Appendix A Impedance Matching

In Chapter 6 we noted the deleterious effects of impedance mismatches on transmission lines. Mismatches result in power being reflected back to the source and in higher-than-normal voltages and currents that can stress the line and connected equipment. In general, best results are obtained when the load is matched to the characteristic impedance of the line. When this is not the case, it is often useful to connect some sort of matching network to correct the mismatch. Similarly, when either the load or the line is unbalanced, and the other is balanced, it is highly desirable to install a device called a balun network to convert one to the other. Matching networks can be constructed using lumped constants (inductors, capacitors, and transformers), transmission line sections, or waveguide components. Matching networks are sometimes broadband, so as to pass a wide range of frequencies, but often they are made narrow in bandwidth to allow them to act as bandpass filters as well. We noted earlier that the impedance looking into a transmission line varies with its length. For a lossless line the impedance repeats every onehalf wavelength. If it is acceptable to have a mismatch on a short section of line near the load, it is often possible to simplify a matching problem by backing off a short distance (less than one-half wavelength) from the load and installing the matching device at a point on the line where the impedance is easier to work with. It should be obvious that this is a narrowband technique, since the electrical length (in degrees) of a particular physical length of line (in meters) varies with frequency.

The Smith Chart

For many years (since 1944 in fact), a special circular graph called a Smith chart has been used to indicate complex impedances and admittances and the way in which they vary along a line. It is more common nowadays to do transmission line calculations with the aid of a computer than to use pencil and compass, but many of the computer programs use the Smith chart to display their output. Test instruments, called vector network analyzers, that measure complex functions, also tend to use this display format. Therefore it is important to understand the layout of the Smith chart and to be able to interpret itthe actual calculations can be safely left to a computer. Figure A.1 shows a conventional paper Smith chart. A distance of onehalf wavelength on the line corresponds to one revolution around the chart. Clockwise rotation represents movement toward the generator, and counterclockwise rotation represents progress toward the load, as shown on the 543

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APPENDIX A

FIGURE A.1

Smith Chart

(Courtesy of Analog Instruments Company)

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chart itself. For convenience there are two scales (in decimal fractions of a wavelength) around the outside of the chart, one in each direction. Each scale runs from zero to 0.5 wavelength. The body of the chart is made up of families of orthogonal circles; that is, they intersect at right angles. The impedance or admittance at any point on the line can be plotted by finding the intersection of the real component (resistance or conductance), which is indicated along the horizontal axis, with the imaginary component (reactance or susceptance), shown above the axis for positive values and below for negative. Because of the wide variation of transmission line impedances, most paper Smith charts use normalized impedance and admittance to reduce the range of values that have to be shown. The value of 1 in the center of the chart represents an impedance equal to Z 0 . Paper charts are also available with an impedance of 50 in the center, and computerized displays can have any value for Z0, with no normalization required. To normalize an impedance, simply divide it by the characteristic impedance of the line. z = where z = normalized impedance at a point on the line Z = actual impedance at the same point Z 0 = characteristic impedance of the line Since z is actually the ratio of two impedances, it is dimensionless. Z Z0 (A.1)

EXAMPLE A.1
Normalize and plot a load impedance of 100 + j25 on a 50- line.

SOLUTION
From Equation (A.1), z = Z Z0 100 + j 25 50

= 2 + j0.5 Figure A.2 shows how this impedance would be plotted on a normalized chart.

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FIGURE A.2

Use of Smith Chart

(Courtesy of Analog Instruments Company)

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Once the normalized impedance at one point on the line has been plotted, the impedance at any other point can be found very easily. Draw a circle with its center in the center of the chart, which is at the point on the horizontal axis where the resistive component is equal to one. Set the radius so that the circle passes through the point just plotted. Then draw a radius through that point, right out to the outside of the chart, as shown in Figure A.2. Move around the outside in the appropriate direction, using the wavelength scale as a guide. Just follow the arrows. If the first point plotted is the load impedance, then move in the direction of the generator. Once the new location on the line has been found, draw another radius. The normalized impedance at the new position is the intersection of the radius with the circle. In other words, the circle is the locus of the impedance of the line. Every point on the circle represents the impedance at some point on the line. The radius of the circle represents the SWR on the line. In fact, it is usually referred to as the SWR circle. The SWR can easily be found by reading the normalized resistance value where the circle crosses the horizontal axis to the right of the center of the chart. Another way is to mark the radius of the circle on the standing wave voltage ratio scale at the bottom of the chart. If required, the SWR can also be found in decibels by using the adjoining scale. For this example, the SWR is read as 2.16. Figure A.3 on page 548 is a computer printout from a program called WinSmith , which is one of many that perform Smith chart calculations. The output is provided on a Smith chart, as well as in tabular form. We noted before that the SWR depends on the magnitude of the reflection coefficient. There is another scale on the chart that allows this magnitude to be found directly. See the reflection coefficient voltage scale at the lower right of the chart. Marking off the radius of the SWR circle on this scale will give the magnitude of , which can be read as 0.37, on both the paper and computerized charts. (On the computer chart, is represented by G and VSWR by V.) It is possible to use the Smith chart to find the impedance at any point along a line. The next example illustrates this.

EXAMPLE A.2

Y
A 50- line operating at 100 MHz has a velocity factor of 0.7. It is 6 m long and is terminated with a load impedance of 50 + j50 . Find the input impedance for the line.

SOLUTION
Now that we have seen how much the computer display resembles the paper chart, let us use the computer. See Figure A.4.

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APPENDIX A

FIGURE A.3 Printout from winSmith software

(Courtesy of Noble Publishing)

We need to know the length of the line in degrees. First find the wavelength using Equation (6.1). = = vp v c

0.7 300 106 = 100 106 = 2.1 m Now we can find the length in degrees with Equation (6.7). = = 360L 360 6 2.1

= 1029

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From the plot in Figure A.4, we can see that the input impedance (represented by the small circle) is 19.36 + j5.44 .

FIGURE A.4 Printout from winSmith software

(Courtesy of Noble Publishing)

X
Now that we understand how impedances and lines are plotted on the Smith chart, it should be possible to use the chart as an aid for impedance matching. Since the center of the chart always represents the characteristic impedance of the system, matching a line involves moving its input impedance into the center of the chart. The progress of the solution to a matching problem can be monitored by observing the input impedance: the closer it is to the center of the chart, the better the match. Probably the best way to see how this works is to try a few examples using various matching techniques. Each technique will be described, then followed with an example. Smith charts will be used to illustrate the technique.

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APPENDIX A

Matching Using a Transformer

A transformer can be used to match impedances, provided the load impedance is real at the point where the transformer is inserted. RF transformers are usually toroidal, using ferrite or powdered iron cores as illustrated in Figure A.5, although air-core transformers are also common. Recall from basic electrical theory that the impedance ratio is the square of the turns ratio, that is: Z1 N = 1 N2 Z2
2

(A.2)

FIGURE A.5 Toroidal transformer

Transformers are also useful for connecting balanced lines to unbalanced lines, since there is no electrical connection between windings. A transformer used in this way is called a balun transformer or just a balun . A good example of a balun transformer can be found on the back of many television sets, where it adapts 75- coaxial (unbalanced) cable-television cable to an antenna input designed for 300- twin-lead (balanced). Figure A.6 is a photo of a typical TV balun. Since the required impedance ratio is 4:1, the turns ratio must be 2:1.
FIGURE A.6 TV balun

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A transformer can be used to match loads with complex impedances by installing it a little distance from the load in the direction of the source. The next example illustrates this.

EXAMPLE A.3

Y
Find the correct turns ratio and location for a transformer that is required to match a 50- line to a load impedance of 75 + j25 .

SOLUTION
We solve the problem by moving along the line in the direction of the generator until the impedance looking into the line is resistive. The arc representing the line crosses the horizontal axis of the chart at a point 16.8 from the load. See Figure A.7(a).

FIGURE A.7(a) Printout from winSmith software

(Courtesy of Noble Publishing)

Now the requirement is simply to match the 50- line to the impedance at this point on the line, which is 88.38 , resistive. The required turns ratio can be found from Equation (A.2):

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Z1 N = 1 N2 Z2 N1 = N2 = Z1 Z2

50 88.38

= 0.752 Figure A.7(b) shows what happens when we add a transformer with this ratio at the point found above. The line is matched. Note, however, that a change in frequency will change the electrical length of the line and destroy the match. This can be seen by changing the frequency from 30 MHz to 40 MHz while leaving everything else alone. See the result in Figure A.7(c) on page 553. There is no longer a perfect match; however, a closer look shows that the SWR is still a very reasonable 1.12, so the setup is still usable.

FIGURE A.7(b) Printout from winSmith software

(Courtesy of Noble Publishing)

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FIGURE A.7(c) Printout from winSmith software

(Courtesy of Noble Publishing)

X
A one-quarter wavelength of transmission line can also be used as a transformer. A quarter wavelength along a line represents one-half a rotation around the chart, so a one-quarter wavelength of line of the right impedance can transform one real impedance into another. The characteristic impedance Z 0 of the line for the transformer can be found from the following equation: Z 0 = Z0ZL (A.3)

EXAMPLE A.4

Y
Solve the problem of the previous example using a quarter-wave transformer.

SOLUTION
Since a quarter-wave transformer, like a conventional transformer, can only match real impedances, it is necessary to place the transformer at the same

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distance from the load as in the previous example. From the previous problem we see that the load impedance to be matched at this point is 88.38 . This can be matched with a quarter-wave section of line having a characteristic impedance, from Equation (A.3), of Z0 = = Z0ZL 50 88.38

= 66.48 Figure A.8 shows that this does indeed result in a match.
FIGURE A.8 Printout from winSmith software
(Courtesy of Noble Publishing)

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Series Capacitance and Inductance

Where the resistive part of the load impedance is correct, the reactive part can be canceled by adding a series reactance of the opposite type. If the resistive part is not correct, the reactance can be installed at the correct distance from the load to bring the resistive part of the impedance to the correct value.

EXAMPLE A.5

Y
Use a series capacitor or inductor to match a 50- line to each of the following loads at a frequency of 100 MHz: (a) 50 + j75 (b) 150 + j75

SOLUTION
(a) Since the real part of the impedance is correct, we need only add a capacitive impedance of j75 , that is, a capacitor with 75- reactance. Recall from electrical fundamentals that Xc = where Xc = capacitive reactance in ohms = frequency in hertz C = capacitance in farads In this case, we know f and Xc , so we rearrange the equation: C = 1 2 X c 1 2 100 106 75 1 2 C

= 21.2 pF It was not necessary to use the Smith chart, whether on paper or on a computer, to solve this problem, but the computerized version of the chart verifies the match. See Figure A.9 on page 556, and notice that the arc on the chart follows one of the circles of constant resistance to the center of the chart.

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APPENDIX A

FIGURE A.9 Printout from winSmith software

(Courtesy of Noble Publishing)

(b) Since the real part of the load impedance is not equal to 50 , it is necessary to add enough line to reach a point on the circle representing a resistance of 50 , that is, the circle that passes through the center of the chart. Figure A.10(a) on page 557 shows that this takes a length of 35 electrical degrees. At this point the resistive component of the impedance is correct but there is a capacitive reactance of 72.6 . Figure A.10(b) shows that the system can be matched by using a series inductance of 115 nH.

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FIGURE A.10(a) Printout from winSmith software

(Courtesy of Noble Publishing)

FIGURE A.10(b) Printout from winSmith software

(Courtesy of Noble Publishing)

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APPENDIX A

Stub Matching
As noted earlier, shorted transmission line stubs are often used instead of capacitors or inductors at VHF and above. Usually these are placed in parallel with the main line, rather than in series. In this case it is easier to handle the problem from an admittance rather than an impedance point of view, since parallel admittances add. Shorted transmission lines can compensate only for the imaginary component of the load admittance, so if the load admittance is complex it is once again necessary to install the matching component at some distance from the load. In this case we back off until the real component of the admittance is equal to the characteristic admittance of the line. Smith charts are available with admittance as well as impedance coordinates. It is also possible to use a conventional chart and convert from impedance to admittance. Computer programs invariably offer a choice of coordinates. The WinSmith program introduced earlier allows for either or both to be displayed. An example will demonstrate transmission line matching with a single shorted stub.

EXAMPLE A.6

Y
Match a line with a characteristic impedance of 72 to a load impedance of 120 j100 using a single shorted stub.

SOLUTION
The stub must be inserted at a point on the line where the real part of the load admittance is correct. This value is 1 = 0.0139 S 72 Actually, we can simply find the conductance circle that passes through the center of the chart. Figure A.11(a) on page 559 shows a chart with both impedance and admittance circles. This is a little confusing, so in Figure A.11(b) the impedance circles have been removed. It can be seen from either figure that a distance of 42 is required between the load and the stub. Next we add a shorted stub and adjust its length to bring the input impedance to the center of the chart. It can be seen from Figure A.11(c) on page 560 that this requires a stub length of 40.

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FIGURE A.11(a) Printout from winSmith software

(Courtesy of Noble Publishing)

FIGURE A.11(b) Printout from winSmith software

(Courtesy of Noble Publishing)

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FIGURE A.11(c) Printout from winSmith software

(Courtesy of Noble Publishing)

X
The foregoing is only a sample of the ways in which lines can be matched to loads. The problems that follow can be solved using a paper Smith chart or a computer program, if available.

( Problems
1. A 75- transmission line is terminated with a load having an impedance of 45 j30 . Find: (a) the distance (in wavelengths) from the load to the closest place at which a quarter-wave transformer could be used to match the line (b) the characteristic impedance that should be used for the quarterwave transformer

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2. A 50- coaxial transmission line with a velocity factor of 0.8 is connected to a load of 89 j47 . The system operates at 300 MHz. Find the proper position and component value to match this line using: (a) a series capacitor (b) a series inductor (c) a transformer 3. Find the SWR for each setup of problem 2, at a frequency of 350 MHz. 4. A transmitter supplies 100 W to a 50- lossless line that is 5.65 wavelengths long. The other end of the line is connected to an antenna with a characteristic impedance of 150 + j25 . (a) Find the SWR and the magnitude of the reflection coefficient. (b) How much of the transmitter power reaches the antenna? (c) Find the best place at which to insert a shorted matching stub on the line. Give the answer in wavelengths from the load. (d) Find the proper length for the stub (in wavelengths).