com passion to the devotee. $ote the patterns on her palms. She wears a long floral printed dhoti and shawl which falls down her bac!. As is t"pical in $epal, her ;ewelr" is set with actual semiprecious stones and includes a crown, earrings, nec!laces, armbands, wide cuff bracelets, and an elaborate belt. Her s!in is brightl" gilded. The overall effect of this figure is one of elegance, refinement, and other worldliness created b" her adornment, her swa"ing pose and slender, graceful bod", and the serene e'pression on her face. The effect is enhanced b" light reflecting off the smooth gilt copper surfaces. Such images were placed in temples. $epali sculpture was greatl" influenced b" the sculpture of India. However, Tara2s anatom" is somewhat less volup tuous than her Indian counterparts (compare image )B+, and her wide face with large, partiall" closed e"es, pursed mouth, and arched nose is purel"
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$epalese, as are the elaborate foliate swirls in the crown. $otice9 material, pose, gesture, adornment, e'pression 1iscuss9 identit" of figure, s"mbols, pattern, line, female counterparts )5 ,andala of Jnanada!ini ,andala of Jnanada!ini Tibet, School of the $gor monaster". ca. late )6th centur". 1istemper on cloth. 55 )P* ' 3B DPB in. (B*.6 ' D5.5 cm+ 0urchase, @ita Annenberg Hazen %haritable Trust /ift, )FBD ()FBD.)C+ In Tibetan monasteries, Buddhist mon!s use mandalas as aids to medita tion. ,andalas are representations of a deit" and his or her entourage. The" often ta!e the form of a cosmic diagram with the main deit" at its center. The architectonic arrangement of man" mandalas resembles a sEuare palace with four entrances surrounded b" circular bands that repre sent abstract realms. Gften the palaces are multistoried. The entire structure should be imagined as a three dimensional stepped p"ramid whose top is inhabited b" the deit" with whom the devotee hopes to become one. In this mandala, the deit" is the wrathful goddess Jnanada!ini, who sits within a red circle on a throne guarded b" two lions. She has three heads and si' arms to displa" her multiple powers. Her wrath protects Buddhists from the evil and ignorance that hinder their Euest for spiritual enlighten ment. Surrounding her are four other seated deities and four lesser, animal headed deities. The palace is set inside concentric circles of st"l ized lotus petals, va;ras (ritual thunderbolts+, flames, and e'traordinar" scenes of charnel (cremation+ grounds. The latter are auspicious places for the contemplation of wrathful deities. In each of the four red circles at the outer corners is a female deit" in an energetic pose, flan!ed b" smaller attendants. There are thirteen lamas in the row at the top< on the bottom register in the two niches on the left, the donor of the painting is seated in front of an offering table. The other figures in the register are wrathful deities and protectors of the faithful. $otice9 organization, pattern, geometric shapes, color, scale, action 1iscuss9 function, meaning, how one travels into a mandala, meditation
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)* Oama Oama Tibet. ,id )Dth4earl" )Bth centur". 1istemper on cloth. D3 5PB ' *C 6PB in. ()B5.B ' ))B.* cm+ 0urchase, =lorance -aterbur" BeEuest, )FCF This powerful painting, over si' feet tall, was part of a large set represent ing the ferocious protectors of Buddhism. Oama is the Indian god of death who, in the corpulent form of a buffalo headed demon, protects against outer perils such as storms, pestilence, murder, or attac!s b" wild ani mals. -hen he appears with an ogre face, as he does here, Oama guards against the inner demons of emotional addictions such as lust and hate. He carries a chopper (!atri!a+ which he uses to eradicate these demons once the devotee has recognized and overcome them. Oama holds a s!ull cup in the other hand, filled with the blood of these vanEuished evils. He wears a tiger s!in loincloth and a garland of human s!ulls as he tramples on an agonized being who s"mbolizes ignorance. He is surrounded b" st"lized flames and is supported b" a blac! lotus petal floating in seas of blood. Gn each side of the painting, lightning bolts flash out of clouds, and four small, wrathful buffalo headed Oamas dance and grimace in the flames. Two serene seated mon!s holding boo!s flan! a fifth small dar! blue image of the ogre faced Oama at the top of the painting. $otice9 action, e'pression, mood 1iscuss9 s"mbolism, meaning, scale, color, organization, detail South Asia9 Hindu Art )6 &rishna Battling the Horse 1emon &eshi &rishna Battling the Horse 1emon &eshi India (Attar 0radesh+. /upta period, 6th centur". Terracotta. H. 3) in. (65.5 cm+ 0urchase, =lorence and Herbert Irving /ift, )FF) ()FF).5::+
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#arl" Hindu temples were built of bric! and decorated with terracotta reliefs. Gn this plaEue, which probabl" comes from a temple e'terior, &rishna, an avatar of 7ishnu, displa"s his supernatural powers. The evil !ing &ansa had dispatched several demons to !ill &rishna (see stor" accompan"ing image 36+, but &rishna had easil" slain them. In a rage, &ansa summoned one of his most powerful demons, named &eshi, who changed himself into a huge, powerful horse and raced to the place where &rishna dwelled. #ver"one who saw &eshi coming was terrified8e'cept &rishna. -ith a loud roar, &eshi charged. &rishna, smiling and seemingl" fearless, stood his ground and, upon impact with &eshi, thrust his left arm deep into the horse2s mouth. His arm became fier" hot, so &eshi could not bite it with his huge teeth, and it e'panded, so that &eshi could not breathe. >1ischarging balls of dung? (as the stor" traditionall" goes+, the evil demon fell dead. The sculptor of this plaEue compressed the episode into one action filled scene. The figures2 curving forms swell outward from the bac!ground. &rishna2s e'traordinar" strength is emphasized b" the diagonal thrust of his bod" and b" his fl"ing hair as he stops &eshi cold. The heads of &rishna and &eshi are enlarged to dramatize their e"es, which bulge from their e'ertions9 &rishna2s from the intensit" of battle, &eshi2s from the realization that he is near defeat. $otice9 action, movement, narrative 1iscuss9 e'pressive e'aggeration, material, function

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