International Perspectives in English Language Teaching: Motivation (ed. E.

Ushioda)

CHAPTER SUMMARIES (Provisional themed groupings) ________________________________________________________________ English as medium of learning

The integration of content and language as a driving force in the EFL lesson Daro Luis BANEGAS (Argentina) English is a foreign language in Argentina. As a subject in the secondary school curriculum, it is the only subject taught two hours a week over the six years of secondary education regardless of the school orientation. Not only is it studied at school but also at private language school throughout the country where students of all ages enrol to learn for different purposes. This latter situation demands that the state sector reconsiders its ELT approaches. Therefore, both teachers and teenage students have increased their interest in incorporating curricular content in the EFL class. Initially based on European CLIL, teachers have started to explore the integration of curricular content and language learning from a language-driven perspective. In other words, the topics and contexts to situate language learning are derived from subjects such as Geography, Literature or History among others. Such explorations increase both teachers and students motivation as they exercise a more active role in the teaching-learning event that takes place in the classroom. This chapter is concerned with what contextual needs and conditions motivate teachers and students to adapt CLIL models to the Argentinian context and how the outcomes of different classroom experiences have triggered new avenues for exploration, discussion and professional growth in terms of classroom practices and research. In this chapter I will examine CLIL experiences in Argentinas secondary education from different parts of the country. I will analyse how this new approach motivates teachers and students in various ways based on current research carried out by Argentinian teacher-researchers and my own research. From a global perspective, the experiences taking place in Argentina will surely resonate in other EFL settings since increasing professional and state educational demands call for more context-driven approaches which motivate the learning of English. These may allow students and teachers to become more engaged in teaching and learning through the incorporation of the school curriculum so that English starts a true dialogue with other subjects for the benefit of everyone no matter the country.

Choosing between French and English as a medium of learning: how do primary school teachers pedagogies influence childrens and parents decisions? Kuchah (Harry) KUCHAH (Cameroon) The historical relationship between Cameroon and two former colonial powers (France and Britain) places it at the crossroads of linguistic (con)fusion. After independence in 1961, La Rpublique du Cameroun (French protectorate) and Southern Cameroons (British Protectorate) decided to come together as one country. This meant that both parts were each to bring along a system of education and language inherited from their colonial masters. For a very long time, the two subsystems of education in Cameroon simply followed a curriculum emanating from the colonial period. It was not until 1995 that a National Forum on Education was convened with the aim of redefining educational policies that would reflect the needs of the Cameroonian society. The outcome of this was the Law to Lay Down Guidelines for Education in Cameroon (1998) which amongst other things reaffirmed the use of English and French as the languages of istruction in English medium and French medium schools respectively and institutionalised the implementation of official bilingualism, that is, English and French at all levels of French and English medium schools respectively. The result of this has been the

International Perspectives in English Language Teaching: Motivation (ed. E. Ushioda) emergence of different forms of bilingual education: French medium schools where English is a compulsory subject and vice versa; English medium schools with very large numbers of children from French speaking homes; and Immersion Bilingual schools with children from French and English speaking homes studying school subjects in both languages and only deciding in the final year of primary education whether to pursue secondary education in an English medium or French medium school. This chapter examines the third form of bilingual education by exploring the motivations of parents and children to pursue immersion bilingualism and how English language teachers help them in their final decision to continue in English medium secondary schools. The main research question is: What are the motivating factors of Francophone parents and children for choosing to pursue English medium studies and what is the role of English teachers pedagogic practices in mediating this decision? The principal data collection instruments will be interviews with parents, learners and teachers as well as classroom observation and stimulated recall interviews with teachers.

________________________________________________________________ English for academic and professional purposes

Motivation and the transition to university Lindy WOODROW (Australia) English is considered the language of international communication. As such a university education in English in a western country is the goal of many young people. Australia attracts large numbers of international students, particularly from neighbouring Asian countries, such as China, Indonesia and Korea. This chapter discusses the motivation of a group of foundation college students as they progress from their pre-sessional course through their first year of undergraduate studies. The transition from the protected environment of the language school to university was not always smooth. The results show that some of the participants experienced problems and there was an overall decrease in their motivation over their first year at university. This chapter will discuss pre-sessional English programmes in Australia with reference to direct entry foundation colleges. Motivation is investigated from a goal orientations perspective using a questionnaire and interviews. The questionnaire concerned intrinsic, extrinsic and performance goals. The interviews concerned learners reported sources of motivation. Of these sources parental and family obligations and a focus on future careers emerged as central themes. The chapter includes implications for pre-sessional courses and the continued support of ESL international students at university.

Motivational Challenges for Gulf Arab Learners Studying Medicine in English Diane MALCOLM (Bahrain) In the traditional formulation of motivation in language learning, those studying a language for a specific professional or academic goal, such as medicine, would be classified as instrumentally motivated. The necessity to achieve proficiency in the language of study was seen as the prime motivating factor in acquiring the necessary laguage skills. The recent shift in motivation theory to a focus on learners as individuals with distinct social and cultural identities has brought about a more personalized, situated view of the complex motivational forces at work throughout the process of acquiring a language. This chapter describes the motivational challenges facing Arabic-speaking students who are studying through the medium of English at a medical university in Bahrain. While these learners are undoubtedly driven to succeed in their future careers as globalized medical professionals, who are competent users of English, as individuals they must also try to overcome the

International Perspectives in English Language Teaching: Motivation (ed. E. Ushioda) many external and internal hurdles that confront them. These include family and cultural expectations, previous education and training, adjusting to a new environment and different learning demands and coping with affective threats to their self-esteem and study focus. In this chapter I describe the response of these young Gulf Arab medical students to the motivational challenges they face, particularly in the crucial first year of studying through the medium of English. Using extracts from interviews and focus groups with students at various stages of their medical study I will discuss some of the background factors that influence their initial approach to studying English for medical purposes, changes in their attitudes and English language activities as a result of their adjustment to the new learning setting, and the effect of their envisioned future selves as successful doctors on their study practices. In light of these factors, I will also consider ways in which the English teachers and programme can help such students to overcome these challenges and develop autonomy, self awareness and confidence in their language learning ability.

________________________________________________________________ Classroom practices

Edgy activities as a means of challenging learner identity in the EFL classroom Martin LAMB (Indonesia) Recent work has promoted the motivational benefits of learners being allowed to be themselves or speak as themselves in the EFL classroom, yet it could also be argued that if learning is to be truly transformative, learners need to be guided towards other identities, which incorporate the competencies they are acquiring in the classroom. Indeed other writers have talked about the need for teachers to destabilize language learners sense of self as a pre-condition to the development of English-mediated identities. In this chapter I will report on classroom practices observed in an Indonesian junior high school. The English teacher used methods that did not conform either to conventional local practice or to the established tenets of communicative language teaching, but could clearly be seen to motivate his pupils in terms of their enthusiastic participation in class and positive attitudes towards learning the language outside of class. In particular the teacher deployed edgy activities, so-called because they force learners to the edge of their comfort zones. The chapter will describe some of these activities, and argue that they work as motivators and as effective L2 practice because they challenge the learners current identities and encourage them to imagine other possible selves with new symbolic competencies. Although these lessons took place in provincial Indonesia, they have resonance for the many global contexts where English carries into adolescents worlds a wave of personal threats and opportunities.

Listening to Romanian teenagers: Lessons in motivation and ELT methodology Florentina TAYLOR (Romania) More than two decades after the fall of the dictatorial Communist regime, Romania is still striving to become a truly democratic society. Although the numerous post-1989 educational reforms have certainly improved the teaching and learning experience in Romanian schools, assessment-driven curricula and top-down restrictions are still prevalent, casting some doubt over the practical life-long significance of school-based education. This is perhaps nowhere so evident as in the teaching and learning of English as a foreign language. Despite the privileged status that English has in the world today, in Romanian state schools there is still an apparent distinction between English as an academic subject and English as a communication tool the former allegedly emphasised by many teachers, the latter seemingly preferred by students.

International Perspectives in English Language Teaching: Motivation (ed. E. Ushioda) Reporting on qualitative data collected through interviews and focus groups with Romanian adolescent learners of English (Taylor, 2008; 2010), this chapter will suggest that: a) the first condition for Romanian students to be motivated and interested in the classroom appears to be that their teacher is motivated and interested; b) these students demonstrate strong insight into ELT methodology, clearly preferring constructivist over behaviourist educational practices and showing an intuitive understanding of foreign language curriculum design, teaching techniques, assessment, materials and classroom management; and c) teachers need to give students a voice in the classroom if they want to educate them for life. The chapter will draw on theoretical insights from social constructivism, selfdetermination and identity-related theories, emphasising local insights of potentially global significance.

________________________________________________________________ Youth culture and technology

In the shadow of global English: Funds of knowledge and possible selves in classroom pedagogies Alastair HENRY (Sweden) On the face of things the situation in Sweden would appear rather enviable. English is a ubiquitous presence in youth culture domains and Swedish students are aware of the importance of English both socially and in their future working lives. However, since a majority of students claim to learn most of their English outside of the classroom, the discrepancy between school English and the English encountered in leisure time activities can present a significant pedagogical challenge. In addressing the ever-widening divergence between these different types of English in students perceptions, I will argue that the unreflected import of the English of popular culture into the classroom can be problematic. Young people do not generally want school to intrude into their personal lives. Thus classroom replications of private domains might be unwelcome. Drawing on Gees work on affinity spaces (Hayes & Gee, 2009), Mojes notion of educational third spaces (Moje et al., 2004) and Gonzalezs concept of funds of knowledge (Gonzalez, Moll & Amanti, 2005), I will suggest that one way forward is the development of classroom learning environments where the English of popular culture and the English of school are recognised as complementary and mutually enriching knowledge funds. Not all students in Sweden have the opportunities to immerse themselves in leisure-time English and reap the learning benefits that ensue. One particular group whose abilities fail to match up to school expectations are students from disadvantaged and migrant backgrounds. Given the enormous transformative potential of possible selves and the findings of US research on possible self-based interventions with disadvantaged groups, I will present and discuss L2-self enhancing strategies that might be effective for this particular group of Swedish learners. Finally I will consider the implications that global English has on motivation to learn other foreign languages. I will make a number of proposals for ways in which, in L3 instruction, the potentially negative influence of L2 English might be mitigated. I will conclude by suggesting that, together with the credit enhancements for L3 achievement recently introduced into the educational assessment system in Sweden, these strategies can function in a way that can bolster L3 motivation.

Technology and Motivation in English Language Teaching and Learning Glenn STOCKWELL (Japan) Advances in technology have made it easier for teachers and learners of English to access a wide range of resources in terms of authentic input and communication with native and nonnative speakers of English around the world. From the early days of computer-assisted language learning (CALL), there has been discussion of how technologies can play a role in motivating learners in learning a

International Perspectives in English Language Teaching: Motivation (ed. E. Ushioda) language (e.g., Warschauer, 1998), and as technologies have become more sophisticated, the growing range of uses of technology in and out of the classroom increases the potential for enhanced motivation. This chapter looks at how technology can be used in the English language classroom, and how these uses can link to motivation. It begins with looking at general issues associated with technology and motivation, including a brief discussion of the affordances of technology and how this relates to motivation, and the issue of motivation for using technology from both the teachers and learners perspective. This is followed by an overview of how technologies for communication have come into the mainstream in English language teaching and learning, and how these can impact motivation, including writing for a real audience through blogs and social networking tools (e.g., Lee, 2009) and the potential benefits of anonymity that may be seen in different types of communication tools such as chat and virtual worlds (e.g., Deutschmann, Panichi and Molka-Danielsen, 2009). The chapter continues with an examination of the power of mobile technologies for English language learning, and explores the concept of private and studying spaces (c.f., Stockwell, 2010). The chapter concludes by considering the local and global issues associated with using technology for English language learning, and how motivation may be affected by the technologies that are available in both more and less technologically advanced regions.

________________________________________________________________ Self and identity goals

Motivated by Visions: Stories from Chinese Contexts Xuesong (Andy) GAO (China) Increasing emphasis has been placed on the socially constructed, dynamic nature of learner motivation in recent studies, challenging the conceptualization of motivation as an enduring psychological characteristic of the learner. Recent research has also argued for the centrality of ideal self as a motivating incentive in regulating language learners efforts in various contexts to learn English as the globalization process has made its competence a highly valued asset for many in these contexts. In this chapter, I draw on two empirical studies on Chinese learners experiences and re-examine the data extracts related to how these learners were motivated to learn English autonomously in contexts where real-life opportunities to use the language are scarce. The first study examined how a disabled Chinese learner imagined another self with whom she could engage in English conversations as she struggled to learn English in extremely deprived conditions because of her disability. The second study explored how a group of learners came together to practice English and developed a strong sense of community, which in turn sustained their efforts to use English together. These learners were identified in the study to have also imagined the use of English in their community as an important part of their middle-class self identities. Although the first study is about a learner in the late 1970s and the second about learners in the 21st century, both studies reveal that the learners' localized use of English enabled them to pursue their ideal self and help them engage with the globalization process, which subsequently guided and sustained their autonomous learning efforts with new visions. Further reflections on the data also identify that these learners visions of ideal self emerge from their interactions of shifting contextual conditions. The highly politicized situation in the late 1970s mediated socialist discourses into the learners construction of ideal self whil e language learners were imbued with a strong spirit of seeking pleasure and status in a relatively open Chinese society of the new century. These findings suggest that language learners need to believe in the localized use of English, the global language, to express their personal meanings and experiences so that they can continuously invest efforts in the learning of English. In contexts where such opportunities are nonexistent, language learners can be encouraged to use their imagination or foster social community so that the use of English could be made a meaningful and transformative experience. For this reason, I contend that it remains a crucial pedagogical challenge for language teachers to utilize their learners localized visions of self and community in motivating and supporting their learning efforts to pursue the competence of English, the global language.

International Perspectives in English Language Teaching: Motivation (ed. E. Ushioda) Social Identity and Language Learning Motivation: Exploring the Connection Lane IGOUDIN (USA) To minority learners of a majority language, the formation of a self-image is a dynamic, contentious process layered with references to their ethnic backgrounds, beliefs, attitudes, as well as their current social environments and aspirations. In this process, language plays a double function of being a means of acquisition of a social identity and its outward representation. When looking at adult language learners living in a multiethnic and multilingual society like the United States, can we trace a connection between their engagement in formal language learning and their view of themselves? This research project investigated the motivational processes of 10 adult immigrant English learners which led them to take an advanced ESL reading course at a community college in Southern California. Using a mix of quantitative and qualitative research methodologies, the study found that the surveyed group of ESL students chose to engage in advanced language learning in order to, first and foremost, join the dominant language culture and community. For example, a strong relationship emerged between a participants inclusion of L2 culture in their social identity and high integrative content in their motivation for language learning. The students social identity proved to be a major factor in this process as student motivation often originated in the disjuncture between the learners current and desired identities. Furthermore, students viewed language education as a transitional path towards integration and attainment of a desired identity. Setting the context for the chapter, the author will present an overview of the ELT policies and programs in California, summarize current research on multilingual identities, and discuss student socialization and language use as the contexts for language learning. Based on the study results, the author, who is a classroom practitioner, will also discuss practical pedagogical interventions to engage student motivation.

________________________________________________________________ Changing global landscape for native speaker teachers

Native speaker English language teachers: disengaged from the changing international landscape of their profession Pamela ABOSHIHA (UK and various) Traditionally the field of English language teaching has conceptualized native speaker English language teachers as ideal speakers, teachers, trainers and experts. In fact scholars have suggested that ELT harbours a deep seated ideology of native speakerism which far exceeds any linguistic proficiency these teachers may possess. However, this traditional superior status of native speaker teachers in TESOL has been increasingly subject to critique by Applied Linguistic academics around the world. They argue that as English is now used as an international lingua franca for predominantly instrumental reasons in cross-cultural encounters, the pre-eminence of native speaker teachers, trainers, their methodologies, phonological norms and cultures is in important need of re-evaluation. This chapter describes an empirical study of a small, typical group of British native speaker English language teachers and their reactions to these calls for a recalibration of their position in the field. The study reveals that the teachers seem both unmotivated towards any engagement with the changing international landscape of ELT and resistant to the suggestions that their status and modus operandi are being problematised. The chapter continues with some explanation of the possible reasons for the teachers lack of engagement which seems to range from the on-going embedded discourse of native speakerism in ESOL to the inadequacies of teacher training and teacher education courses and to a respect that native speakers teachers still seem to command in international ELT institutions. Finally some suggestions are made as to how native speaker teachers might be encouraged to engage more with the changing international scenario of English language teaching.