.

..
2
011

PRIBRAM, K.H. (1998) O n Brain and Value: Utility, Preference, Play and Creativity. In K.H. Pribrarn (Ed.) Brain and Values: Is a Biological Science of Values Possible. .Hillsdale. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Assoc.. op. 43-54.

UBr:lirn a11rB VnPllt: l l l i l i l y , I l ' ~ . c l i ~ ~ . c ~ U'lfiy ~ce, IPII~ Creativity

A t the Fifleetitli In~ertiatiori;ll ('origrcss o f l'sycliology llelil ill I311isscls i r l 1957, 1 prescnteci evidence f r o m pritiiale stutlies r e g a r t l i ~ i g llle biological detertiiina~its of values. I state(l tIie11: "tlie eriipirical relatiotis ~ l i dctet-tiiirie a~ [lie v a l t ~ e o f a piece o f c t i t rency del~eritl,i n part, o n the u t i l i t y o f tliat piece o f currency Ihr any it~(livitlual. 'I'lle crrrrency used i n tlie priniate n e ~ r r o b e l ~ a v i n re?cl>erinie~its al repnrtetl was a I\)od l ~ e l l e 01' t p e a ~ i u t .'l'wo iliterrclated classes or variables have beell abstractetl b y ecorio~iiists t o tleterniine u t i l i t y : denland ant1 expeclation; t w o similar classes ( ~ i e e d atid yrol)nbility clistl.iOt~tioti) call bc dclirieated frorii tlle ' experiments reported liere -- each o f tlle classes I-elaled t o (I tlistiricl rieural r ~ ~ e c l i a r ~ i sA t i istill . different rieirrnl r i ~ e c h a ~ l i s lias ~ i i bee11delirieatctl wliereby (preferet~ces atnorig) vill11cs call b e d i s c r i ~ i i i r ~ a t e d .(Pribratii, " 1957, 1). 8 2 ) W h a t f o l l o w s Iiere i s all ulxlatetl v e sioli ~ o f tliese liticlirigs arid arialyses, w l l i c l i p r o v i d e (lie prologr~e t o atid organizatiut~al fi n ~ i i c w ok t fur tlie I'rnceeditigs o f Ole F i l l l l Apl,alncl~ian ConFerence 011Deliavic~ral Neurodyr~nt~lics

T a k e an ofleti repented e x p e r . i ~ i i e ~ iFive t . Irrl~itlt.ctl piclrrres are (lisplayetl for obscrvalion, then niixed w i t h 500 otliers porlr-ayitig sc)tiiewllol siriiilar sr~l!jects. N e x t l l i e f~lll set o f 1000 pictures is are faniiliar atid w l l i c l i are u~lt;?rliiliar. displayed, atid tlie observer lias orily t o iritlicate w l i i c l i ~)ictut.es M o s t o f u s perforti1 tllis task w i t l i a rctiiat-kal~le 00% 01- better score. N e x t w e eticoutitcr a palicnt w h o cxl~erietices bizarre ( l o Iicr) fkclitigs of h r i i i l i a r i l y i r i places she is sure she Ilas never beer]. A r ~ o t l ~ patierit cr coriildains Illat Iic lras jrrst tlie opposite experience: lle cotiles I i o m e o i d y t o feel il, o n uccasioti, l o b e stralige and utlfiitiiiliar t o Iiilil. l'llese f e e l i ~ i g s of "deja" (already) and "jamais (never) vu" (seen), as they are called, are related t o el)ileptic electl-ical discharges recorded li-on1 the region of'tlie aniyytlala, ail a l t i i r ~ n d sliaped basal ~ a r i g l i o t (tlie i Greek

for aln~ontl i s a~iiygtlala) ccntrnl to tlie f i ~ ~ i c t i oo ~fi the s l i ~ i i l ~systc~iis ic (li~iib~ rileatis ~ s border -- tlie linibic pot-lions lie oil tlie riiedi:~lbortlcr o f tlie cerebral Iieliiisl~lieres). Sucli eliileptic seizr~res, when tliey are l)rolotiged, can prevent a wliolc episotle o f experience frorii becoriiing a part o f llie fiimiliar ~iarrative by wliicli we experie~iceorrr co~itinuity as selves. Similarly, wlicri tlie aniygdala o f l ~ o t lIie~iiisl~lleres i o f tlie brain are re~iioved,~iionkeys 110 longer perforni adequately on tasks conillarable to tl~ose wliicli test fur fatiiilia~izatiori in I~unians (Douglas & Psibrani, 1966; 1969; Pf.ibr~111, Douglas & I'ribrani, 1969). Fa~ililiarization i s all odd process. Confronted by a novel event organisnis n~anifestan orienting reaction. Wlieri sucli an evelit recurs r.epeatetlly, tlie orienting reactioti subsides (habituates) afler some 3-10 repetitions. Aner reriioval o f [lie aniygrlala, Iio~vever,tlie orienting reaction continues and corifirii~es and c o ~ i t i ~ i ~ ~ 1;atiiiliarization es. fails to occur. 'file orietiti~ig reactio~i Iias, ill adtlition to obvior~s l)eliavio~.al urientirig toward tlie ~iovel stinirrlus, \lisceral comy~one~its. Ileart rate, blood I?l.esslrl.e,atid respiratol-y clla~iges occu~.,as well as cllanges in Iiraiti electrical recordir~gs.Srlcli clianges are ~,rotlucedby electrical stinir~lation o f tlie a ~ ~ i ~ g ( lanrl n l allie cortical syste~iis relatctl l o i t (Kaatln, 1'1-ibl-at11Rr Epslei~i,19/19;Pribram, Lerinox & Ilr~nsniorc,1950). Afler atiiygtlr~lectoniytlie visceral co~iipone~lts ororie~itin rio ~ longer occur. (P1.ibran1,Iteitz, McNeil & Neither does fatiiiliarization: as rioted, beliaviol-al or.ienti11gcoritini~es Spevack, 1979). 17ronitliese obsel-vatio~is we riiay conclude t l i a t fa~iiiliarizatio~i del)etids 011tlle occurrelice o f li~iil,ic syste~i~s o f tlie brairi. visceral reactic.)ns \vIiicli are processctl by tlie nniygtlala a ~ i drcla~cd Fr~rtlier,on tlie Oasis o f Illis and otlier cvicle~ice. we can co~lclutle tliat eacl~ f;.~~iiiliat.ization corisists o f an episotle iliitiated by an o~.ieritirigreaction to a ~ i o \ f eevetit l and terriii~iatedby the next experienced novel event.

Wliat then ~ n i g l i be t expe~.ienced as a ~iovel event? Again, exl)eriencitig riovelty is an otld process. Novelty turns out to be experienced wlien a rearrangenlent of, or rnilior change ill, tlie familiar takes place. Prodr~ctive iriventio~i is based on a tliorougli I;~~iiiliarity with [lie inventory at hand. Reinveritirig tlie wlieel i s not i~inovative. A literary ~ i o v eils coniposcd o f nuances, repeated sniall cl~arigesin tlie faniiliar w l i i c l ~ carry l l ~ e plot gratlunlly forward. If tiovelty were entirely unexpected, Recrciet.'.~ llige.rf would not be able to delete wliole sections o f tlie ~iialii~script. At1 experinlent perforriierl ill Belgium (Sniets, 1973) niakes tlie point si~ccinctly. Hu~iians were sliowti two types o f clia~iges in displays wliile changes in visceral tiieasurenients were recorded. o f itiTo~.~iiatio~i; tlie otlier ~iiel-ely One change in disljlay radically increased or decreased tlie atnor~nt rearranged (lie itellis in the display. I'racticallv 110 visceral reactions were recorded when the ariiounl of i~iforniatiori was clian~ed.L3y conlrast, ~.earrannenient produced niarked visceral responses. I t i s tliese repeated rearrangenietits o f tlie fatiiiliar tliat elicit sucli strong "gut reactions" fro111nir~sic as well. (Pribratii, 1982; Pribra~ii el. a1, 1966). 'Tlius, tlie experience o f ~iovelty i s ~)roducctl by rearra~ige~iie~it arid c l i a ~ i o ~f et lie f;itiiiliar. 111 turn, Iiowever, tlie experienci~ig o f the fatniliar depends on novelty: Witliout ~iovelty,tlie fatiiiliar recedes fro111conscioustiess. We walk tlirougli doors, givitig tlie sr~rror~tidi~ig walls nary a glance -unless an eartllquake shakes up tlie fa~i~iliar irito novel col~liguratiotis. In riiore ordiriary circi~riistances there are occasions wliicli also detiiand tllis shaking up o f tlie farliiliar in order to invent, to create novel configurations in our coliscior~s awareness. Fortuliately

tliere is anotlier part o f tlic Ii~iiOicI l ~ n i ~~i .l i c Iiilll,ocn~iil~r~s, lyitig just b e l i i ~ i t [lie l a~iiygtlala,~ v l i i c l i niakes s i ~ c lii~ i t e r l i asliake-111,s l ~)ossible I ) a ~ i i n g et o tliis sea-liorse-like stl.ucture ( I i i p l ~ o c a ~ i i l ~ isu s Greek f o r seahorse) i r i I i u t i i a ~ i s ~iiakes it i ~ i i p n s s i l ~for le t l ~ c ~ to i i resist a practically total w i p e o u t o f current experience every litlie a novel (tlistracti~ig)evetit occrlrs (['ribrani 198G; 199 1, I,ecture 9)

U n d e r s t a n t l i ~ i gtiovelty as a clialige ill !lie f a ~ i i i l i a r i s the k e y t o r ~ l i d e ~ s t n i l\:alucs. ii Evaluatiuti o f all "event" o r "cvctilrlnlit\~" is ;icliicve(l 11y : ~ c l i v n l i ~ (tlislinbilr~:ili~ig) ig : I ~~~.cvioi~sl\l familiar, l a c i l l y k t i o w ~(see i I'olyani, 1960) nslwcl of n silrr:~lic~~i. l ' l i c ~ i o v cw l !is tlie o u t c o ~ i i e ,tlie cotiscquence o f l l i e process (13ateso1i. 1076; K o r ~ r n tPc l Ilirpslinw, 1070) 111 Ihcl l l i e wort1 c v c ~ i is l i tf u t ~ t c o ~ i i e ex : (0111) - v c ~ i i r e (co~iie). tlie derived L a t i t i e q r ~ i v a l e ~o J-low are events. l l i e conserluetices o f I i a l ~ i l ~ ~ a ta io ~n i ttlislial~itrratio~i l o f tlie ~ i o v ea l ~ i tfariiiliar l acliieved? L e t u s first cxaniitie a biological ~ ~ a r a d o x Orir . resl,ir,ato~y ~ i i e c l i a ~ i i sis m based 011 tlie ability ofoilr tissr~es t o riietabolize foot1 ill tlie IJl.esetice o r n x y g e ~ i .Willioirt oxygen w e q u i c k l v cease t o live. H o w e v e r , the neirral coritrvl o v e r res1,iration is practicnlly inserisitive t o oxygeli delx.ivatio11-lack o f oxygen is reflected o n l y ~ i i i ~ i i t i i a l l y if, at all, ill a c l i a ~ i g eill r e s l ~ i r a t o r yrate, d i s c o ~ i i r ~o ~rr t alarm. B y contrast, very t i i i ~ i i ~cliarigcs te i n tlie partial prcssrlre o f cat-boll dioxitle -- [lie end ~ ~ r o d u c t (with water) orour respiratol-y nielnbolistii -- arc se~isetl b y cells i r i tlie l ~ r a i r i s t e ~ ~iv i l i i c l i ,w l i e ~carbon i dioxide accutiiulates, initiate increases ill r e s l ~ i r a t o r y rate, f e e l i l i ~ s o f disco~iili,rt a ~ i tc\leli l alanii. l'l~is illustratioti i s bill one exaniple o r l l i c fhcl lliat I ~ i o l o s i c ac l o ~ i l r onicclianistiis l are o f l e n indirect arid circuitous. Sexrtal s e l e c t i o ~ itakes place lilr the p l c a s t ~ r eit provitles Out assures diversification arid sut-vival for tlie species; fontl is c l i o s e ~o i ~tlie i basis o f taste but acco1ii1~lislies tlie maintenarice of energy sources f o r tlie org;lnisni; clothes are clo~ilietlf o r a t l o r ~ i ~ i i ebut ~ i t protect i ~ i i ~ i i e d i act r e~ n t r op l v c heliavior ~ is exerted b y a ~ i i e c l i a ~ i i sthat n i is reniote against weatlier, etc. I ' l ~ e fro111 tlie biological significa~ice tliat tlie beliavior elltails.

'I'liere is evidence ft.orii [lie r e s r ~ l l s o f brain r e ~ e i i ~ ~ tliat c l i tliis t~tiiversalbicllugical paradox applies t o tlie effects o f tlie corisequences o f I x l i a v i o ~on . tile 01-ga~iization ol'liuniari v a l i ~ e s as well. Some f i f l y years a g o 1 tiotetl tliat ~ i i o ~ i k e y ~s v l i o s ebraills Iiad bee11 sub.jected t o r e ~ i i o v a lo f tlie aniygdala ~ v o u l d place all sorts o f objects i r i tlieir t i i o r ~ ~ l i c s l,i e w 011 tliem atid if tliey w e r e cliewable would swallo\v tlierii ( F ~ ~ l t o tPribrarii. i, Steveriso~i & W a l l 1949; P~.il,ra~ii 8( 13a~sliaw,1953). W e first wondered i f t l i e atiiriial's taste mecliariisni Iiatl been tlistu1.11ed a ~ i d sliowetl tliat their 1~ritiin1-y taste er ~ ~ ~ - i ~gustatory iiary s e ~ i s a t i owas ~i preferences w e r e intact and tliat [lie area o f l l i e \,~.aiti r c s l ~ o l i s i l ~flo ~ ~ . Iiiglier order located elsewhere (Dagsliaw Rc I'ribra~ii, 195.3). W e next w o ~ i d e r c t l~ v l i e t l i sonie syster~i o f preferences liatl been rlisrupted l ~ [lie y ~.esections o f tlie aliiygdnla -- tlint " ~ o o t taste" l liad been abolislied and gournlet liad been t u r ~ i e d i n t o g o u r n i a ~ i t l , Dill carelill t e s t i n g s l i o w e d tlint Ilie order o f c t i o o s i ~ i g f o o d and 1io11-food o l j e c t s lin(I not, ill Cict, l l e e ~ nltc~.c(l. i \Vlint ~ v a s 1)refel.red before tlie brain operation contitiued t o b e prererred ill itrst tlie satlie order f o l l o w i t i ~ tlie ol)cratioti. Preferences s l i o w t ~ . a ~ i s i t i v i-t y tliey are Iiie~.arcliically arrangerl -- r ~ l i l i t i e s are riot. 0 1 i e can prefer vegetables t o illeat, but i t is diflicult t o clioose otie cliild's w e l l b e i ~ i g o w a ~ ~ n t l l e r ' sFor . the lesioned nionkeys tlie c u t o f f p o i n t for c o t i t i ~ i ~ ~ eating i ~ i g w a s clianged. l ' l i e t ~ i o t i k e y s\\lit11 brain lesions accepted a t i i i ~ c lw i i d e r range o f o b j e c t s before they s t o p l ~ e d cati~ig ( W i l s o ~ i ,1959; Weiskrantz

Rt W i l s o ~ ~ 1958). . Rlore elcga~it c x ~ ~ c r i ~ i i c clcriio~istrated rits tliat c.lic~iiical s ~ i ~ i i t ~ l a t uf ir~ this ~ l spal-t o f
tlie braill (tlic aniygdala) t l i o r ~ g l tlie)? i w o r ~ l ( lriot i ~ i i t i a t cI~elia\!ior, ~ v c l u l t lr c g ~ ~ l a the l e a t i i o i r ~ i tof' o n g o i n g eating aritl r l r i r i k i ~ i g ,tlic a ~ i i o r ~\!aryi~ig ~it ~ ~ r e c i s e will1 ly tlic v o l t ~ ~ i o i ef cl~eriiicali ~ l j e c ~ c t l (Gross~iiari, 1967; Ilr~ssell,Si~iper, I'lntingari. S l o ~ i e Rt Ilusscll, 1968). 111sliort. this part o f tlie brait1 q u a ~ ~ t i t a l i v ecoritrols ly tile cc?liseclrlclices o f b c l ~ i t v i o r s tliat satisfy o ~ i o c r a ~ i o l l ~biologicnl cr ncetl once tliese beliaviors are iriitiaterl. I ' h e brairi processes tlireclly ill c o ~ i ~ r of n l ~ i c c t ls;iti~I:7cti0ti (see I,ivesey, 1986 fc~rn conil~relie~isiv review) e letitl l l i e ~ i i s c l v e st o clnssilicalio~ii ~ i l o Iliree ~ l i q i v r categories (I'ril~rnlii t9r M c G u i ~ i n e s s ,1975; 1992). I ' l i c 11r-occsscsjrlsl tlir;crtssetl 11i:iI s l o l ~ I)eIinvior a ~ r d ~ . e ~ i ~ l :tlie i t c atiior~rll o f [lie coriseclr~enlinl beliavior r o ~ i s t i l r i l e s Ijr~o t l i c o f l l i e s e cale~!orics. A ~ l o t l i e 11r-ocess r (ce~~tcr-e orr tl t l i e basal ganglia o f tlie fot-el)raiti -- see I ' r i l ~ r a ~Rt i i h~l~C;rritr~iess, 1975 Ii3r revicn') rcatlics tlic A tliirtl process organisni t o beliave i n a certain ~ i i a n ~ i e :iritl r i~ -i.i t iates tlic c c ~ ~ i s e c l r ~ e ~ belinvior. itial (based o n tlie I i i p p o c a ~ n p afortiiatiori), l coorcli~lates tlicse s l o p (Ii~iiiliarization), arid go (reatli~iess), processes i n t o a sriiootlily f i ~ n c t i o ~ i i nsysletli g t o operate w i l l ~ i ~ certiiin i l i ~ i i i l so f tolerance. Coorditiation takes elTclrt a ~ i d sliilts tlie type of c o ~ i ~ rTr.c.1111 o l a closet1 l o o p feccll~acltIionieostatic t o a helical opeti l o o p feed-forwarvl ~ ~ r ~ o c c s 1 shave . tletnilctl clse\vlicre (I'ribram, 107 1, 1975a, 1992, 1997) the evitfenc:e tlint feed-fi~r-wnr-11 processes are tlie basis Ibr i ~ i t e ~ i t i o ~ I~ ia cll ~ a v i o a rs ~ i t fl o r Ilia1 special Iiumari ability pliilosol,liers call "iritc~itio~lality". ( I ~ i t e ~ i t i o n a l i starids ty ill relatioil t u ~ ~ e r c e ~ ~ t i o ~ i y iriter~tio~ sliare i the as intenti011 stancis t o helinvioral ~ ~ e ~ - f o r ~ i i a ~r3otIi i c e . i ~ i t e r i t i o ~ i n l i tand cliaracterislic lliat tliey are gbq~ tlie e x t c r ~ l n ol),jcclive l wor.ltl I,ut need 1101 b c realizerl ill it.) \Vlieti elrort reaches liriiits o f tolcra~ice, c(~or(li1iati011 breaks tlutv11 a ~ i d tl~c orga~iis~ revel ii ls t o Iiotneostatic coritrol. U ~ i t l e r suclr c i r c r ~ ~ i l s t a ~ i c lio~iicoslasis es niay also fail t o w o r k e l l i c i e ~ i t l y (Asliby 1960). w i t h tlie result eitlier tlial tlie o ~ . g a t i i s ~ exl~eriences, ii a) upset drle t o loss o f corilrul, or b) ol?scssioti, c o ~ i i p u l s i o t o i r I~oretlo~ tluc i i t o a l l e ~ i i l ~ t eovel c l corilrol. 'I'lie ~ ~ i a ~ i n g e ~ iof' i e trrpscl it and of overcorilrol are c o t i t i ~ i r ~ o r ~f3cetl s l y i n tlic ~ ~ s y c l i i a t r c ic li~iic a11c.l ill eve~.vtlaylife b y c l i ~ i i c n l psychologists. U ~ i t l e r s l a r i t l i ~call i g b e f'ra~iiedw i t l i i ~ tlie i " t ~ t i l i t y "theory o f e c o ~ i o ~ i ibeliavior ic a~id "futility" tlieol-y lo deal ~ v i t ltlie i "ga~iies ~,eoplepl:~y" s r ~ c l as i 11iaI ~,~'ol)osctl 1)s l3er1ie( 1 961) t o deal w i t h upset, c o t i i l j r ~ l s i o n ant1 ~~C)I-C~OIII.

I n their iliflr.lentiaI v o l r ~ ~ ior1 i c tlie t l i e o l y o f gallies mitl e c t ~ ~ i n b ~cil i~ia~\ ~ i n\!on r , N e r i ~ i i a ~nlid iri M o r g e ~ i s t e r to i u~line tlie ele~iietits o f a qr~a~ititativ aly,roacli e t o lie ~ ) r - o b l e ~ o i fi t ~ a l based ~ ~ e clioices that regulate coriil)etitive beliavior ( V o n N e i r ~ i i a n t Pc i R l o r g e ~ i s t e r ~ 195.7). i , 111 c o r i i ~ i i o will1 ~ l otlier I ' econo~iiic tlieorists, they d i s t i r i g r ~ i s 1,eliavior l~ t l r a ~1 ) riieels tlie ~ i c e d s and tlesires o f tlie i ~ i d i \ l i d i ~ a l ; 2) liis esti~iiate o f tlie robab ability tliat [lie occilrrelice o f t l i e ~ i c e d - s n t i s f y i ~ bellnvior ~g w i l l ill fact tiieet a particr~larneed; a ~ i d 3) tlie c o n s t r u c ~ i oo ~ fi a p~-efe~.crice Iiicl-nrcliy Tr.0111 I c P 2. Needs a ~ i tdesires l are riieasurable i t 1 tertiis o f tlie a ~ i i o i ~ t oi tf l)elia\~iore~itailecl ill tlicir satisTrictic?~i,~ I ~ . o v i d e at zero l pc)i11t or anclior atitl a s c a l i ~ i go f i r i c ~ - e ~ i l c ~ o i ft stlint I!cliavior Occonie av;iilable. Yo11 N e r r ~ i l a ~ ;i~itl i Morge~istern use tlie i l l r ~ s t r a t i oo ~f i r n e a s r r t . i ~lie ~~ i i l > e r a t r ~ ~A . ezero . ~~o~ i~ i i ir ~ l Oe s l clit?sen (e.g.. the freezing point o f water) arid a scalc ( e . g . a t l t l i ~ i ga ~ ~ o r t i o o f~ a i ql~mi~io t yf licat t o raise tlic teniperature t o tlie boililig poilit) developed. Rleasr~re~netlt is rclative t o [lie z,ero n ~ l d scale c l i o s e ~ i u ~ ~ l e some ss absolr~le zero i s discerned a11d agreecl upon. Vor~ Neulnan atid Morge~islerri's tlieory reflects sonie o f tlie brairi biological facts oritli~iecl iri the previous sectiori. 'I'lie experinie~ital'a~ialysis of [lie n ~ a t l i e ~ i i n t i cp arli ~ i c i l d e s regardins reiliforcirig,

i.e. c o ~ ~ s e q ~ ~events: e ~ ~ t i aI-low l tllese two liictors operate arid ir~teract was sliowr~ by Peter Killeen ill Ilis ~ ~ r e s e r ~ t aat tio tile ~ l Fourtll Appalacllia~l Conl'ere~lce o11Uellavioral Neurodynaniics i n 1996 a ~ i d i n his earlier preser~talion (1994) ill 13ellavioral a ~ l d I3rai11 Sciences: I)Needs: l'lie evide~lce for a ~lleasurable, filtratable process regulati~lg rleecls is provided by 111ecarcfillly cller~~ically titrated satiety process deli~leated by i~ijectiotls into tllc a~ilygtlalanoted 6: Russel, 1968). above (Russel, Singer, 171anagen, Sto~le 2) I'robabiljlies: The evide~lcefor a process that esti~natesthe probability t l ~ a tthe co~isequences ofbel~avior will provide sntisf'actic~~l o f a biological need comes 1io111 studies conll~aring the resirlts o f fbod cleprivation wit11 those o f protltlced by li.ontal lobe resectio~l.Using the lixetlinterval operant co~ltlitio~ling tecll~~iclt~e, I sllowetl t l ~ a rllv~~keys t deprived ol'lbotl woirlcl cllnrlge the rate o f respor~dirig witliout c l l a ~ i g i ~the i g distributio~l o f responses across the i~lterval.Uy co~~lsast, ~ ~ ~ o ~ with ~ke resectio~ls ys o f the most furwarti p o r t i o ~oftlleir l frontal lol~es would fail to distribute their responses prohablistically, wilereas intact nio~lkeys 1vo11ld(Pribr-ani, 196 I ) . 111 terllls o f 11urna11 er~deavor,we llave all obser-ved tllat stutle~lts tend to distribute tlleir work so that i n a x i i n u ~ activity ~l takes placejirst before tlie critical 111o111ent w11e11 tests between exa~ninations are give^^. We urge tl1e111 to pin11tiill'ere~ltly -- l ~ u tile t exl~eri~ne~ result ~ t a l obtained wit11 rl~o~lkeys described above s~rggests Illat il'tlley were dcj~rivecl uftlleir li.o~ital coi.tex, the disti.ibutiort o f activity woillti conic co~llpletely ir~iprel~arcd Vor "tile ~ l i o ~ i l e u~ ft lt ~ . i ~ t lIII ~" fact, . would cease and tile sti~dents patietlts will1 fi.o~ltal lobe tirillors or escisioll bellave illjust tliis i i s l ~ i o r-i urlable to plarl, to Oistribute their respolises according to an esli~l~ate o f tile probabilities tllat t l ~ e respollses will be en'ective.'

3) Prefel.en=: Bill life i s not a gallle, especially 1101 a zero-su~n gaine. I.lumar~s are creative ig l i e ibel~avior r evelitfill arld cotiseqirential. Wittless and find ever grealer opportunities for ~ l ~ a k i i~ 1-longKong, a rocky islatid (and small peni~~sula) tllat has beco~iie one o f tile great posts and trading centers of the world t l ~ ~ - o sheer i~gl~ i~i~iovative elli~st.Life is ol)e~~-ciltled, akin to a &: Sllakespeare stated i t so clearly: "and all tile world's a stage". Ganles are closed systenls wllere cu~ltrol i s exercised by way o f feedback processes called l~o~lieostasis tllat operate 111~1cll as tlo tl~er~~iostats. Over tile past decades, i~lvestigators (Aslll~y,1960; Mackay, 1962; Mittelstaedt, 1968; Pribraill, 197 I Cl~apter 5 ; I'ribrai~l& Gill, 1976, Ollapter I)have beg1111to distinguisll betweeri feetlback orga~~izations tliat are error-serisitive (sucll as sitliple tlierrnostats) arid tliose wliose setti~igs can be controlled. 111 a tl~er~nostat a s111allwheel i s usually altaclied w h i c l ~ alters the gap betwee11 two pieces o f ~ l l e t aw l l~icl~ wllerl , they torrcll, close tlie switcll tliat turtls o f f the lieat source. I-lealing the rlietal also closes tile gap -- tllirs tile critical dista~lce belwecll the pieces o f nletiil is cont~~olled by two sources operating ill parallel, heat and the dial setting. The dial provides a bias on tile setting, tlltrs a range o f setti~lgs car1 be ~ ~ r o g r a m t ~arout~d ied which the atnbient te11il)erature(the measure on the allloi~llt o f Ileal) will fluctuate. 'I'liese biasing mecl~a~~isrns have beco~iiek ~ ~ o w as n i ~ ~ f o r ~ n a t processing ion n~ecl~ariis~iis especially in tlleir parallel distributed processi~lg (1'111') I'onil. 'rile organization o f inforrnatio~i processing is open loop or llelical ratller tllali closerl as in tlic case of feedbacks. I r ~ l b ~ . ~ i ~ a i st i o n processed because palten1 matclri~~g i s ii~volvecl:'I'l~e li~rrlace i s to be turnetl on or oll', just as in the

'A~ld we llave rece~itly obtained evide~ice tllat the li.o~ital l1a1.t o f tile braill is still nlatusing as lale as 18 - 2 I years of'age (I-ludspetl~ & Pl.ibra111, 1990; 1992).

case o f feetlback orgn~ii;l.ntio~i. Ilowcvc~-, flic tr~r.riitig on n ~ ofl'is ~ d rio I~iriger. based solely on error processirig, tlie dilTerencirig \)etwec~i a crrrre~itaritl a l l i~illexible desiretl state. Ihtlier, tlie desired state i s yruarali~~lied by tlic dial. '1'0 t llc cxterit tIi:~ttlie dial call bc t t ~ r ~ i ctv r l n range o f setti~lgs itidepctidelit o f tlie current te~iipcrati~re, tlie ~iiccliariis~ii feeds i1ifor.iiiatio11 forward to corit1.01[lie process. As ~ioted,the Iiippocariipal fr,~.~iiatio~i ~iiakcs possible sr~cli a s l ~ i f fiorii l a feedback to a feedforward process. A niodel of Iiow tliis sliifl i s ninde lias I ~ c ctlevelnped ~i (Pribram 1991, Lecture 9; Pribra~ii 1997). For licre tlie i~iipnrtant consitleratiori i s tliat [lie nioclel ill i~ivolves all i~iteractio~i betweer1 tlie Iiippocanipal forrtiation atid the cortex o f tlie cerebral corivexity to wliicli we turn next.'

Ratlier tliari tlie frotitolinil~icparts of [lie braill co~isi(fered SO far, i t i s tlie posterior cotivexity of tlie braiti which, when injuretl, afrects clioices a ~ i i o ~situations ig (Pribra~ii,1969; See review ill I'ribram, 1991, 1,ecture 7). Analysis Iias establislietl that sucl~ cl~oices, discriniinatiotis itsed in aninial research, are akin to those itivolvirig preferences as tliese describe Iiurnan clioices (see tlie serni~ial review by Invin, 1958). There i s tlirrs s i ~ b s t a t i t i a levide~icethat the brairi systerns itivolved ill establishing preferences are separate fro111 tliose regr~latitig ittilities tlirougli probability estimates o f tlie satisfactiori o f biological neetls. [ l o w are preferences developecl? As l i t ~ r i i a t pri~iiates l we yo allor~t our activities estiriiati~ig the probability tliat particular needs will be satisfie(l. For exa~iiple, aner a tennis ganie we are thirsty and set to tlritik a specific qr~atitity o ~tlic t basis o f tlic tissr~c osrnolac.ity, tlic ' o ~ ~ l i ~ ~ ~ i torfa water" tioti (or of tlie electrolytes dissolvetl i r i tlie watet), wliicli i s sc~isetl by tlie 1.11-aiti. 0 1 1 the basis o f priorexperience, we either gulp dowti tlie r.eclr~irecl nrltortrlt of licluid rntl~cr i~itliscrit~ii~iately, or l~nvitig on several occasiotis experienced c,ranips as a result o f d r i ~ i k i t ~ too z ralirlly or beca~.~se the liquid was too ~ i tea or relaxing cold, we sip more casually insteat!, sitting down to sliare a leisurely a l t e r ~ i o oiced alcoholic beverage. n ~ iwe tiiiglit tiever liavc l i a t l tlie exl~erie~ice o f cra~iil~ induced s by But it i s peculiarly l i i ~ ~ i ithat too rapid satiation o f tliirst with ilial,propriate licluids. \Ve riiiglit siriiply follow the guidelines for appropriate beliavior given to us by our care-taking eltlers or our peers. \Ye t l i e ~say i tliat weprxfir tlie civilized bellavior that is defined by sippi~ig drinks at our t e ~ i ~ iclr~b. is Agai~i, ~iature's paradox

2Tlie t~iodel i~ivolves a conte~it atldressable Iioloprapliic-like ~nalchitig between current itiput arid stored rnemory. I'lie ino(lel is based on evitlerice obtni~ied with niicroelcctrode recorditigs ~liacle witliiti tlie Iiippocanil~al systetii a ~ i t witliiti l tlie sotiiatosenso~-y cortex o f the patieta1 lobe (Pribratn,

1997).

A Iiolographic process i s based on tlie distributioti of, atid tilerefore ellfolding of, inforniation over and witliiri an extent (a spatial nritl tettiporal etiveloyw). 111 ecotioniics, tlie tnarketplace is s~rcli a holographic stri~ctr~re: each tra~isactio~i e~ifoltis tlie values o f the wliole, wliicli are distributed -- say a dollar -- tlie throughout tlie extent of tlie whole. 'I'lius, wlieti otie spetitls a wiit o f ct~rreticy curretit value o f tliat unit (currency) rel~resc~its tlie prodi~ctivity ofJapa11, Cliina and other far easteni economies, tlie adjust~nents o f European nations to a coniriio~i market and comnioti currency, tlie appearance o f cow disease in England, the Wall Street Stock Market, etc. In tlie sanie fasliion, tlie current valuatio~i o f an evelit occurs \vitlii~i [lie niar-ketplace o f tlie episode w i t l i i ~wliicli i [lie event is generated. Valrlatioti 11111sdepends oli tlie values attributed to tlie that co~npose tile episode. variety o f transactio~is

sliows i l s e l r biolopy, ill Icrriis o f 01.airi I)I.OCCSSCS, S~II~SI~I~IICS c-i\:ilily f i l l . clirccl a c l i o ~ li o :icIlieve irtility. II ~ e l i e v c l l ~ a lliis t e x a ~ i i l ~call l e Ije yerie1.ali7.etl10 a clcscr-illliorio f l i o w l i i ~ ~ i iJn ) I~ ~ iC ~ C I ~ ~ Icollie ~C~S t o b e organized. 77ic c?ul~c?r.icricct/ ir/ili/ict.v fi~~it/,firtili/ic~.c) o ~ i i i t / i r ~ i t / ~ hc*c.oriic~ r t i / . ~ clric:otic?t/ iri cirlitrr~~ to hel~r~e.reritet/to oilic:r..rnsl~r.c;l;!r.criccs. I'rcfcreliccs are. li.0111 t i ~ i i c t o t i ~ i i e clicckctl , a g a i t ~ utilities ~t by in(liviilr~also r b y g r o r ~ p s o f iritlivitlrlals as ill Ille r t c c ~ i t ~ . e v o l u l i o r i a r \tlccadc ~ o f (lie I!?(jO1s 2nd again ill El.lrope i r i 1989. Alterr~;ifivcswere cuploretl, arrtl if l l l c sitrr;rIiorr Iias c l i n r ~ g c t srlllicicri~ly l (e.g., tlie aclverit o f IIICIlirtli c n r ~ t r op l i l l and hliclinel (;orl~acl~ev'srlecisior~ l o wit11l1c)ltlIr.ool,s) riew preferetlces riiay erlicrge. 'To sr~nittiarize:I3otJi flleory arid h ~ ~ irescarcli ~iri 111;lkc a ~ o o ccasc l for clistiripuisliit~~: betnleeri utilities and l?refcrenccs. U l i l i l i c s are I?ascd or1 b i o l o g i c a l rlcctls, q t . ~ a ~ i l i l : ~ t i c vo e ~ ~ l r . o over ls tlie l~cllavior based or1 itr/t?r.riol corifr.ol,r wlricli are suljjccl t o ~>r.ol~nl,ili~y e s t i t ~ i a t i oo ~f i [heir s;:tisfiictiori basetl o n covariatinn aliiorlg e ~ ~ c o d e experiences. tl I'r~eli.rcr~cts, I?y c,ontrnst. clevolve o t l a separate atid tlistinct process w l i i c l ~ i~ivolves {lie abilil y l o tlisct.i~~iir~ate hctwceri irivariar~t.vifr~(~/iori.~. 111short. rrtilities (ire sttr/e clriri .vi/rm/iori .v/jec:iJic crritl /IIII.Y cr.vr/cT.u/ t/c~l)~~rrtivrr/, 1 1 . l i c ? i . ~ t 7I .v ) I . ~ J ~ ' I - ~ ~ Iort7 Icc.T ,ritirntiori gerierzrl Iiic?r~c~r~c~liic:c~I/~? t r r ~ r ~ t r r i p ct-rirt/ ~ t i c.oriic~.v/~fr.cc

111o r d i r ~ a r y lire, exl)ericr~ce corilrols !lie I i a s or) I l ~ Ie~ n ~ i i e o s t a t~ ic . c g u I a l i o ~o ls f tlit: ~ r g a r i i s ~ i i . Ortlitiar.ily, the e v e r ~ l ~ ~ n l i lare i c s t a k e r ~i l l l o RCCOIIIII, nri(I l l ~ e reslio~ise a111)1.ol~r.inle l o tlie occnsiori i s coml~~led l l.~ i l e s s ac.ltlictcd, n f c ~t.cli~lar.ily alsv taltc i l l l o accorrr~ll l i c l i ~ ~ ~ rnfcr i l s \ v l ~ i c l coritt.r~l i call be exercised b e f o r e breakdowri o r f r ~ r i l i r yc~ccurs. 'l'lii~s,e v c ~ i t r ~ risk a l arid cost-l)enelit r a t i o are consirleretl. 'l'liese corisitleratioris are slate clel,eritlc~it a ~ l t tl l i r ~ s direct tlic a ~ t e ~ l t i o rarid i s i~iteritions o f tlie organistn. I-lowever, clifTerct~l situatin~is riiap irltluce dill'cr.e~itstntes arid I l l e r e h r e dilTcr.ent trtililies. 13ut as situations m a y r e s c ~ l i b l eorie ario(liCr, icler~titicscar1 be assigtrctl t o g i ~ i t l eirile~itioris. I r i t ~ i o s t physical situations itlentificatior~s\vork well. 'I'liey are tlie basis o f classificalions in t e r n ~ so f attribules. (See rcvicrv i n I'ribrarn, l 9 Y I, 1.eclrlre 7.) Nonetheless, i(lentiIicatiotis can b e assigried i ~ i a l ~ l ~ r . o l ~ r i a t AII e l yexpel-itne~ital . denionstration illustrate.s t l ~ i s poirit. S11l)jecls are asked 10 clescribe tlie pallerr1 o f l i g l ~ l s switcliirig o n arid o l T i r i a matrix o f l>ossiblc positinlis. 'Tile desc.ri11tioris are rated as closer t o (war.~iiel.) o r l i ~ r t l i c fi-or11 r (colder) correct. L3r1t b o t h { l i e switcliirig o f lights arid tlie r a ~ i ~ l g :ire s ill filc-t give11 randoriily. U e s l ~ i t e this, most s r ~ t ~ j e cc ts o m e up w i t h ingeliior~s descril?tio~is c j f t l i e patlis o f liglit ~ ~ l a c e t i i e r i-t s sollie of tliese descriptions are incredibly cutiiplex. Sucli ~ i ~ i s i d e r i t i f i c a t i cnboutitl ~ ~ i s i t 1 social situatio~is.O ~ i c e an i d e ~ i t i f i c a t i olias ~ i bccri rliade, h e subject deferids i t agaitisl d i s s o l u ~ i o ntlesl~itebeing giveii atltlitional il~f'or~r~iation (sucli as "llie appearance o f tire ligllts wns actually raridorii" o r "I gave yo11 l l i t ~ t sns t o c o l d e r or warmer randonily"), perhalls because p r ~ t a t i v ecorrclatioris were 1101 strniried b e y o ~ i t lcrcdibi1it.y. l'liiis, preferences (in cor~trast t o rr~ilities) becotlie a r ~ f o ~ n a t i z e (1'1~ibrnrii. d 19751)). l ' l i e y are n o t c o n i l ~ u t e d ariew f o r eacll s i l t ~ a l i n n i iepisode l sirice tliey arc gror~titlctl i r i llic pr~talive i t i ~ ~ a ~ ~ i a ol>lairiirig riccs i n tllc situation, n o t its variety. Tliere i s danger in illis. A u t o ~ i i a t i z e d preferellces in social sit u a t i u t ~ s are d i l l i c u l t - t o - c l ~ a ~ i g e prejudices.

'I'l~e tlistit~cticv~ l)etwec~ r~tilitics ~ and ~ ~ r c l ' e r cf~ i~ ~ i t~ l a11 s es ecl~o i t 1 tlie psycl~oatialyticdistitictin~i between etliics a t ~ ~iiorals. l 0 1 1 0 Ilatik (1936) sr~yyestetltliat etliics (Ilased 011 relatiotis to the ~iiotller) are i ~ ~ t e r rfeelings ~al based o t ~ covariation alllotig events, tlte ever~tual cotlsequetices o f our. bel~aviors.By corltrast tnorals (I~ased oti it~str~tcliot~s ~)l.ovitlctl I)y the fatl~er) are cxterlial given t l ~ a t fit one to society. Gilligan's research (1 982) has sul,ported tliis dilrere~~cc het\vee~~ [lie developmetit of male r.irle o f govcrried morality aritl t l ~ e riiore flexil,le ell~ical cleveloptiler~t o f I'criiales, arid I-4;iyek (1988), in his book 171e Fcrfcrl C'orrccit: 77re 19.r.or:~ c~fSoc~ialisrtr, lias describetl Iiow societal ~iiorals becoriie estal~list~ed. 'I'lie riioralist does as (s)l~e slior~ld;whereas etliicnlly we explore our wants (utilities atld fi~tilities). Tlie mol-al person rises his rrtoral prefer.ences ( a d prejudices) autot~iatically-- Illat is, without at~alysis, to sr~pport Iiis it~teritiotis.I'lie etl~ical ~~erso pat~acloxically, t~, nrialyzes each valuation with respect to liis or l ~ e w r a~~ts 'I'l~e . ~iioral pcrsorr i ~ ~ v o k God e s or other ideology to support tiis preferences in a dispute; tile persoti on the otlier side o f the dispi~te is eqr~allycet-tain that God supports his/ller opposite preferences. Tlie etl~ical person it~tuitively feels atid tllerefore recognizes specific arid context dependent a ~ i d thus that Iiislher walits (i.e., internal utility states) are sitr~atiorl liiay not be those o f tlie other person. Much o f psycl~oanalytic proceclr~re i s devoted to loosening tilorally given "shoulds" so that ethically tletern~ined"\va~tts"car1 becorne realized. In social situaliotis, wants, i.e., utilities atid futilities. are negotiated by tlie interplay betwee11a person's own wants and those o f others. Sucli i~~terplay freqrrently evokes paradox as wlieri forn~er rivals eliierge as stauncll frie~ids.

l'lte results o f tliis binl~eliavioral ar~alysis I-etut.11us to the I)iological paratlox described at tlie outset oTtlie at~alysis. Just as irr tlte braitl's control over respit.atioti, k e d i ~ i e (I~.it~kitlg , atid sexual bel~avior, the co~itrol o f tlie orgatlisni's values is ordinarily accotiil)lislietl by way o f liis prefe~.ences. These are situationally derived atid nppenr. to be it~vinlate because tliey reflect putative itlvariances across situations. Man i s t l i i ~ s sliaken wl~erl Ile fitids l ~ i s o~:efere~ices'dissolviti~ under the otislaugl~t of major situational cl~atige. I l e i s force0 to relirlqr~ish I~is automatic niechatiistiis o f inforniation processing and rely on the cornputation o f covariances (I'ribrani 199 1, L,ecl.r~re 10) fi.on~ one episode Sucli conipr~~ations elltail risk (tile tfar~gers o f futility) as we Ilave seeti, atid are tlius likely to ar~otl~er. to be accot~ipntiietlby upset, atid cout~tered by overco~~trol leading to dogniatic reassert ion o f an absolute w l ~ i clias l ~ become obsolete, or by relitiquisliing o f all val~res leadir~g to artorl~ie arid arlarcl~y. tliat, Does tliis niean that there are tio universal values? O f course not. I t nieatls o ~ l l y understa~idably but paradoxically, we have itletitifietl utiiversals witli our prefe~.e~~ces rather tliati wit11 our utilities atid fi~tilities.The paradox co~isists oftlie fact that utilities, since they deal wit11 episode atid stale dependent variables, seerti so unreliable. But as long as episotles (lo not din'er catastrol~hically,atid as long as [lie brain's co~iiputatiotial niacl~inery i s r~niversal to all n~anltirid, i~niversals ccrrt be derived froin srtcli co~iiputations. 111 fact, as we saw above, references are often representation based on co~nputed universals. Carl Ju~ig ( 1 968) referred to the rttilities a ci~ltural upon which sr~cli ut~iversals are estal,lislied as arclietypes. l'lie paradox petletrates fitrtlier. Identifications signifying preferences cotistit~~te ktiowledgc, especially scie~llific knowledge. ('['he terlris science is derived fi-0111 the Lati11.rcie~rcia,to know). Ktiowlcdge at any niotnetit is, tl~erefore,finite, bounded by tlie l i r ~ ~ itliat t s describe the situations over wliich tlie itlentifications lioltl.

Asl~l>y, LV. It, ( 1960). I~~~.vi,yrr , / i l l , ( 1 I ~ I ~ ~ ~ I 'I/ I (:~ O I . ; , ~ or III / J ~ I ( ~ I ) I ; IlI k ~ 11~(i~ (211~1 ~ ~ oE(li[io11). r~ New York: J o l i ~Wiles i & So~is. Bagsllaw, M. 1-1.& I'ribrarii. I<. 11. (195.3). (:nrticnl orgn~liz,atic~~i ill gr~stalivli (hllacaca bluhltn). .lorrr~rtc~l c!fNc~rrr.ol~l~\~.rir)Io,y~~, 16, 499-.508. Ilateson, 1'. G . I<. ( 1976). I'syclivlogy o f k ~ l o \ v i atiotller ~ i ~ side. A/(!rv ,J;*icprr(i.vf. ..kirt.,pp. 16G-- 167. Dl-owti, GS (1 972) l,nws c!/l;i,r.rrr.New Yrv k : 'l'lre Julia11Press, IIIC. ner~ie, E. ( 1 96 1 ). 7i.tr11.r~ic/ir~rrtrl,411~11j~,c.i.v irr I ! ~ j ~ c ~ l ~ o / l ~New cr~r York: rf~~~ Grove . l'rcss, lnc. Iloi~!~las, R. J. Rr Pr.ibr.an1, K . 11. ( 1966) I,cnrt~itig atitl li~ilbic lesio~is. Ncr~r~o~).~~v:lr(~Io,yici, 4, 11p. 197220. I)ouglns, It. J . & Pr.it)rani, K. II.( 1 969) I.)ist~.aclion o~id Iinbituatio~l ill ~lio~ll:eys wit11 limbic Icsio~is. ,I. Cortrl~. I ' l ~ ~ ~ .I'.~~*c:ltol., ~ i o l . 69, 1117. 473-480. Fulton, J. F., I'rib~.atii,K. ll., Sleve~iso~i. J. A. I:., Pt Wall, 1'. (1949) 1ntcr.rclatioiv hetwec~i orl!i~;ll gyrus, i~~sula, ten~poral lip arid n ~ ~ t e r icingullite ur syrrls. 1i'~rrt.v. Arrt. hlcr~r.ol. A.~,voc., pp. 175- 179. Gilligan, C. (1 982) 111cr lJ~/fe~.cv~/ I'oic-e. I-1al.vnrcl I l l i i v . I'ress. Grosslnnri, S. 1'. ( 1 967). A '/'e.~/h00/i o f I ' l t j : ~ i o / o ~ iI!c.\.c./rok~y\l. cd a. blew \r7nrk: Wiley. 1layek, F. A. ( 1988) ' 1 7 1I;'n/c~l ~ (;)ric-rr.t:' / ' / I ( > I5~r~oi..v o f ,Yocinli.vrrr. W .\V. IJal lley, 111 (Ed.), 1.ondon: R.outle.dge. r~~nturation. ./o11171(rl 1-ludspelli, W. J. c% Pribrnti~,K. 11. (199U). Stages of br.ai11atitl con~li!i\~e of /<t?rrccrfior rcrl /'s~~fc./tok7${i~, (Y2(/1), 8 8 1 - 8 84. Ilutlspelli, W. J. (PC I'r.ib~.a~~i, I<. II. ( 9 2 ) I'sycliol~l~ysiologicd i~itlices ol' cog~lilivc~ ~ i a l l ~ ~ - n i i r ~ ~ /ri/e~.rin/ir?ricrl ./orrr.ritrlc ~ ~ l ' . y ) ~ i ; l i o / ? / ! ~ : ~ 12, i o l1r9-29, ~,q~~, Irwin, T;. W. (1958). At1 a~ialysis o f tlie colice1)ts o f tliscri~iiinnlio~i a11d ~?~-ercrc.rlce. ?Ire Arrx7ktr1 ,101rr~tml c!f l-',rj:clt., Callelibacl~ Cotnriie~liorntive PJt111iber.VOI. l.,X?(l, NO.I. Jung, C . G . ( 1 968). Arrt7!\*fic~l l~.rj,c.lrok)~:r!: / f a r/ / I C ~ I : Icrlrd J /)r.crc3lic:e:/lrt~'/ir,.i.r/oclr Ieclirr.es. New York: f:~nlheori Di)oks. Kaada, U . R . , Pril>r;lln, K.1-I.CEEl~steit~, J.A. (1940). I<esljiratury arirl vasct~ln~ rer;po~ises in monkeys fi.0111 le~iiporal pole, itlsr~lar,orbi~al srlrrace atltl c,ingt~lnte gyrus. .10111~rt(rl f!f N ~ ? t r ~ ~ o / ) l ~ ~ ~ . s ~ o l o 12, 347-356. Killee~i, 1I.R. (1 994) hlallle~iiatical ~~r-i~ir,il)les o f reiriforce~iie~it . N c ~ / I ( ~ I ~ ~ ~ I ~ Scicrrc.c.c., ( ~ / ~ ~ \.ol. II~/RI. 17, 110. 1, 1!11. 105- 172. Killeerl, P.11. (1996) Mecliatiics o f tlie a ~ ~ i r ~ r a l111 e . K.1.I. Prib~.a~ii n~icl I S. Kills (Eels,) Lc7ot.1rirrg0.y 1 i i h l a l i ~ \ ~ a lNd: i , LnwrenCc Erlbatrril Associntes, 103- 140. I<orirad, K.\V. & Ilagslinw, r\I.l-l. (1970) Effect ol' ~ i o v e ls t i ~ i i r ~(111 l i cats rearetl in a restricled envirotitiietit. .I.C ' c ~ r i r j ~ 1'111:viol. . I!y~.~cltol., 70, pp. 157-164. Livesey, P.J. (1 986) 1,etrr~riirig attt?l~ttrofiorr, l'ol. I . Mal~walr,NJ: I,;lwrerice I:r-lbaurn Associales, Iric. Mackay, D. h1. (1962). Self-or-ga~iizatio~l in the titiie dnnini~i. In: b1.C. Yovils. 6 . 7'. Jncobi c ! G. 1). (3olstein (Etls.) ,V~~i/-Ot~(rrtizitig S)~s/crris, (ly). 37-48). a s l i ~ ~1 i :, Spn1-ta11 Books. h~liltelstaedt,11. (1968). Disc.rrssion. In: J.I. P. Kitiible (Ed.), 1 ~ ) e r ~ i c r i nrrtl c c Cirpoci/lr ( ~ I J . 16-49). New Yor-k: l ' l ~ e New York Acatler~ly o f Sciences, I~~te~~discil)liria~.y Co~i~rliu~licatio~~s Prograni.
a-

Polyani, M. ( 9 0 ) IJor~.vorlol k-rro~~~/(~c/,qc!: /i)rl.clr.tlvc r 1lo.d-c.r.i/ic.n/ l)/ri/o.roy?/!v. Cliicngo: Uliiversity o f Cliicago Press. and l l i e t i c i ~ r n l o ~ oy f percel,tio~i. 111 l7r~occ~c~dir~,qs Pribram, K.l-1. ( 1 957) 0 1 1 the neurology o f vnlr~es Nortli-I lollatid Cotiipa~iy: qftlte .fftccrrt/t irrtcrrmtiorml cori8qr.r7.r.r c~f/~.~~~c~ l~o/o , y ~ ~ I'i~l?lisliing . At~isterdatii,pp. 77-82, nr~d pp. 2.10-2.71 nc~nlysisor llie I~elinviot~nl deficit that follows Pribram, K . I-I. ( 1 96 1 ). A filrlller expe~~in~etital itijury to tlie j,t.iriiate f1.0111nl c,(lt.ltx. I ~ ~ . ~ I ~ ( ~ I ~ I I I A I ('~(I~ I /I(II I / ~ o 3, /o, 1,132-/166. ~~I*, Pribrani, K . I-!. (1969). 'I'lie Atiinestic Sytidronics: I)islr~t.ha~iccs in ('(?ding7 111: C;. A. 'l'allar~d and N. C. War~gli (Eds.), l'c7//1olo,q)r of A.ier~ror;~*. New York: Acatletiiic I'ress. Pribranl, K . H. ( 197 1). l,c7r1gr1oge.r c!/ fltc llr~rrirr: l<.ul~cr~ir~rc~r/trl I't-rr.trt/o.ue.rortcl l'r~irrci~~lc~s irr Nerrr.~l).ryclrolo~~~. Englewuod C:lifTy, NJ: Pretitice-,IInll. Itic. Pribram, K. 1-1. (1975a). Self-cotiscior~sness ntid iliterltioriality. 111: (;. E. Scliwnrtz cP! D. Slin1,iro (Eds.), Corr,rciorrsrrc.r.r( I I I ~ ~ , Y C ~ ~ - N /I~ ~ /~ I YI I II IC ~Cirr ~ , ~~ Ncscor.c.lr. / ~ O I I :New York: I'lenurli Press. Pribratn, K. 14. (1975b). hlodes o f central ~,rocessingill lir~tiintileartiing and retiietiiberitig. In: T. J. Teyler (Ed.), flr.nir~ cirrtl l.c(ir.trir~~ (pp. 147- 167). Sta~nfo~.d, C71': Greylock Press. Pribrani, K. F-l. (1 982) Brniti tneclinnisriis in t~lirsic: Prolegonletla for a theory o f tlie meaning o f rneaning. In M. Clyries (Etl.), h41t.~ic, A~lirrcl,clrtc/ Ilr~nirl. New York: Plenut~i, pp. 2 1-32. Pribram, K 1-1.(1986) lie cogtiitive revolutiort n ~ atiii~idhrnin l issues. Arrrc~r~ic-~rrr l ~ . ~ ~ ~ c / ~ ol,,Tol. /ogi.~t, 41, NO. 5 , pp. 507-520. Pribratn, K. 11. Rr Dagsliaw, M. 1-1. (1953). Fr~rllieratialysis uf the ~etiiporallobe syndrotne utilizing frotito~e~~iporal ablations. .lorrr~rrtrl r?f('ortr/~. Nctrr.oIo~~~, 99, 347-375. Pribrani, K. 1 1 .( 1 99 1) Nr.oiri r n ~ l l ' r r . c ~ ~ p / i lloksx)rr~~cnal,~/r~rrc/;rr~e r~r~: irr l ~ i ~ n ~ o l l ' r ~ o ~ : c New s~ri~tg. Jersey: Lawrence Erlbauni Associates, Inc. In: Satiiso~i & Adelriiati Pribrani, K. 13. (1 992) Explorations i t 1 Expel.iriienta1 Neut~ol~sychology. (Eds.), 7he Ner~r.oscierrce.r: Pot11.ic?fl)iscoi,er~! 11 (pp. 307-3250. Cambridge, M A : Birkliauser Doston Inc. I'ribrati~,K.11. (1997) Wlial is M i t ~ d tlint 111cI3tain M;ly 01.tlc1I\'?. 111V . Mandrekar Pr. P.R. Masatii ( E d . ) 1 o c i r 1f ~S r ~ t o I i A A r / 1 1 1 1 1 i / i .l o 1 2: I'r~occetlir rg.r of fire Nor*her./ Wierrer Crrl/crrtrr:yC;orrgr.e.rs,lYY.4. I'rovitler~ce,R1: A ~ ~ i e r i cklatlietiiatical nt~ Society, p p 301329. Pribratii, K. I-I., Ilouglas, I\. Rr Pt.ibrati1, B. J. (19G9) 'I'lle ~iature o f tion-limbic leartiitig. J. Canl/?. Plysiol, l!'~~?clrol., 69, j ~ p . 765-7 72. "1'1~c~jucf.fi~r~. (7 ,S(:icrti~fic I'.~~!clrolog)~": .. /'r.qfoce Pribram, K . 1-1. Pt Gill, M.M. ( 1 976). I;i.c711d1.c. to C o ~ t e r i o o ~ai ~ i 7 eI c ~ r o ; c o / L,ondori: o I-lutcliitlsot~ Publishing Group, Ltd. Pribrani, K. M.,Lini, I-I., Poppen, R., & t3agsiiaw, M. 11. (1966) Li~iibic lesions arid tlie tetnporal structure o f redutidaticy. .I. C'orrrl~. I'l!y.~iol.I'.r~*clrol., 61, 111,. 365-373. Pribratn, K. H . , Lentiox, M. A., Rc llu~istiio~'e, 11. 1-1.( 1950) Sotlie coti~iectiotis o f tlie orbito-frotitoteriiporal littlbic and Iiippocatiipal areas o f h4aceca h4ulatta. .I. N ~ r ~ r ~ o ~ ~ l 13, ~~ pp. ~ sI i27o l .13 , 5. Pribram, K. 1-1. Rr AlfcGuintiess, D. ( 1 992) Attetilio~i a t i t l para-atletitional processing: Event-related braiti potetitials as tests o f a ~iiodel.In: D. Friedtiinti Rc G. Bruder (Eds.). Alrrto1.i qfrlre Ne\cr York Acndertry qfScierrces, 6-78 (pp. 65-92). New York: New York Academy o f Sciences. Pribram, K. 1-1. Pt McGuinness, I>. (1975). Arousal, Aclivalioll and effort in the corltrol o f attention. l!y!cl~ological Revierc!, R2(2), 1 1 6- 149.

I'ribra~ii, K . I-I., Iteilz, S., hlcNcil, h.1. (YL Sljevack, A . A . ( 1079) 'l'lle ellect o f a~~i\lgd:~lcctoniy 011 o r i e ~ i l i ~nticl i g cl:~ssicnlcoticlitio~~i~i~:. /'(ii*loi~i(iri ,I. 11101. ,SC.I., 14, 1711. 203-2 1.7. l t a ~ ~0. k , ( I 936). ' / j . r t f I i ~rrid r.(wli/~1: A 11fi / i i , ~-/ o o.r/ ~ ' /~ /i( /~ fI I I ~ I ( Ti I1~~ 1 / 1 ,New Y w k : K~iopl*, (1968). Qi~atiti~ati\:e Russcll, R. IY.,Sitiger, G . , I;la~iilgai~, I;., S~OIIF, i l l . (Q IIIISSCII, J. . relaliolis in ntl~ygtlaln ~iindr~lnt i o ~o i f (II-~II~ I'li.~~.siolo~r(,~~ ~ I I ~ . t-rrrt/ Ilclitrr~ior., 3, 87 1-875. Stiids. 0. (1973) ~ c l h c / i.lir~/,qi~irrr/ c nri~/.~lrnazil. I.,CICII, i t i L.e ~l ~ v c U~li\rersity ~~ 1'1-css. Spencer I.Jrowri, G . (1972). 1 . t r i 1 : ~ r)/'l;i~r.rir. Ncw Yo1.k. N Y : I ' l ~ e J r l l i : ~1'1,css ~ ~ IIIC. 'llic~or:1~ r!f ( ; c i r i i c ~ . c.rritl ~ IYc*otrorttic llr/t~r\~ior.. ( 1953). Voli Neumann, J. C . Morgc~istct-11. 0. I'ri~icetoli: I'riliceto~~ lJ~ii\~crsity I'rcss (3rd ctl ) (llinl) l I. 1'1): 60-73. (:l~nl).I.1~11. 19-20; 24-28; 39-4 I . Weiskral~tz,I,. Pr Wilsoli, W. A . ( 1058). 'I'l~e clrccl o f v c ~ ~ t rt.lii~ici~ccl)l~nlic al lcsiotls 011 avoidarlce tlircsl~ol~ls ill tiionkeys, .Io11r.i1(7/ (!f( 'orrip. / ' l ~ ~ ~ , v i o //',~l~c:/1(3to$:,\~, o ~ i ( ~ ( ~ / 5 1 , 167- I ! . I Wilson, W. (1959). Role o r lenr~iit~g, ~,erccptio~i a~ld l.e\vard ill riio~ikeys clloice o f food. Anier.iccrrr .Jorrr~rtcil of l!y*cliologi1,7 2 , 560-565.
'