FREE JETS Jets can be classified as submerged if they discharge into an ambient fluid of similar physical properties (e.g.

, air in air) and unsubmerged if the properties of the two fluids are quite different (e.g., water in air). Several configurations have been tested such as: jets issuing from orifices or round and slot nozzles different types of jet arrays; flat and curved impingement surfaces, normal and inclined impingement, etc. Only the simple geometry of a single jet impinging on a flat surface is treated below. Figure 1 shows the typical fluid-dynamic features of a submerged (top) and an unsubmerged (bottom) jet.

For both, three main regions can be identified: 1. the free jet region, which extends from the nozzle up to a certain distance from the surface and can, in turn, be divided into a potential core, a developing and a fully developed zone; 2. the stagnation region, where the flow on the wall is accelerated by a streamwise stabilizing pressure gradient (the boundary layer thickness tends to keep constant); 3. the wall region, where the pressure gradient effect no longer holds and an even steep rise of turbulence can occur.

Figure 1. Submerged (top) and unsubmerged (bottom) jet shape. After issuing from the nozzle, the submerged jet widens linearly with its length due to the exchange of momentum with the ambient fluid over the free boundaries. An outline of the trends of the development of the boundary layer and of the fluid velocity is given in Figure 1a. The unsubmerged jet (liquid in gas) exibits a gas-liquid free boundary which bends close to the solid surface once the liquid starts spreading over the wall. The wall flow is subdivided into four regions as shown in Figure 1b: 1. a stagnation region with a constant boundary layer;

2. a zone where the viscous boundary layer enlarges up to the value of the liquid sheet thickness; 3. a fully viscous region; 4. the hydraulic jump with the occurrence of a sudden increase in liquid thickness and a slowing down of liquid velocity ( Figure 1b). The Nusselt Number is most commonly given as a function of Reynolds Number Re and Prandtl Number Pr in the form PrmRen, the dimensionless distance from the stagnation point (line) on the surface, r/D, and the dimensionles nozzie to wall spacing z/D. Roughly speaking, Nu decreases with the increase of r/D and of z/D. Furthermore, the sensitivity of Nu to z/D is more pronounced for submerged jets than for unsubmerged ones. Nevertheless radial peaks, depending on the values of Re and z/D, occur both for submerged and unsubmerged jets and can be ascribed to the thermal boundary layer evolution and to the effect of turbulence. Figure 2 from Lytle and Webb (1991) shows a sketch of this phenomenon. More recently, the influence of splattering [Lienhard et al. (1992)] and of the Froude Number [Di Marco et al. (1993)] have been accounted for. More detailed information on the treated matter and several correlations can be found in Faggiani and Grassi (1990) and Viskanta (1993).

Figure 2. Nusselt number profile.

VENTURI METER Venturi meters are flow measurement instruments which use a converging section of pipe to give an increase in the flow velocity and a corresponding pressure drop from which the flowrate can be deduced. They have been in common use for many years, especially in the water supply industry. The classical Venturi meter, whose use is described in ISO 5167-1: 1991, has the form shown in Figure 1

Figure 1. Classical Vetituri meter design. (From B. S. 7405 (1991) Fig. 3.1.4, with permission of B.S.I.) For incompressible flow if the Bernoulli Equation is applied between two planes of the tappings, (1) where p, and are the pressure, density and mean velocity and the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the upstream and downstream (throat) tapping planes. From continuity (2) where is the volumetric flowrate and D and d the pipe and throat diameters. Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) (3)

where is the diameter ratio, d/D. In reality, there is a small loss of total pressure, and the equation is multiplied by the discharge coefficient, C, to take this into account: (4)

where p is the differential pressure (p1 p2). The discharge coefficient of a Venturi meter is typically 0.985, but may be even higher if the convergent section is machined. Discharge coefficients for uncalibrated Venturi meters, together with corresponding uncertainties, are given in ISO 5167-1: 1991. If the fluid being metered is compressible, there will be a change in density when the pressure changes from p1 to p2 on passing through the contraction. As the pressure changes quickly, it is assumed that no heat transfer occurs and because no work is done by or on the fluid, the expansion is isentropic. The expansion is almost entirely longitudinal and an expansibility factor, , can be calculated assuming one-dimensional flow of an ideal gas: (5)

where is the pressure ratio, p2/p1, and the isentropic exponent. The expansibility factor is applied to the flow equation in the same way as the discharge coefficient. Various forms of construction of a Venturi meter are employed, depending on size, but all are considerably more expensive than the orifice plate. However, because most of the differential pressure is recovered by means of the divergent outlet section, the Venturi causes less overall pressure loss in a system and thus saves energy: the overall pressure loss is generally between 5 and 20 per cent of the measured differential pressure. The Venturi meter has an advantage over the orifice plate in that it does not have a sharp edge which can become rounded; however, the Venturi meter is more susceptible to errors due to burrs or deposits round the downstream (throat) tapping. The lengths of straight pipe required upstream and downstream of a Venturi meter for accurate flow measurement are given in ISO 5167-1: 1991. These are shorter than those required for an orifice plate by a factor which can be as large as 9. However, Kochen et al. show that the minimum straight lengths between a single upstream 90 bend and a Venturi meter in the Standard are too short by a factor of about 3.

ORIFICE Measurement of the flow rates of liquids, gases and vapors with orifice meters has found wide use both in industrial and in scientific measurements. A restriction fulfilling the function of a primary converter, is installed in a pipeline and produces in it a local change of a flow section. The method depends upon the fact that an increase in velocity and kinetic energy of the flow behind the restriction as compared with the parameters upstream of it, brings about a decrease in a static pressure pout downstream of the restriction with respect to the pressure pin upstream of it. The differential pressure p = pin > pout depends on the fluid flow velocity and can serve as a flow rate measure (see Differential pressure flowmeter). The following designs of orifice are used: the standard orifice (Figure 1a), the double orifice (Figure 1b), orifice with an input cone (Figure 1c), and an orifice with a double cone (Figure 1d). Closely related to orifices, but offering advantages of better downstream pressure recovery and (sometimes) range, in exchange for increased cost, are a whole variety of other restriction designs. These include standard nozzles (Figure 1e), "half-circle" nozzles (Figure 1g), "quartercircle" nozzles (Figure 1i), cylindrical nozzles (Figure 1k), Venturi tube (Figure 1l), Venturi nozzle (Figure 1m), and Dall's tube (Figure 1n). The most widely used standard restrictions are orifice plates converging nozzles and Venturi nozzles (see Figure 2). The orifice plate is a thin disk with a hole with diameter d and area S, located in line with the pipeline whose diameter is D. The nozzle is made in the form of an insert with an orifice smoothly contracting at the inlet and ending with a cylindrical part. The nozzle profile allows us to realize a smooth compression of a jet up to its minimum section, which ensures less overall loss of pressure than in the case of the orifice plate. The Venturi nozzle has minimum losses of pressure of all the restrictions due to the installation of a diffusor at the outlet, which recovers the pressure. The principle of measuring the substance flow rate of pressure differential is the same for all types of restrictions, and a quantitative relation between and p is defined by the relation where is the fluid density upstream of the meter and e is a correction factor for compressibility (to be discussed below). The coefficient of proportionality is called the "flow rate coefficient" or "discharge coefficient" and depends on the restriction type, on the degree of jet contraction (i.e., on the ratio of the flow area of the restriction to the cross sectional area of the pipe, where m = d2/D2), and on the Reynolds number Re = D/v defined by the mean velocity of the fluid.

Figure 1. Types of restriction used in differential pressure flowmeter: (a)-(d), orifice plate, (e)-(k), nozzles; (1) Venturi tube; (m) Venturi nozzle; (n) Dall tube.

Figure 2. Details of the most widely used restrictions: (a) Orifice plate; (b) converging nozzle; (c) Venturi tube. For a given value of area ratio (m) varies significantly with Re for small Re, but for Reynolds numbers higher than a boundary value Reb (Re > Reb) the flow in the restriction is self-similar and is independent of Re and is constant for the given type of restriction. In measurements at low Re, double orifice plates are used, where an additional orifice with m1 > m2 is installed upstream of the main orifice, and the pressure taps are located immediately upstream of the additional and downstream of the main plate. Nozzles with the "quarter-circle" profile are also useful in this zone. The values of boundary Reynolds numbers (Reb) are given in Table 1. Table 1. Values of boundary Reynolds number (Reb 104)

The correction factor for the expansion of the medium being measured accounts for the changes in the substance density on its flowing through a restriction and depends on p/pin, on the area ratio m, on the adiabatic exponent () of the substance and on the type of the restriction. For standard diaphragms empirical equations can be used, for instance, where p = (1 p/pin). For standard nozzles and Venturi nozzles

For measuring the flow rate of a liquid = 1. Suppose we wish to measure flow of a substance with density flowing in a tube of diameter D. We wish to determine the flow rate up to a maximum value (kg/s) and the maximum pressure drop we wish to allow over the orifice is pmax(pa). In order to determine the diameter d, we invoke the relation

The relation between ma and a for standard restrictions is given in Table 2. Using determined from the table, we can calculate m = (m)/ and the diameter of the restriction: d = Dm0.5. When metering hot fluids, it is sometimes important to take account of changes in orifice diameter as a result of thermal expansion; if the temperature of the operating medium flowing through the restriction is T and the diameter at 293 K is d, the diameter is found from the relationship d[1 + (T 293)], where is the linear expansion coefficient of the material from which the restriction is manufactured. Table 2. Relation between m and for standard restrictions

In order to carry out the precision measurements, the flow rate coefficient is often initially determined from the results of calibration by the weight or by the volume method.

PITOT The total pressure tube, or Pitot tube, provides a common method of measuring the stagnation pressure within a pipe, channel or duct flow. In its simplest form this instrument consists of a symmetrical body such as a cylinder, cone, or hemisphere with a small hole or piezometric opening drilled along its central axis. If this is aligned with its central axis in the direction of the flow (Figure 1a) the fluid will accelerate around the upstream face with minimal energy losses, and a stagnation point arises at the piezometric opening. In this case the tapping point, typically connected to some form of manometer, provides a direct measure of the stagnation pressure, or total pressure, Ps. If a second piezometric opening records the static pressure in the undisturbed flow (P0), the velocity of the flow may be inferred from the pressure difference (Ps-P0). The Bernoulli Equation states that for an incompressible fluid the dynamic pressure accounts for the difference between the stagnation pressure and the static pressure: (1)

where u is the velocity of the flow field. An alternative arrangement, usually referred to as a Pitot-static tube, is indicated in Figure 1b. In this case the static pressure is recorded on the same instrument through a series of tapping points located at section B-B. This approach is often more convenient and, in particular, overcomes the difficulty experienced in curved flow where the transverse pressure gradient renders u indeterminate from (Ps-P0). However, this latter approach suffers from the disadvantage that the static pressure P0' measured at section B-B may be slightly less than that recorded in the free stream. This effect may be eliminated in the detailed design of the Pitot tube, or incorporated within an empirical coefficient (C1) such that: (2)

Since P0' < P0, C1 is always less than 1.0. However, for most practical engineering purposes C1 = 1.0 is appropriate for many conventional Pitot-static tubes. Pitot tubes may also be used in compressible flows. If M0 defines the Mach Number of the undisturbed flow, the Euler equation appropriate to a subsonic flow (M0 < 1) yields: (3)

where Ps is obtained from the Pitot tube, P0 from the static tube (piezometer) and Ts is the temperature at the stagnation point which is usually measured using a thermocouple. In this equation cp is the specific heat at constant pressure and is the ratio (cp/cv) or the adiabatic exponent. For supersonic flow (M0 > 1) a normal shock wave will be located upstream of the stagnation point. In this case the free stream velocity (u) is given by: (4)

(5)

where R is the gas constant (or energy per unit mass per Kelvin).

Figure 1. Flow measurement using (a) Pitot tube, and (b) Pitot-static tube.