IRRIGATION SYSTEM

Called perimeter irrigation or watering, the set of structures, which enables a specific area to be cultivated with the application of water necessary for plants. The irrigation system comprises a number of components, the main listed below. However it should be noted that not necessarily the irrigation system should consist of all, the set of components depend on whether it is surface irrigation sprinkler or drip. For example, a reservoir is not required where the river or stream which is captured water has a sufficient flow even in low water period. Hydraulic components of an irrigation system Sprinkler Sorpersor a sprinkler or is a mechanical device which in most cases becomes pressurized fluid flow and converts it into dew asperjndolo for irrigation purposes. At this point you need to understand that the benefits of a sprinkler, or sorpersor, is to expel the water through a curtain to where their skills outlet pressure and nozzle type are allowed, so if it is necessary to describe what is really a water jet spraying, this would be the result: a water jet spraying is a random set of water droplets that are expelled, a mediopresurizado, another atmospheric pressure where this set of similar addresses stored water spray and different speeds (this because of the types of nozzle) where the only goal is to get a water curtain launched into space as evenly as possible. Characteristics of a sprinkler angle shot (being 20 the most efficient) Nozzle type (determines the type of dew) Outlet pressure pressurized duct The sprinklers are calculated in most cases for minutes of work, which must have worked with the following two factors:

 Hydraulic spending measured in liters per second (l / s) The area to measure moisture affect m These two factors drive thrown "irrigation depth" is measured in cm or mm flooded. Sprinklers limit their effectiveness by the separation errors including errors in the calculation of the depth of water, save topographic depressions between them and the wind force to a pressurized system to 90 pounds per square inch, loses Efficiency at a wind speed of 15 km / h being the sprinkler system completely inefficient at 30 km / hr wind speed. Types of sprinklers

Mechanical rotary sprinkler Regarding the construction of a sprinkler, these can be divided into two main types: The mechanical rotary sprinkler, it takes energy to rotate by means of fluid pressure prior to its removal; The electric sprayer, it is propelled by electric energy that stimulates a wound rotor for rotation is present, the most common one that requires a source of 24 volts AC to rotate, with 0.8 amps of current . Calculation of a sprinkler Calculation to select a sprinkler is conducted as follows: It must locate spending liters per second sprinkler installed according to the manufacturer. (Q) to locate a total expenditure (QT) by the formula set forth below.

 Just as you should know the total distance achieved (DTA) in t he spray liquid which can be interpreted as total linear meters calculated in laboratory or field without wind resistance. (A) the angle is located further affecting the total area of influence of irrigation sprinklers in commercial ranging from 20 to 360 . The sprinklers do not water at 360 sprinklers are known as partial (part circle) and those that rotate 360 are called full circle sprinklers (full circle), it should be noted that the sprinklers constantly going to and returning partial wetting its catchment area twice what a full sprinkler does. (A) The time in seconds that is to keep the sprinkler operation. (T) Now, with these data we obtain the following method to calculate the irrigation depth (LR): A = (3.1416 * (D.T.A. / 2) ^ 2) * (a/360) QT = Q * T LR = QT / A (the data is shown in inches) Note: these data are extracted in the operation of irrigation on golf courses, where previously studied in field grasses (bermuda 419, Salam paspalum, Paspalum Sea Isle, Bermuda 328) need an irrigation depth of 1cm daily on latitude 31 No, regardless of evapotranspiration losses. Intake

Water intake towers, inside the Hoover Dam.

Intake from a river 05 09'28 "S 80 36'59" W. An intake, or uptake, is a hydraulic structure designed to derive from a watercourse, river, stream, or canal, or from a lake, or even from the sea, one of the available water in this, to be used in a specific purpose, such as drinking water supply, irrigation, power generation, aquaculture, cooling industrial installations. Traditionally intakes were built, and many sites are built yet, piling earth and stone in the bed of a river, to divert some of the flow into the bypass channel. Usually these rudimentary structures should be rebuilt every year, as the avenues of systematically destroyed. The technically built intakes generally consist of the following parts: Gate control and closing of the gate; Device for measuring levels, upstream and downstream of the control gate. These simple rules can be graded or continuous can have level gauges and transmitters of information to the operations center, which may include mechanisms for remotely operating the gate; If found in rivers and streams, generally consist also of: A landfill to fix the watercourse section, both planimetry and in height, thus preventing migration watercourse at that point and scour, which could leave the intake inoperative; A clean channel, provided with gates to allow the approximation desarenamiento the intake. Often, the intake is completed with a gate and a sand trap, to prevent sediment transport in the channel solid hampering the maintenance. Irrigation Canal

Main irrigation canal. Irrigation canals have the function to convey water from the catchment to the field or garden where it will be applied to crops. They are important engineering works, which must be carefully designed not to cause damage to the environment and to be spent as little water as possible. They are closely linked to the characteristics of the land, generally follow the contour about this, descending gently to lower levels (giving a downward slope to allow water to flow more quickly and spend less liquid). The construction of all the irrigation canals is one of the most significant in the initial investment cost of the irrigation system, therefore their proper maintenance is a necessity. The dimensions of the irrigation channels are varied, and range from large canals to transport tens of m3 / s, the so-called main channels to small channels up to a few l / s, are called field channels. Parts of an irrigation canal

Work bypass under construction. During an irrigation canal lie many different structures, called "works of art", these are, among others: diversion works, which as its name implies, are used to derive the water (using primers) from a main channel (eg a ditch) to one side (eg armlets), or of the latter into a canal tertiary, or from the tertiary to the field channel and the barrel of cold sores. Usually built on concrete, masonry or stone, and are equipped with gates,

some simple, manual (also called tablachos, and others that can become sophisticated, remotely operated pe; level controls, often associated bypass works are designed to keep always in the channel, the water level within a certain range, and especially at the end points, with a downward slope; security controls, these should work automatically, to prevent damage to the system, if for any reason there is a failure of operation (someone once said, you can not be that if a cow decides to sleep in the channel to take the fresh, whole system self-destructs cascade), this seems like a joke is taken very seriously by the designers of irrigation systems. There are basically two types of security controls: landfill, and the siphons; gauging sections, designed to measure the amount of water entering a certain channel, based on which the water user pay for the service. There are different types of capacity desecciones, some very simple, consisting of a ruler that is read by the operator to pre-set intervals, to complex systems associated with selfregulating gates, which record the flow continuously and transmitted to the central computerized operation; construction of irrigation canal crossing with other existing infrastructure on the ground, within and outside the irrigation system. These in turn can be: irrigation channel crossing a drainage canal irrigation system itself; crossing a drain naturally with irrigation canal, at a height greater than the latter irrigation canal crossing a ravine or valley; irrigation canal crossing a road. Drainage System (Redirected from "drainage channels")

Classification of drainage systems on agricultural land The main function of a drainage system is to allow the removal of water that accumulate in topographic depressions of the ground, causing inconvenience to either agriculture or urbanized areas. The water source can be: For surface runoff By raising the water table, caused by irrigation, or by raising the level of a nearby river Directly precipitated in the area. Another very important function of the drainage system is to control, irrigation schemes in the accumulation of salts in the soil, which can dramatically decrease productivity. Mainly, the drainage system comprises a network of channels that lead the water collected and elsewhere, outside the area to be drained, while preventing the entry of external water. Typically these systems are needed in the large estuaries of major rivers and valleys where natural drainage is poor. The network of channels should be periodically cleaned, removing the mud that is deposited in them and weeds growing on the bottom and on the slopes, very easily otherwise water flow would change and lose the efficiency of the system. When the land to be drained are all within an upper bound to the work or container where you want to take the water drained, you can take advantage of the natural ground declivity and the system works perfectly with the force of gravity. Otherwise should be implemented a pumping station. When the area to be healthy is a lower bound to the surrounding, and is available with a considerable river sediment transport, can cause low land filling, to allow the deposition of sediments and thus to raise their level.

This operation has been done a lot in the past, thereby eliminating extensive lowland areas. The current concept is no longer considered appropriate to this type of intervention. In some cases one must resort to pumping meteoric waters, since there is the possibility that these naturally out. The first installations of this type occurred in the nineteenth century in Europe, with steam-driven pumps. The introduction of internal combustion engines and electric motors subsequently substantially modified the capacity and characteristics of drainage systems became increasingly more flexible and powerful. In the twentieth century, the need to expand the agricultural frontier and the need to counter the endemic diseases that whipped the population of low-lying coastal areas have given great impetus to the implementation of drainage systems, and led to the construction of major drainage systems that allowed drainage of large areas. Drain system components Components of a typical drainage system are: Channels drain field or buried; primary and secondary channels, these channels are characterized by generally deep, and its bottom is a lower bound to the dimensions of the surrounding terrain. Generally the drainage channels are not covered, or whether they should be coated to consolidate the slopes, the liner must be permeable, so as not to hinder the entrance of ground water in the canal; Works to protect the banks of the channels, mainly at junctions and bends; Works erosion control at the bottom of the channels (jumps back) Pumping stations (not always necessary) Mobile devices sprinkler

Aerial view of a center pivot irrigation in the Sahara. The sprinkler systems can be: fully mobile; consist of a fixed part, buried, and a moving part; fully fixed. Moving parts sprinkler currently used are: Fully mobile system It is the simplest. It is suitable for small areas near canals, ditches, rivers, or in general to a water source. It consists of: possibly a pump mounted on a cart, or coupled to the PTO of a tractor; hydrants carrier pipe, this pipe after installation remains in place throughout the duration of the irrigation of the field; carrier pipe sprinklers, this pipeline will connect to the various hydrants; sprinklers. Alas mobile

Alas mobile phones. Note the sprinkler between the two wheels. The movable wings or carrier pipe sprinklers are connected to the fixed hydrants fed by underground pipes. This irrigation system, widely used until the years 1970

to 1980 requires a significant amount of labor to reposition mobile wings every 6-8 hours. Movable wings are limited in extent, given by the difference acceptable (usually 10 to 15%) in the intensity of rainfall between the first and last sprinkler.

Sprinklers shotgun

Sprinkler operating type self-propelled gun. This system requires little staff as the change in position of the barrel, from one field to another, is easily done with the help of a small tractor. Moreover, its movement within the field, it is propelled by a small hydraulic turbine driven by the same water before reaching the exit orifice. Drawback To function properly the barrel must have considerable pressure, varying between 40 and 70 m water column. This, plus the diameter of the hole, causes the droplet size is considerable. If these drops fall on ground with little vegetation cover can cause damage to the structure of vegetation, among other things causes soil compaction.

Kingpin

Kingpin operating. Kingpin systems irrigate large areas of circular shape. They are used in places where water is a limiting factor strongly. Also in areas where you want to increase irrigation efficiency, making better use of water and strongly increasing crop yields. Efficiency pivot irrigation is 85% to 90%. Is a system that adapts to the undulations (which need not be flat). Depending on the manufacturer and design of equipment can be used in areas with up to 30% slope (TL Irrigation Co www.tlirr.com). Water distribution throughout the structure is performed by the manufacturer selecting the size and spacing of sprinkler heads. The sprinklers located near the center of the pivot need to deliver less water than those located towards the end. With new technologies Pivot sprinklers, manufacturers have managed to further lower the operating pressure of the sprinklers (up to 6-10psi = 0.42 to 0.7 bar), and thus the operating pressure of the pivots ( and energy consumption). The largest share of the global market pivot irrigation are electrically operated, as various manufacturers (Irrifrance, Chamsa, Valley, Pierce, Rokking, Reinke, Bauer). The hydraulic balance is manufactured by TL Irrigation Co (Hastings, Nebraska USA). The electric drive pivot stop hundreds of times each day their engines. The speed of the electric motors is fixed and each pivot towers describes a different

circumference. So that the pivot moves as a whole, must stop the towers that are more advanced and wait to be reached for the other towers, and then put back into operation. Hydraulic pivots automatically regulate the speed for each one of the towers, so they are all moving simultaneously, and the required speed. As all the towers are constantly moving, the irrigation uniformity is greater. There is no difference in power consumption between a pivot and one electrically driven hydraulic. The sum of the size of the electrical motors of electric drive pin is the size of the motor driving the hydraulic pump hydraulic pivot. Where an electrical swivel can replace this by a hydraulic pivot without the need to change the power wiring that feed to the pivot. Electrically operated pivots are more complex. Have control boxes in each of the towers that operate the electric motors. Maintenance is performed by a elctricocon knowledge in the area. Hydraulic pivots have a main hydraulic pump and hydraulic motors in each of the towers (similar to operate heavy machinery for ground movement). They are simple to operate and maintain. Crop usually irrigated with kingpin systems are corn, soybean, wheat, cotton, peanut, potato, sunflower, alfalfa, sorghum, sugar beet, vegetables, natural pastures, etc.. There are also facilities kingpins where sprinklers are replaced by lines of drippers, allowing drip irrigate some crops, but at a lower cost of installation. Cause corrosion and electric pivots complex drive systems malfunction after a while. This is accentuated when fertigation (eg urea and phosphoric acid). The pins can be operated by simple boards or up communication complex computer systems with telephone or radio. In this case, the pin can for example be operated depending on the humidity of the soil or the weather conditions.

Autopropelidas mobile Wings The mobile wing mobile wing is similar to Kingpin, but is tied to a tractor equipped with a pump that moves parallel to a supply channel. Reservoir For other uses of this term, see Dam (disambiguation).

Satellite view Guri Reservoir, Venezuela, with over 4000 km . Reservoir is called the accumulation of water produced by an obstruction in the bed of a river or stream that partially or completely closed their banks. Channel obstruction can occur by natural causes, such as the collapse of a hillside in a narrow stretch of the river or stream, the accumulation of ice sheets or buildings made by beavers, and man-made works to for this purpose, such as dams. Reservoirs of natural causes

Dam by beavers in Yellowstone. Collapse of slopes In this case it is, totally uncontrolled reservoirs, which generally have a short life, days, weeks or even months. When filling the reservoir with the contributions of the river or stream, will cause leakage through the uncompacted soil mass, and discharges from the lowest point of the crown, leading to more or less rapid

breakdown and steep dam and can cause major damage to populations and cultivated areas downstream. A phenomenon of this kind occurred in the area known as La Josefina Advertise River in Ecuador. Ice accretion Ice build (embancaduras) in large rivers located in cold areas usually occurs at points where the channel has a narrowing, whether natural, as the presence of rocks, or artificial, as the pillars of a bridge. Such situations can arise, for example, on the Danube River. To prevent damage this may cause prevention services use special vessels called icebreaker. Dams built by beavers Dams built by beavers occur in small streams, usually in sparsely populated areas and, therefore, any damage caused by its rupture are generally limited. Artificial Reservoirs The reservoirs created by building a dam can be designed to: regulate the flow of a river or stream, storing water in wet periods for use during dry periods for irrigation, for drinking water, to generate electricity, to allow navigation or to dilute pollutants . When a reservoir has more than one purpose, it is called multipurpose; contain extreme flows of floods or flood. Flood control; create a level difference to generate electricity through a hydroelectric plant; create opportunities for recreation and water sports. Characteristics of reservoirs

The main physical characteristics of a reservoir are elevation-volume curves, curve-surface elevation and flow flooded regularized. Depending on the characteristics of the valley, if it is large and open, flood areas can occupy densely populated areas or fertile agricultural areas. In these cases, before building the dam should be assessed quite objectively the advantages and disadvantages through an environmental impact study, which is not always done in the past. In other cases, especially at high and steep, the reservoir covers uninhabited land, in which case the environmental impacts are limited or nonexistent. The regularized flow is perhaps the most important feature of reservoirs intended precisely to regulate, along the day, year or multi-year periods or centuries may pass before this is desabilitado q by the human hand, the flow rate can be continuously removed for the use for which the dam is built. Levels characteristic of the reservoirs of the flow Water level in a reservoir is always higher than the original level of the river. From the point of view of the reservoir operation, defining a number of levels. The main ones are (in increasing order): Minimum level minimorum: is the minimum level that can reach the reservoir; coincides with the minimum level of the socket at the lowest level. Operational Minimum level: is the level below which the structures associated with the reservoir and dam do not operate or operate improperly. Medium level. It is the level that has the 50% spent on compensation cycle within the reservoir, which can be from one day to the small reservoirs, even over several years for large reservoirs. The most common period is one year. maximum operational level: When reached this level begins to pour water in order to maintain the level but damage downstream.

 Level of the landfill. If the dam has only one free dump, the level of the slab coincides with the maximum operational. If the dump is equipped with gates, the level of the floor is below the maximum operational. normal maximum level: at this level reached change operation and priority objective is to ensure the safety of the dam. In this phase may occur downstream damage, but will try to minimize them. Level up maximorum: at this level and the absolute priority is the safety of the dam, as a break would be catastrophic downstream. Level is maintained at all costs, the discharged flow is equal to flow into the reservoir. Characteristic of a reservoir volumes Characteristic volumes of the reservoirs are associated with the levels, in this way we have: Dead volume, defined as the volume stored to reach the minimum level minimorum. Useful volume, the period between the minimum and maximum level minimorum operational. rolling volume is the volume between the maximum and the maximum operating normally. This volume, as its name implies, is used to reduce the flow poured into the streets, to limit damage downstream. Flow characteristic of a reservoir Steady flow. Is the maximum flow that can be withdrawn from the reservoir at a critical period. If the reservoir is sized to compensate for the flow along a hydrological year, generally regarded as critical to water year period in which there has been at least contributed volume. However, there are other definitions for the critical period also accepted, for example, the annual volume of water intake exceeded in 75% of years, which is a condition less critical than the last.

 Flow regularized. Is the flow that can be removed from the reservoir during the water year associated with a probability. Effects of a reservoir

The Reservoir Peares, Galicia, Spain. The reservoirs have a significant influence on the environment, some of its effects can be considered positive and others can be considered negative. General The large reservoirs add a very important to the ground in the area, thus increasing infiltration. These two factors together can result in what is known as induced earthquakes. Are frequent during the first years after filling the reservoir. While these induced earthquakes are troublesome, very rarely reach intensities that can cause serious damage to the population. Upstream Upstream of a dam, the water table of the surrounding land may be modified heavily and may have consequences on vegetation circunlacustre. Downstream The effects of a downstream reservoir are of various types, we can mention: Increased capacity to erode the river bed. Reduction of discharges and average flows, consistent, easy to anthropogenic activities occupy most part of the bed of the river. Decreased sediment supply to the coast, contributing to the erosion of beaches and deltas.

Use of reservoirs Basically a reservoir created by a dam, which disrupts the natural flow of a river, made available to the operator of the reservoir storage volume potential that can be used for multiple purposes, some other complementary and mutually conflicting, makes available Reservoir operator is also a potential energy derived from the rise of the water level. We can distinguish the uses for maximization require that the reservoir is as full as possible, ensuring a more regularized flow. These uses are power generation, irrigation, drinking water supply or industrial, dilution of pollutants. By contrast, for the reservoir flood control is the more efficient the more empty you are in the moment he receives an avenue. From the point of view of its regulatory capacity, the reservoir can have a daily cycle, monthly, yearly and even, in a few cases, several years. This means that the reservoir water accumulates during, for example, 20 hours per day, to download all that volume to generate electricity during the 4 hours of peak demand, or water accumulates during the rainy season, 3 to 6 months by region, for use in irrigation in the dry season. Multipurpose reservoir . Many modern dams are designed for multiple uses. In such cases the reservoir operator shall establish operating policies, you should consider: priority of each of the uses associated with the availability of other alternatives technically and economically feasible in the area. In general, drinking water supply has the highest priority. Limitations of flow, maximum and minimum downstream of the dam that supports the reservoir. Potential environmental impacts

The large dam projects cause irreversible environmental changes on a large geographical area, and, therefore, have the potential to cause significant impacts. Has increased criticism of these projects during the last decade. The harshest critics claim that, as the benefits are worth less than the social, environmental and economic, is unjustifiable large dams. Others argue that it can, in some cases, avoid or reduce the environmental and social costs to an acceptable level, to carefully evaluate potential problems and implementation of corrective measures. The catchment area of a dam extends from the upper limits of the reservoir catchment to the estuary, the coast and the sea. Includes the watershed and the river valley downstream of the dam. While there are direct environmental effects of the construction of a dam (eg, problems with dust, erosion, earth movement), the largest impacts come from the water container, the flooding of the earth to form the reservoir and the altering the water flow, below. These effects have direct impacts to soils, vegetation, wildlife and wild lands, fisheries, climate, and especially for human populations in the area. The indirect effects of the dam, which sometimes can be worse than direct, relate to the construction, maintenance and operation thereof (eg, access roads, construction camps, transmission lines of electricity ) and the development of agricultural, industrial or municipal, encouraged by the dam. In addition to the direct and indirect environmental effects of the construction of the dam, should be considered the environmental effects produced in the dam. The main environmental factors that affect the performance and life of the dam are caused by the use of land, water and other resources of the catchment area above the reservoir (eg agriculture, settlement, forest clearing) and this can cause further accumulation of silt and changes in water quality of the reservoir and the river downstream. The benefits of the dam are: floods are controlled and provides a more reliable water affluent and highest quality for irrigation and domestic and industrial use. In addition, dams can create alternatives for activities that have the potential to cause

major negative impacts. Hydropower, for example, is an alternative to thermal energy based on coal, or nuclear energy. The intensification of agriculture, locally, through irrigation, can reduce pressure on forests, wildlife habitats intact, and the other areas that are unsuitable for agriculture. In addition, dams can create a fishing industry, and facilitate agricultural production in the area downstream of the reservoir, which in some cases may more than offset the losses in these sectors, as a result of its construction. Recently it is considering the beneficial effect that could have water storage in the soil to compensate for sea level rise, stored in liquid water is on the ground now as ice in glaciers and ice caps in the high mountains , which is now melting due to global warming. The environmental benefits in coastal areas (many of them very densely populated) could well compensate for problems that may occur in the hinterland. Hydrological effects By damming a river to create a lake, profoundly changed the hydrology and limnology of the river system. Dramatic changes occur in the flow, quality, quantity and water use, losorganismos biotic and sedimentation of the river basin. Decomposition of organic matter (for example, trees) of the flooded land reservoir enriched foods. The fertilizers used upstream in addition to foods that build up and recycled into the reservoir. This supports not only fishing, but also the growth of aquatic weeds such as water lilies and water hyacinths. Herbs mats and algae can be costly inconvenience. If obstruct exits the dam and irrigation canals, destroying fisheries, limited recreation, increase water treatment costs, impede navigation and substantially increase water loss due to perspiration. If the flooded land has many trees and not properly cleaned before flooding, decomposition of this vegetation deplete oxygen levels in the water. This affects aquatic life, and can cause large losses of fish. The anaerobic decomposition products include hydrogen sulfide, which is harmful to aquatic organisms and

corrodes the dam's turbines, and methane, a greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide, the main gas is produced, it also exacerbates the risk of gases. Particulate matter that brings the river settle to the reservoir, limiting its storage capacity and life, depriving the river sediment downstream. Many agricultural areas in the floodplain have always depended on the silt-rich food to sustain their productivity. As the sediment is no longer deposited downstream in the floodplain, this food loss must be compensated by the addition of fertilizers, to maintain agricultural productivity. The release of sediment-free waters, relatively, you can wash the beds downstream. However, the sedimentation reservoir produces high quality water for irrigation, and industrial and human consumption. Additional effects of changes in the hydrology of the river basin, including variations in the groundwater level, upstream and downstream of the reservoir, and salinization problems, these have direct environmental impacts and affect downstream users. Social Issues Very often, people in town, agricultural interests and the people who live far away, enjoy the benefits of dams, but those who bear most of the environmental and social costs, benefit to a lesser degree, or not benefit, namely the inhabitants of the area flooded by the reservoir, and those living in the floodplains. When filling the reservoir, there is the involuntary displacement of hundreds of thousands of people (some projects), requiring a deep social adjustment, not just part of it, but also people already established in the resettlement areas (see "Shifting involuntary"). For people who remain in the basin of the river, often restricted access to water, land and biotic resources. It disrupts fishing and traditional agriculture (type recession) in the floodplain due to changes in flow and reduction in the settlement of linens. The flood plains of many tropical rivers are huge areas of great importance for the human population and that of the animals by reducing floodplain must be a change in land use, otherwise people will be forced to change their site. Often, they increase water-related diseases (eg malaria, schistosomiasis,

onchocerciasis other people to the area, ie construction workers, temporary workers for agriculture and other activities induced by the dam , and farmers who use the increased access to the area by roads, transmission lines or better river transport. Consequences are: health problems, agobiamiento public services, competition for resources, social conflicts and negative environmental impacts for the watershed, the reservoir and the downstream river valley. takes half a decade to build as reservoir Fish and wildlife As stated earlier, fishing, usually deteriorates due to changes in the river flow or temperature, the degradation of water quality, loss of spawning grounds and the barriers to the migration of fish . However, fishery resources are created in the reservoir, which, sometimes, are more productive than those who were formerly in the river. In rivers having Estron biologically productive fish and shellfish suffer due to changes in flow and water quality. Changes in freshwater flow, and therefore, in the salinity of the estuary, changes the distribution of species and breeding patterns of fish. Variations in the amount of food and deteriorating water quality of the river, can have profound effects on productivity of the estuary. These changes may have important results for marine species that feed or spend part of their life cycle in the estuary, or are influenced by changes in the quality of coastal areas. The greatest impact to wildlife will originate from habitat loss, which occurs when filling the reservoir and cause changes in land use in the basin. May affect migration patterns of wildlife, due to the reservoir and development that relates to this. Illegal hunting and eradication of the species considered as agricultural pests, illegal activity related to it, have a more selective effect. The wildlife and waterfowl, reptiles and amphibians can thrive thanks to the reservoir. Seismic Hazard

Large reservoirs can alter tectonic activity. The likelihood of seismic activity occurs is difficult to predict, however, should consider the full destructive potential of earthquakes, which can cause landslides, damage to the infrastructure of the dam, and the possible failure of the same. Watershed Management It is a common phenomenon, increasing pressure on upland areas above the dam, as a result of the resettlement of people from flooded areas and uncontrolled influx of newcomers to the area. Environmental degradation occurs, and water quality deteriorates, and reservoir sedimentation rates increase as a result of forest clearing for agriculture, grazing pressure, land use such as watershed areas downstream. Pumping Station

Pumping station, drainage delsistema part of the city of New Orleans. The pumping stations are structures for raising fluids from an initial energy level to a higher energy level. Its use is widespread in the various fields of engineering and are used in: Networks of drinking water, where its use is almost mandatory, except in situations of towns next mountain ranges, with springs located at a higher elevation; Sewerage, when the population centers are located in very flat areas, to prevent the sewers are at depths greater than 4-5 m; Irrigation system in this case are essential if irrigation water is not artesian wells; Drainage system, when the drain field has a lower bound to the container of water drained;

 In many plants of both water treatment and wastewater, if not sufficient unevenness may be available in the field; A large number of industrial plants. Pumping stations generally consist of the following parts: Gates; suction chamber; The pumps themselves; Driveline. Ancillary services: Devices for protection against water hammer; Supply of electricity or fuel storage facility; System monitoring and telecommunications

Well

Mouth of the well of the cloister of the Cathedral of Baeza (Jan, Andaluca, Spain). A well is a hole, vertical tunnel excavation or drilling the earth to a depth sufficient to achieve what is sought, is a water reserve underground water table or fluids such as oil. Generally cylindrical in shape, is usually taken care to ensure your

walls with brick, stone, cement or wood, to prevent deterioration and collapse to not cause massive damage or severe it could cause plugging of the well. Traditional wells to collect water often sited in the vicinity of the houses or in the courtyard of the house or in the neighborhood common area (square, crossroads of streets), as long as water is found at a level moderately deep. For safety and usefulness, the well is around level surface with a rim, like a railing or parapet, on which is installed a pulley or coriander, to raise the bucket containing the extracted water. It is also usually placed a cover to keep dirt from falling inside. In populations where wastewater by filtration, the water table may be contaminated well water and can not drink, can still be used for cleaning and irrigation. In ancient times and in the third world country where the drinking well is not going to the nearest source.

Expressions with "well"

Interior of a water well. * "My joy in a well." (Expresses disappointment or pleasure.) "I'm going to throw down a well!" "If Fulanito (an ordinary person) is pulled to a well, you'll also throw?" (They used to ask or criticize someone's imitation of the actions of others, their behavior irrational.) "It's a bottomless pit." (It refers to something that consumes resources without stopping.)

 "It's a pit of filth and lust." (It is a literary expression; well as abject and hidden place, perhaps with reference to the underworld, where traditionally stood hell.) "This course is a well." (Refers to that is very difficult.) "Jack, jump into a pit." (In some parts of Argentina is used to incite a person to initiate courtship.)

Pipeline

Pipes in a boiler room. A tubing or pipe is a conduit that serves to convey water or other fluids. They usually develop very different materials. When the liquid is transported oil, used oil pipeline specific denomination. When the circulating fluid is gas, the specific name is used pipeline. They can be transported by pipeline or any materials which, although not a fluid, corresponds to this system: concrete, cement, grain, enveloped documents, etcetera. Manufacturing There are three methods of making pipe. No seam (seamless). The pipe is a cylindrical ingot which is heated in an oven prior to extrusion. In the extrusion is passed through a cylindrical die and subsequently becomes the hole by a penetrator. The seamless pipe is best for the pressure containment due to its homogeneity in all directions. It is also the most common form of manufacture and therefore more marketable.

 With longitudinal seam. It starts with a metal sheet which is folded in to the shape of the pipe. The seam between the ends of the bent sheet closes the cylinder. Soldering is thus a straight line generatrix follows a whole. Varying the spacing between the rollers is obtained, and thus different curves various pipe diameters. This solder is the weakest part of the pipe and mark the maximum allowable voltage. With welding helical (or spiral). The methodology is the same as above except that the solder is not straight but that the pipe runs along the pipeline as if threaded. Materials The pipes are constructed of various materials based on technical and economic considerations. Often used fiber reinforced polyester (GRP), cast iron, steel, brass, copper, lead, concrete, polypropylene, PVC, HDPE 1 (HDPE), and so on. Home use [Water Currently, the most common materials that are manufactured pipes to water are: FRP, copper, PVC, polypropylene, HDPE and Ductile Iron Steel (ISO-2531) (GB/T13295-2008). Drains The most common materials for the removal of sewage are: GRP, cast iron, PVC, concrete or fibrocemento.2 New materials are replacing traditional are FRP (Fiber Reinforced Polyester Glass), HDPE (Polyethylene High density) and PP (Polypropylene). Gas They are usually made of copper or steel (ductile or laminar as the pressures applied), depending on the type of installation, even if of a metal material is

necessary to make a network connection earth.3 making are also beginning to make GRP Fibre Reinforced Polyethylene Vidrio.4 in the case of pipelines with thermal and mechanical requirements less demanding, in addition withstand high pressures. Heating Copper is the most common material used in new installations, while in older plants is very common to find iron pipes. Networks used in pre-insulated pipes buried. Industrial Use Energy In high vapor transport is used energy5 chromium alloyed steel and molybdenum. For large volumes of water (cooling) is used fiber reinforced polyester (FRP-to DN3200), ductile iron (up to 2m in diameter) or carbon steel. In the case of the latter, the pipe is made from bent sheet metal which is subsequently welded (welded pipe). In the field of hydro power are called penstock. Petrochemistry Given the variety of products shipped are very different materials to meet the needs of corrosion, temperature and pressure. It should be noted as elPRFV materials, Monel or Inconel for very corrosive. Other hydraulic components Storage Area and production inputs Network of roads, with the necessary works for crossing the canals; Network supply of electricity; Housing;

 conflict resolution system, establishment of runs (when watering) and maintenance (performing peels or clean) the irrigation system, as the Tribunal de las Aguas de la Vega de Valencia, the Court of Wise Men or the Board Landowners of the Huerta de Murcia, which set the batch or large persepcion cases. Irrigation perimeters in desert areas Special Project Chira Piura Special Project Chavimochic Special Project Majes Siguas Techniques Airdrop Airdrop is a very new irrigation system based on condensation of water, channeling air through a turbine to a water reservoir which is located in the subsurface. On the way, the air is cooled and condensed before reaching the reservoir. When is the water is pumped to the drip irrigation system providing water to the plant. This project was presented in 2011, the James Dyson Awart event, winning the first prize, the project is called Airdrop Irrigation System. They usually incorporate both natural materials such as man-made. Universally, is based, as well as plants, pergolas, which are spaces in gardens, may link pavilions and canopies to the doors of the buildings, terraces and swimming pools.